murdoch university school of engineering an information ......in tamil nadu, the electricity utility...
TRANSCRIPT
Murdoch University
School of Engineering an Information Technology
PEC624
Master of Science in Renewable Energy Dissertation
A Study on Tamil Nadu’s Approach to Deal with the Electricity
Crisis and Analyze if it is the Best Way Forward
By: Anirudh Unnikrishnan
Submitted: August 2015
2
Abstract Electricity is a necessity, electricity is crucial to development. There are many steps involved in an
electricity network, from creating electricity to transmitting electricity to the consumer. Each of these
steps require upright planning and high technical precision; lacking such ability in an electricity network
system will cause financial losses.
Tamil Nadu is a state located in India. The state electricity utility in Tamil Nadu has not been able to
provide constant electricity supply in the state and this has become the biggest concern over the recent
past. The state electricity utilities’ financial health is also very poor. The state electricity utility has an
accumulated loss of 53694.87 crores, as of march 2012 (Planning commission, 2013-14). The state has
implemented financial restructuring plan to provide a leeway for the state electricity board on their
future operation. Over the past few years (2014-2015), the electricity gap between supply and demand
has dropped considerably and that senses a betterment in the working efficiency of the SEB.
This study analyses the strategies adopted by SEB to reduce the electricity supply and demand gap faced
in the state and examine reasons to why be the SEB in a financial crisis. This study also analyses the
future prospect in terms of electricity network in the state.
Finally a recommendation is made to suit the state’s need in short term and in long term. The state
requires a system which will run successfully alongside with the state’s existing plan, such that the
working efficiency of the SEB will not be able to affect this system. Residential Roof top Photovoltaic
system will provide that substance to the state.
3
Acknowledgment The Author would like to thank Dr. Trevor Pryor – Academic chair for Renewable Energy at Murdoch
University in Western Australia. My sincere gratitude for sharing your knowledge and guidance
throughout the dissertation.
I would like to thank my parents – Unnikrishnan Panicker and Rema Panicker, who have always loved me
and supported me throughout my life.
Thank you
Anirudh Unnikrishnan
4
Contents ............................................................................................................................................................... 1 Title
......................................................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract
.......................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgment
................................................................................................................................................. 5 List of Tables
................................................................................................................................................ 6 List of Figures
................................................................................................................................................ 6 Abbreviations
.......................................................................................................................................... 8 1. Introduction
..................................................................................................................... 8 1.1. Purpose of the study
................................................................................................................................. 8 1.2. Report Scope
................................................................................................................ 9 1.3. Limitations of the study
........................................................................................................................................... 9 2. Background
........................................................... 9 2.1. The History and Structure of the State’s Electricity Utility
........................................................................................................ 10 2.2. Financial Restructuring Plan
................................................... 11 2.3. Installed Capacity, Power Demand and Supply in Tamil Nadu
............................................................................................ 13 3. Management Methods Applied by TNEB
3.1. ........................................................................................................ 13 Demand Side Management
.......................................................................................................... 14 3.2. Energy Efficiency Schemes
.................................................................................... 14 3.2.1. Energy Conservation Building Code
........................................................................................................... 14 3.2.2. Energy Star Labelling
.................................................................................................................................... 14 4. Energy Sources
................................................................................................................................. 14 4.1. Renewables
......................................................................................................... 16 4.1.1. Bagasse Cogeneration
................................................................................................................... 16 4.1.2. Hydroelectricity
........................................................................................................................ 16 4.1.3. Wind Energy
........................................................................................................................ 21 4.1.4. Solar Energy
................................................................................................................... 22 4.2. Conventional Source
.................................................................................................................. 23 5. Performance of the Utility
......................................................................... 23 5.1. Reasons for the Bad Performance of the Utility
............................................................................................................... 23 5.1.1. Execution of Plans
5
.................................................................................................................. 25 5.1.2. Power Purchase
............................................................................................................. 25 5.1.3. Tariff and Subsidies
......................................................................................... 27 5.1.4. Unmetered Supply of Electricity
........................................................................................................................... 29 5.1.5. Conclusion
.......................................... 30 6. Policies Set For Betterment of the Future Energy Market in Tamil Nadu
6.1. ....................................................................................................................................... 30 RAPDRP
.................................................................................................................................. 30 6.2. Vision 2023
...................................................................................................................... 31 6.2.1. Shortcomings
...................................................................................................................................... 32 7. Requirements
............................................................ 32 8. Sustainability Option to Improve the Electricity Supply in TN
................................................................ 32 8.1. Switch focus to roof top residential solar generation
...................................................................... 35 8.1.1. Reduction in Technical & commercial losses
..................................................................................................... 35 8.1.2. Profile of solar radiation
...................................................................................................................... 35 8.1.3. Other reasons
................................................................................................................... 36 9. Potential for further work
....................................................................................................................................... 36 10. Conclusion
............................................................................................................................ 37 11. Recommendation
........................................................................................................................................ 38 12. Reference
......................................................................................................................................... 45 13. Appendix
List of Tables Table 1: Yearly Operating Losses Funded by State Government and Banks .............................................. 10
Table 2: Energy Requirement/Availability in TN ......................................................................................... 13
Table 3: Peak Demand/ Peak Met in TN ..................................................................................................... 13
Table 4: Schedule of Power Projects in TN ................................................................................................. 24
Table 5: Current Tariff Set by TNERC .......................................................................................................... 26
Table 6: Summary of Key Financial Parameters .......................................................................................... 28
Table 7: Revenue/Expense of TNEB for the Years ( 2010-2014) ................................................................. 28
Table 8: Possible Impact with Roof top PV ................................................................................................. 34
Table 9 : Monthly Solar Isolation on a Horizontal Surface Received in all Districts of TN- kWh/m2/day
....................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6
List of Figures Figure 1: Capacity Share in MW, 2015 ........................................................................................................ 12
Figure 2: Installed Capacity in TN (MW), 2015 ........................................................................................... 12
Figure 3: Renewable Energy Capacity by 31-07-2014................................................................................. 15
Figure 4: Installed Capacity With/Without Renewables ............................................................................. 15
Figure 5: Wind Passes in TN ........................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 6: Supply Drop in Electricity During the Years 2011-2012, 2013-2014 ............................................ 18
Figure 7: Typical Wind Generation Pattern ................................................................................................ 20
Figure 8: Wind Capacity Addition Format ................................................................................................... 21
Figure 9: Flowchart- System Thinking by TNEB........................................................................................... 29
Figure 10: Planned Capacity Addition ......................................................................................................... 31
Figure 11: Planned Capacity Share.............................................................................................................. 31
Figure 12: Solar Radiation in Chennai- Kwh/m2 ......................................................................................... 21
Figure 13: Average Annual Solar Intensity Received by TN ........................................................................ 34
Abbreviations AT&C- Average Technical and Commercial
BEE- Bureau of Energy Efficiency
CAG- Comptroller and Auditing General of India
CEA- Central Electricity Authority
CWET- Center for Wind Energy Technology
CIL- Coal India Limited
FRP- Financial Restructuring Plan
G, D, T- Generation, Distribution and Transmission
GOT- Government of Tamil Nadu
GWh – Gigawatt hour
HT/LT- High Tension/ Low Tension
IEX- Indian Energy Exchange
JNNSM- Jawaharlal Nehru Solar Mission
KW/kWh- Kilowatt / Kilowatt hour
MW- Megawatt
MRNE –Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
MOEFCC- Ministry of Environmental, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India
7
MOP- Ministry of Power
NIWE- National Institute of Wind Energy
PFC- Power Finance Corporation Ltd
PGCI- Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd
POSOCO- Power System Operation Corporation Ltd
PV- Photovoltaics
R-APDRP- Restructured Accelerated Power Development and Reform Program
RES- Renewable Energy Systems
SEB- State Electricity Board
SRPC- South Regional Power Committee
SRLDC- Southern Regional Load and Dispatch center
TN – Tamil Nadu
TEDA- Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency
TNERC- Tamil Nadu Electricity Regulatory Commission.
TECA- Tamil Nadu Electricity Consumers Association
TANGEDCO- Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation Ltd.
TNPCB- Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board
TNPFIN- Tamil Nadu Power Finance and Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited.
TANTRANSCO- Tamil Nadu Transmission Corporation Ltd.
NOTE: 1 Indian rupee = .021 Australian Dollar (2015)
8
1. Introduction This section of the report determines the purpose of this report, scope of this study and the limitations
associated with the study of this topic.
1.1. Purpose of the study
This report was initiated to understand the state of electricity supply in the southern state of India-
Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states in India. It lies in the southernmost part of the Indian
peninsula. The state is eleventh largest state in India, with area of 130,058 Km2. It is a leading region for
manufacturing, information technology, agriculture and health care. Over the past few years, the
economic growth of the state has been on decline and it registered an all-time low 4.14% in the year
2012-2013. In the same year, the state’s electricity supply fell 3000 MW short of the demand. This is
majorly related to the energy crisis faced by the state.
The state of Tamil Nadu has constantly failed to provide sufficient electricity to the consumers of the
state. The state’s electricity network were not able meet the increasing demand. As a result of this, the
consumers of electricity in Tamil Nadu are facing the consequences. The people of Tamil Nadu are
imposed to reduced quality of life. The productivity of the manufacturing and commercial sector were
reduced, which resulted in reduction in economic growth.
During this period, the SEB had also accumulated financial losses due to the strategies adopted by the
SEB and also due to the low working efficiency of the SEB. However, the situation improved in the year
2014 and constant load shedding has been cancelled for all districts of Tamil Nadu and the losses has
been reduced. There are still unexpected blackouts due to insufficient load capacity to meet the peak
power demand.
This brings us to two main fundamental research questions.
What have been the main causes of the electricity supply problems in Tamil Nadu in recent
times and will the current policy solve this problem?
Are there any options available in the state which could be used to improve the situation
towards a more sustainable growth?
This report evaluates the performance of the state electricity utility and reviews the relevant energy
policies set for Tamil Nadu by the state and the central government and provides a recommendation
that will bring sustainability to Tamil Nadu’ electricity sector. Specifically the report considers whether
the system thinking pattern followed by the state electricity utility will lead the electricity sector in the
state towards a sustainable future.
1.2. Report Scope
The study will,
1. Assess the existing installed generation capacity in the state
2. Review the supply and demand gap in the state
3. Review the practices adopted by the state to reduce the demand of electricity
4. Evaluate the performance of the state electricity utility
5. Assess the tariff set by the regulatory commission over the years
6. Evaluate vision 2023- Policy relevant to the energy sector
9
7. Provide a sustainable option which will lead Tamil Nadu self-sufficient in their energy needs.
1.3. Limitations of the study
The study depends
1. On the information provided by the State and Central Government Agencies
2. On reports submitted by the Central State Authority of India and Tamil Nadu State Regulatory
Commission
3. Real time data on wind and solar energy were not made available – data such as variation of
yearly/ monthly/ daily wind speed - wind data had to be interpreted from the total wind
generation
4. Quality of reports submitted by the state government have been poor- data such as
transmission losses are not accurate nor updated yearly.
2. Background This part of the report summarizes the structure of the electricity utility and the recent history of the
SEB. It also examines the existing installed capacity in the state.
2.1. The History and Structure of the State’s Electricity Utility
The electricity utility in Tamil Nadu is owned and controlled by the state government (TNEB, 2015). All
over India, such is the case. The ministry of power controls all electricity related matters in the country
(MOP, 2015). It is mainly responsible for electricity capacity development, monitoring of power projects,
policy construction and it is also the administrative force for presentation of legislation in regards to
thermal and hydro power G, T, D (GIZ, 2013). The Ministry of power has assigned Central Electricity
Authority to perform some of its main functions (CEA, 2015). The CEA is accountable for the technical
coordination of programs and supervision of those programs (GIZ, 2013). CEA carries orders set by the
ministry of power. The CEA is also trusted with a number of constitutional functions.
The state electricity Regulatory Commission is accountable for determination of Tariff in the state and
granting authorization at intra state level (GIZ, 2013). There is a state load dispatch center which ensures
cohesive operations of the power systems (SLDC, 2015).
In Tamil Nadu, the electricity utility is named as the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board. TNEB was originally
formed in the year 1957 (TNEB, 2015). It was formally called Madras State Electricity Board as per the
Electricity Act 1948 as a part of restructuring of the electricity network after the independence. Madras,
which is now known as Chennai, is the state’s capital city. TNEB was restructured in 2010; TNEB is the
holding company and it is divided into two sub-companies, Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution
Corporation Limited for generation and distribution of electricity and Tamil Nadu Transmission
Corporation Limited for transmission of electricity (TNEB, 2010). The state has its own regulatory body-
Tamil Nadu Electricity Regulatory Commission. TNERC sets regulation on the state electricity utility and
the power producers in the state. It also sets the tariff rates for different consumer group and
implements energy efficiency and energy related policies in the state (TNERC, 2015).
TNEB can purchase and sell power from/to the neighboring states through interstate transmission
network in the Southern grid- comprising Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (SRLDC,
10
2015). Tamil Nadu is not self-sufficient, hence it is not capable of selling electricity due to shortage of
installed capacity of electricity in the state.
In the year 2014, the Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd achieved a landmark by connecting the
Southern grid with NEW grid (North, East, West and North East grid). This was achieved by connecting a
transmission line with a capacity of 765KVA between Sholapur (Western Region Grid) and Raichur
(Southern Region grid) (PGCIL, 2015). Due to this development in the recent past, if needed, it is possible
for TNEB to purchase electricity from other regions of India at a higher cost as all the grids in India are
synchronized together. The transmission line is although not yet fully functional.
Power Trading agents in the country are Indian Energy Exchange and Power Exchange India Ltd (GIZ,
2013). They help in maximum utilization of generation capacity the country possess. TNEB can purchase
power from these agencies on short term basis. The market price fluctuates depending upon the
demand for electricity.
2.2. Financial Restructuring Plan
By 2012, TNEB had a short term liabilities of 24,422 Crore Rupees (AF Mercados, 2014). TNEB were
experiencing constraints in applying for more borrowings from the lenders. The interest rates on these
liabilities were set at 13 percent (India ratings, 2014). This was causing more financial stress for TNEB.
The central government of India suggested the state electricity utility to apply for a financial
restructuring plan. Under the FRP scheme, the government of Tamil Nadu will take over 50 % of those
liabilities, over a five years span (AF Mercados, 2014). The balance 50 % will be restructured by the
lenders. The government of Tamil Nadu has accepted to finance this plan under one condition; that
TNEB increases their working efficiency and that they increase their yearly revenue to match the
spending. FRP is now being performed in Tamil Nadu (GIZ, 2013). This will increase the creditability of
SEB. This plan is to only provide short term financial improvement of the SEB. It is not certain that this
plan would leave to sustainable betterment over the future years. It will largely depend on the working
efficiency of the SEB and the regulators. Ignoring such key parameters will lead the goals of this scheme
towards failure.
This scheme will also provide backing of state government for a moratorium of 3 years, with a
repayment principle of 7 years. The operating losses for the first 3 years will be funded by the state
government and the banks as shown in table 1 (AF Mercados, 2014).
Table 1: Yearly operating Losses funded by State Government and Banks
Particulars Years
2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015
Cash Loss/Operating Loss,(Rs. Crores) 8183 3849 2060
Funding by Banks 100% 75% 50%
Funding by the State Government - 25% 50%
Source: AF MERCADOS
11
2.3. Installed Capacity, Power Demand and Supply in Tamil Nadu
According to the census of India 2011, the population of Tamil Nadu is approximately 72 million. The
consumer base of the state is enormous. According to TANGEDCO, it has a consumer base of 22.344
million and energy consumption per unit capita of 1040kwh/yr. The state’s electricity utility haven’t
been able to keep with the demand of the ever growing consumer base of Tamil Nadu. The state’s
electricity utility always had a problem with supplying constant power throughout Tamil Nadu.
According to the government of Tamil Nadu, the state is making constant efforts to cut the gap between
the supply and demand, yet it has failed to achieve it constantly throughout the years. This has been the
state’s biggest barrier to development in the past 5 years. The demand for electricity has been
increasing by 8- 10% every year (TANGEDO, 2013) and yet only a mere capacity of 290MW was added in-
between 2005 and 2010 by the SEB (CAG, 2010). The average annual growth of consumers of electricity
has been increasing by 5% every year (ICLEI, 2014). The electricity demand in the commercial sector
increased from 9.5% in 2009 to 20.93 % in 2011 (ICLEI, 2014). All this increase in demand has to be met
by TNEB in order to bring sustainability to the energy sector in Tamil Nadu.
The state now has an installed capacity of 22370.14 MW (CEA, 2015).The state’s share of electricity
capacity is shown in Figure. 1. The state also has a separate capacity of 659.4 MW from bagasse
generation and 266 MW from biomass power plants (TEDA, 2015). This is not included in the total
capacity, as the capacity to deliver power depends on the feedstock, such as harvest of sugarcane for
bagasse cogeneration, which differs every year.
The state’s own generating capacity is just 7598.45MW, while power of 10017.09MW comes from
private power producers, who are on long term contract bases with the state’s electricity utility and
4754.6MW of electricity is from the central body of India (CEA, 2015). Over the year 2012-2015, the
state’s share of installed capacity has only grown from 5733 to 7598 MW, An increase of only 1860MW
in 4 years’ time, where the demand has been increasing at 10% every year. This shows that the state is
not self-sufficient with its electricity needs. Figure 1 reinstates this point. The state requires constant
help from the central government and private investments to meet its energy needs.
12
Figure 1: Capacity Share in MW, 2015
Source: CEA, 2015.
Over the past 4 years the situation has gotten worse, especially in the years 2012 and 2013. The state
adapted to load shedding, as the state couldn’t keep up with the demand. In the year 2011-2012, the
state’s electricity deficit was 10.5% and the peak deficit reached a high of 17.5% (CEA, 2012). The
situation has become worse the following year, with the state’s electricity deficit reaching an all-time
high of 17.5% and a peak deficit of 13.2% (CEA, 2013). In the year 2014-2015, the state’s electricity
situation has gotten considerably better compared to the past few years (In terms of electricity supply).
After the difficult two year period, the state has gradually reduced its shortage, with 5.9% deficit in the
year 2013-2014. The difference in shortage of electricity can be seen in Table 2 and Table 3. The current
share of installed capacity is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Installed Capacity in TN (MW), 2015
7598.45
10017.09
4754.6
installed capacity share
state private central
9688.1
1026.3 411.66 986.5
2182.2
8075.38
Installed capacity(MW) in TN 2015
Coal Gas Diesel Nuclear Hydro RES(MNRE)
13
Source: CEA, 2015.
Table 2: Energy Requirement/Availability in TN
Year Energy Requirement (GWh)
Energy Availability (GWh)
Energy Deficit(GWh)
Energy Deficit %
2011-12 85685 76705 8980 10.5
2012-13 92302 76161 16141 17.5
2013-14 93508 87980 5528 5.9
Source: (CEA, 2012), (CEA, 2013), (CEA, 2014).
Table 3: Peak Demand/ Peak Met in TN
Year Peak Demand (MW) Peak Met (MW) Peak Deficit (MW) % Deficit
2011-12 12813 10566 2247 17.5
2012-13 12736 11053 1683 13.2
2013-14 13522 12492 1030 7.6
Source: (CEA, 2012), (CEA, 2013), (CEA, 2014).
3. Management Methods Applied by TNEB This part of the report reviews the methodology applied by the state during the years 2011-2014 in
order to control the electricity crisis.
3.1. Demand Side Management
The state did not possess the required installed capacity to meet the demand. Supply side
management was not possible in this scenario. The state chose demand side management. The
electricity demand was reduced by load shedding, it was made to ensure efficient use of electricity.
High tension industrial & commercial services were enforced with 40% cut on their base
demand ( (POLICY NOTE, 2013), (CEA 2013))
Domestic users were imposed with load shedding - Chennai, which is the capital city of Tamil
Nadu was enforced with power cut for 2 hours daily between 8 am till 6 pm.
On the other hand, Urban and rural areas were imposed with 4-8 hours power cut and
agricultural services were enforced with 9 hours load shedding ((CEA, 2013), (POLICY NOTE,
2013)).
Power holidays were imposed in the state. A day in a week or a month without electricity supply
was forced on consumers, depending the consumer type ((POLICY NOTE, 2013), (TNEB, 2015)).
For example, high tension consumers such as industrial consumers were imposed with one day
power holiday per week. Power holidays are still occurring as of year 2015, although it is mainly
used for maintenance purposes of the power system.
In area concerning reactive power management in the grid, Penalty were levied on High/ Low
Tension services with power factor less than .90 (TANGEDCO, 2015).
Reactive power is required to run the electrical devices, power factor is measured to determine
the reactive power used by the electrical devices. It is the ratio between the real power and the
14
true power. An energy efficient electricity appliances has a power factor closer to 1. It means
that electricity power that is supplied is applied fully towards real work.
This kind of demand side management was implemented to reduce the electricity losses which
exists due to usage of inefficient electricity devices.
3.2. Energy Efficiency Schemes
The state government issued an order on performing energy conservation in all of the government
buildings. The government also issued a ban of use of incandescent bulbs in all government buildings
such as administrative buildings, hospital and institutions. Awareness on energy conservation were
provided by the government through campaigns and workshops (ICLEI, 2014). The government also
reduced the total consumption of electricity by replacing incandescent lamps with compact fluorescent
lamps for 14.62 lakhs huts (ICLEI, 2014).
3.2.1. Energy Conservation Building Code
This scheme was launched by MOP to promote energy efficiency in buildings. Performing energy
efficiency in all buildings will reduce the overall electricity demand. Energy efficiency bureau of India
have provided guidelines that has to be incorporated into the design and construction of the building.
This is applicable only for buildings with a load of 100kW or over (BEE, 2015).
3.2.2. Energy Star Labelling
This scheme was made mandatory by government of India. Assigning star labelling on equipment such
as refrigerator, tube light and air conditioner were made compulsory. Labelling had to be done by the
manufacturer. Labelling were made depending upon the efficiency of the equipment. Equipment which
are highly efficient had higher star rating and equipment which were less efficient had lower star rating.
Equipment with no rating were not allowed for sale (POLICY NOTE, 2014).
Energy efficiency is crucial in saving unnecessary losses in electricity management. The government of
Tamil Nadu took a positive step towards controlling a part of their electricity crisis by applying energy
efficiency to their power system. Energy efficiency will also help in financial savings in the long term.
4. Energy Sources This part of the report summarizes the main source of energies that are used in Tamil Nadu and
evaluates the big two source of power in the state- namely wind and fossil based power plants. This
section will be analyzed to understand why the state had to restrict to demand management methods
4.1. Renewables
Tamil Nadu is considered the leader of renewable energy in India. The state has a renewable energy
capacity of 8075.38 MW (TEDA, 2014), which is 40% of the total installed capacity in the state.
Renewable energy capacity has grown considerably in the state since the year 2005 till 2012, mainly due
to the addition of wind energy (TEDA, 2015). The total capacity is dominated by wind energy, with 90%
of the installed capacity is from wind energy. Refer to figure 3 to notice the dominance of wind energy
to the total renewable energy capacity present in TN. The development is rather slow in the last few
years. This is mainly related to the technical difficulties, the state is experiencing at the moment due to
transmission constraints (TNEB, 2014).
15
Figure 3: Renewable Energy Capacity by 31-07-2014
Source: TEDA, 2015
Figure 4: Installed Capacity with/without Renewables
Source: TEDA, 2015
Figure 4 shows the state’s ratio of renewable and non-renewable capacity. Controlling and maximizing
the use of renewable capacity is important to the SEB in meeting the electricity demand of the state.
The SEB has not managed to do so. One of the main reasons for not being able to meet the electricity
demand is because of the inability of the SEB to manage and utilize the existing renewable capacity.
7349.41
659.4 226 109.26
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
wind power bagassecogeneration
bimass power solar PV
31/07/2014(MW)
10263.53 11975.39
13117.26 14294.76
17601 19432
21603 22370
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
2012 2013 2014 2015
installed capacity in MW
capacity without renewables capacity with renewables
16
4.1.1. Bagasse Cogeneration
The second highest renewable capacity in TN comes from bagasse cogeneration with a total capacity of
659.4 MW (TEDA, 2015). The state is the 3rd highest sugar producer in India (TANGEDCO, 2015). There
are 43 sugar mills operating in the state of Tamil Nadu (TANGEDCO, 2015). The byproduct produced by
these sugar mills are used to run the turbines of the cogeneration plants. Bagasse is a dry fiber produced
by crushing the sugarcane. The crushing season depends on the harvesting of sugar cane begins in
December and ends by June (TANGEDCO, 2015). The power that is provided by bagasse will be around
the same time of the year. During the remaining time of the year, the cogeneration plants uses coal or
lignite to run the boilers (TNEB, 2015).
4.1.2. Hydroelectricity
Tamil Nadu has various small hydro power projects ranging in a total installed capacity of 2182 MW
(CEA, 2015). Hydro generation depends on the amount of the water collected in the reservoirs. The rain
received in the state depends on the North east monsoon. In Tamil Nadu, this season occurs during
October to December (IMD, 2015). According to TNEB, the state has already exploited hydro generating
capacity. No further exploitation is possible.
The state although has potential for pumped storage (GOT, 2014). At the moment Tamil Nadu has
pumped storage capacity of 500MW (TEDA, 2015). Pumped storage technique is an energy storage
system. It is used to save excess energy available in the power system. It saves energy in form of water.
Water is pumped from the low reservoir to the top reservoir using the excess energy available in the
grid and the same water is used to produce energy during peak periods by letting the water down to the
turbine to create hydroelectricity. In Tamil Nadu, pumped storage technique is used to observe the
variability in wind generation. More capacity is expected to be added by TNEB.
4.1.3. Wind Energy
Centre for wind energy technology is a department under the National institute of wind energy in India
(NIWE, 2015). CWET is responsible for the research and development of wind energy in India (NIWE,
2015). The development of wind energy in the state has been phenomenal over the past 10 years,
excluding the last couple of years. Tamil Nadu had a wind capacity of 857 MW in the year 2001, it has
increased to 7251 MW by the year 2014 (CWET, 2014). The state of Tamil Nadu has a good wind
resource, with a mean wind speed of 5.5 to 7.5 m/s at a 50 m mast in majority of the location (CWET,
2014). The state has the highest wind capacity compared to the other states in India. Out of 7251 MW,
Only a mere 120 MW of wind power projects are owned by TNEB, the remaining capacity of power
plants were developed and run by private power producers (CEA, 2015). CWET performs feasibility
studies all over the state using different sized mases and prepares possible wind power project areas to
TNEB. TNEB invites private power producers to invest and develop the project.
17
Figure 5: Wind Passes in TN
Source: TANGEDCO
Wind passes is a term used by TNEB to show the passing of high wind in the districts of Tamil Nadu. The
highlighted part in the figure 5 shows the districts in Tamil Nadu which has wind farms. These locations
are highly suitable in generating electricity from wind mainly due, the passage of the south west
monsoon, areas nearer to the coastal region and the land terrain of these location (SPC, 2015). The
south west monsoon travels from the direction of Africa and passes through Tamil Nadu from June till
September (IMD, 2015). This is the peak wind season as the south west monsoon brings in the strong
winds. The south west monsoon season brings in high speed wind for a period of 4 months, which is
from June – September (BNL, 2014). The peak demand during these 4 month period is expected to be
met by wind energy every year. The electricity shortage is lesser during these 4 months. Please refer to
Figure 6 & 7 to see the change in electricity supply in the months June, July, August and September
18
Figure 6: Supply Drop in Electricity during the years 2011-2012, 2013-2014
Source: (CEA, 2012), (CEA, 2014)
The state has always favored wind energy by implementing policies for the development of wind energy
due to the excellent conditions the state possess. Banking system was introduced in 1986 by TNEB to
promote the development of wind energy. A charge of 5 % of the energy banked will be charged by the
utility (TNERC, 2014). Tamil Nadu is the only state in India which offers banking of wind energy, which
makes it extremely suitable for the wind power producers. Wind energy can be banked with the
electricity utility by paying a banking charge. This option makes wind energy highly attractive for the
private power producers, the energy that is generated and send to the grid, can be utilized by the wind
producers for later when required.
From my analysis, Renewable energy capacity is not considered in the state’s yearly electricity planning
stage, as it is an intermittent source of energy (CEA, 2012). It is more or less considered as a source
which can be used if required. This does not do justice to the investors of renewable energy in the state,
as this produces a sense of insecurity to the investors. Maximum utilization of renewable energy and
forecasting the intermittent energy is crucial in attracting investors. Following such strategy will give an
assurance for the renewable energy providers. This is not followed in the state. This is one of the
reasons for the drop in the state’s renewable energy capacity growth over the past couple of years,
especially in the wind energy sector.
The state which was once considered the wind hub of India, has started to face uncertainty in the last
couple of years (from 2011- 2014), where the capacity addition has dropped compared to the trend of
the previous years. Please refer to Figure 8 to observe the change in wind addition pattern over the past
4 years. There are a few reasons for the drop in wind energy development in the state.
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar
2011-12, 2013-14 supply drop
peak demand MW, 11-12 peak availability MW,11-12 deficit MW,11-12
peak demand MW,13-14 peak availability MW,13-14 deficit,13-14 MW
19
Firstly, wind is an intermittent source of energy, Forecasting of wind generation is crucial for maximum
utilization of wind energy in a distributed grid management. This was not followed by TNEB. The SEB
instead uses the pumped storage plant that is present in the state to observe the wind energy as it is
produced or it reduces generation of thermal power plants (TNEB, 2014). Failing to implement
forecasting techniques will result in low utilization of wind energy in the grid. The wind turbine that
were implemented before the year 2006 does not possess SCADA (IWPA, 2015). There are about 134
Wind Turbine that do not possess such system (IWPA, 2015). Forecasting techniques should have been
adopted by the state in earlier stages of wind energy development but now with a wind energy capacity
of almost 7500 MW, it is almost impossible to integrate all the wind power into the grid without
forecasting.
Over the past few years (2013-2014), the private wind power producers have faced financial losses due
to low utilization of wind by TNEB (TNERC, 2014). Concerns were raised by the wind producers to the
regulatory commission (TNERC) over the issue. This has now led, TNEB to work on a forecasting strategy
with the help of National Institute of Wind energy.
Secondly, the state’s electricity transmission utility does not have enough transmission capacity to
evacuate the whole of wind energy generated during the high wind periods (CEA, 2014). During these
high wind periods, the transmission lines get congested due to low transmission capacity present
around the Wind turbine regions. When transmission lines are congested, it leads to voltage instability
and that leads to power quality issues, thus resulting in instability of the grid. For example, during south
west monsoon, wind turbines receive the peak wind and the electricity demand in the agricultural sector
becomes insignificant due to high rainfall received naturally, no need for irrigation. Due to this, over the
last couple of years, TNEB could not use all of the wind energy that was generated by the wind turbines,
only an approximate of 3000MW was made available. This can be observed from the daily reports
shown by the state load dispatch center website (SRDC, 2015). From the year 2012, TNEB had to ask the
wind generators to curtail the wind turbines, resulting in financial losses for the wind power producers
due to constrain in the grid (TANGEDCO, 2013).
Furthermore certain wind generators that were connected to the grid did not have low voltage ride
through capability and this was compromising grid stability (SRPC, 2015). During the voltage dip,
generating units produces active power to be in proportionated to reactive voltage. It is a technical
requirement that is necessary to maintain grid stability. TNEB needs to stringent in following such
regulations.
In order to maintain grid stability, generation capacity has to match the transmission capacity, TNEB has
failed to achieve this criteria. Implementing more substations and increasing the transmission capacity
around the wind generation region will provide relief.
20
Figure 7: Typical Wind Generation Pattern
Source: Load dispatch center-2013
Finally, there is an uncertainty regarding the banking system. According to TNEB, wind energy is a cheap
source of electricity in the state and because it is a renewable source of energy, TNEB is required to
absorb all the wind energy available from the wind generators (TNERC, 2014). During windy season
(South West Monsoon- four month period) all energy that are in excess are banked by the utility. During
low wind season, when the demand is more and subsequently the cost of electricity is high, and the
captive users can consume the banked energy from the utility at a cheap cost (TNERC, 2014). TNEB has
to buy electricity from higher source (Due to the increased demand of electricity during less windy
period) in order to supply back the banked energy. TNEB has recommended to TNERC for the removal of
the banking system (TNERC, 2014). No decision has been taken by the regulatory committee yet and the
banking system will be made available till 2016.
Due to these reasons, investors in wind energy are uncertain over investing in new wind power projects.
21
Figure 8: Wind Capacity Addition Format
Source: TANGEDCO
4.1.4. Solar Energy
Tamil Nadu has one of the best solar resources in India with almost 300 days of clear sunny days
(TANGEDO, 2015). The area of Tamil Nadu is 130,058 Km2, the radiation does differ from one location to
another depending on the orientation. Solar radiation reading taken by Ministry of new and renewable
energy in Chennai, shows an average annual solar radiation intensity of 5.36 kW/m2. The average
monthly solar radiation is shown in figure 13. The state has an annual average daily solar radiation of 4.5
to 6 kwh/m2 (NREL, 2011).
Figure 9: Solar Radiation in Chennai- Kwh/m
2
Source: MNRE, 2015
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
up
to 1
99
9
19
99
-00
20
00
-01
20
01
-02
20
02
-03
20
03
-04
20
04
-05
20
05
-06
20
06
-07
20
07
-08
20
08
-09
20
09
-10
20
10
-11
20
11
-12
20
12
-13
20
13
-14
Total Wind Capacity MW
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec
solar radiation in kwh/m2
22
The state’s solar PV capacity is a mere 109.26 MW (TEDA, 2015). The Government of India implemented
Jawaharlal Nehru Solar Mission to promote solar energy by providing subsides in order to bring down
solar power cost to grid parity (to bring down the cost similar to the levelized cost of electricity
generated by fossil fuels (MNRE, 2015). The state government implemented solar policy 2012 to
encourage investor to invests in solar power (GOT, 2014). To generate a minimum of 3000MW of solar
power by year 2015. Solar purchase obligation was introduced as a part of the policy. 6% SPO
mandatory for all High tension consumers such as the industries, schools, government buildings and to
Information Technology towers. Eventually, Tamil Nadu electricity consumer association appealed
against the solar power obligation to the appellate tribunal as they found it not to be fair on High
tension consumers as it increases the total cost of electricity for the industrial consumers (ATE, 2013).
The result came out in favor of TECA and 6 % SPO was cancelled and is reduced to a mere SPO of .25 %
(TNERC, 2014).
To encourage solar rooftops for domestic consumers, the government provided a Generation Based
Incentive, where the domestic users with solar rooftop were provided with 2 rupees for every unit of
electricity generated by the solar PV for the first two years and 1 rupees/unit the following 2 years and
0.5 rupees/unit for the remaining 2 year period (GOT, 2012).
There are other incentives initiated by the state government which helps in developing solar power in
the state. The government of Tamil Nadu has implemented mandatory rules supporting solar power,
Such as – all the new government buildings will have solar roof tops installed, the state government
issued changes to the building rules, which states that all the new buildings such as hotels, houses,
marriage halls and power projects having hot water/steam boilers which uses fossil fuels should have
mandatory installation of solar hot water system (ICLEI, 2013). The state government plans to energize
the street lights with solar power. A target is set by the government to energize 10,000,000 street lights
with solar power by 2016. The government of Tamil Nadu, under the chief minister solar powered green
house scheme, provided 3,000,000 homes to the poor with installation of 1 kW solar Photovoltaics
system in each of these houses.
The policy has failed to create any capacity addition in the state for the past 3 years (2012-2015), mainly
due to not being able to attract the investors to create solar projects. In terms of residential roof tops,
the feed in tariff provided is low and that is a result to why there is more or less no investment from the
domestic consumers in roof top PVs.
4.2. Conventional Source
India is majorly dependent on electricity from conventional source, same is the case with Tamil Nadu. As
of the year 2015, 11126.06 MW of installed capacity is from conventional sources (CEA, 2015).
Tamil Nadu has a heavy dependence on coal based power plants. 43% of the total installed capacity is
from coal based thermal power plants. Coal is a cheap source for producing electricity. The thermal
power plant are run very efficient, they have Plant load factor between 75 % and 93% (CEA, 2011),
except Ennore thermal power plant which runs at 20 % capacity factor as the plant has fulfilled its life
time. This plant is only run as there is not enough installed capacity in the state to replace this plant.
Major overhaul work on the plant is expected to start in 2015 (CERC, 2015).
Constant supply of coal is crucial for these power plants. There is no coal reserve existent in Tamil Nadu.
The state does have lignite reserve, which is a low quality coal; Lignite are although used for exports in
23
Tamil Nadu (NLC, 2015). All over India, 90 % of the production of coal is managed by a government
owned company – Coal India Limited (CIL, 2015). Coal required for the thermal power plants in Tamil
Nadu are provided by the same company. Over the last couple of years, Coal India Limited were not able
to sustain to the demand (Policy note, 2013). The main reason for this is due to the problem faced by
the company from the ministry of environmental, forest and climate change. New coal mining projects
are not being commissioned by the government due to regulations set by the ministry of environment
(CIL, 2015). Hence CIL were not able to expand their production rate to meet the growing demand of
coal in India. This shortage in coal did become an issue for the state of Tamil Nadu in the year 2012,
where the thermal power plants in the state of Tamil Nadu were not able to operate due to shortage of
coal (policy note, 2013). From the year 2013, TANGEDCO had to import coal in order to meet the
demand of the thermal plants that are in the state. TANGEDCO has imported around 5 million tons in
the year 2014-2015 (TNERC, 2014).
Cost of imported coal are higher than domestic coal, this will result in increase in fuel cost and hence
increasing the total cost of producing energy. The cost of domestic coal is 1088 Rupees per Ton (Green
peace, 2014) and imported coal ranges from 50$ to 70 $ per Ton (CTI, 2015).
The state has gas based power plant capacity of 1026 MW (CEA, 2015). The state has not invested in gas
based power plants for 4 years (2010-2014). This is majorly related to two main points. Firstly, gas based
power plants are more expensive than coal based power plants. TNEB would rather invest in coal based
power projects to reduce the cost of electricity. Secondly, transportation of gas is a concern in the state,
the state does not possess gas pipeline infrastructure. There are gas bottling plants in Tamil Nadu, which
supply the gas required for the gas based plants. The Gas plants use fuel such as naphtha and low grade
petroleum gas (TNERC, 2012).
Investing in gas pipeline infrastructure will encourage private investments on gas power projects.
Increasing the gas power capacity will help the state in managing it renewable capacity. Mainly because
of the quick start up time involving gas power plants.
5. Performance of the Utility This part of the report will analyze the performance of the utility over the past 7 years (2007-2014), in
order to understand the real reasons behind the electricity crisis faced by the state. It will also be able to
interrupt the reasons for the state’s poor financial health.
5.1. Reasons for the Bad Performance of the Utility
5.1.1. Execution of Plans
For a stable electricity supply, it is important to predict the electricity requirement for the future years
and it is necessary to put in plans which would help in meeting the requirement. Planning the required
generation capacity, commissioning the power plants and executing these plans in a set time frame is
crucial. The state of Tamil Nadu has failed to meet these requirements. Power projects were put in place
by the government for the years 2010-2014 that would help in meeting the electricity demands. These
projects were not finished in the set time line, please refer to table 4. The commissioning of the projects
were delayed due to environmental concerns of the conventional power plants, slow progress of civil
works in procuring the required equipment, poor financial health of TNEB causing delayed movement of
24
funds and the transmission constraints that is experienced by the state, as bringing in new power plants
to the grid, will increase the congestion of power in the existing transmission lines (ICRA, 2014).
Table 4: Schedule of Power Projects in TN
Project capacity schedule date
actual /anticipated date
delayed months
Kundankulum atomic 1000 Dec-07 Aug-14 80
Kudankulum atomic -2 1000 Dec-08 Dec-15 84
Neyveli Thermal power station -2 250 Jun-09 Feb-14 15
Vallur Thermal power plant-1 500 Jan-11 Feb-13 26
North Chennai extension 600 Apr-11 Sep-14 41
Mettur thermal power station 600 Jul-11 Oct-12 15
Vallur Thermal power plant-2 500 Aug-11 Feb-13 18
North Chennai extension- unit 2 600 Nov-11 Mar-13 16
Tuticorin JV-1 500 Mar-12 Oct-14 31
Tuticorin Thermal power plant 660 May-12 Jan-16 45
Tuticorin JV-2 500 Aug-12 Feb-15 30
Vallur thermal Power plant-3 500 Dec-12 Feb-14 15
Source: (CEA, 2008), (CEA, 2009), (CEA, 2012), (CEA, 2013), (CEA, 2014)
For example, Kudankulum atomic power plant was delayed due to fundamental errors. Firstly, the first
two nuclear reactor were set up without getting the local people’s approval. Secondly, there are about
one million people living within 30 km radius of the plant. In case of emergency, it is impossible to
evacuate this amount of people within the limited time. Finally, the low grade waste is to be dumped on
the sea, which will create impact on the marine life of that location. This causes a concern not only for
the marine life but also for the people because it affect the food security. This plant is capable of
emitting radioactive materials such as strontium, cesium and tellurium into the environment. In the year
2004, during Tsunami, the site was flooded. (J.P.KUMAR, 2012). The project faced troubles numerous
times, resulting to delays in commissioning of the plant. These are fundamental errors caused due to
poor planning and poor site evaluation. In the year 2001, an investment of 3.5 billion US dollars were
made on this plant. The project was only commissioned due to the constant persistence of the central
government.
When compared to the years 2005-2010, the state has followed the same pattern. According to the
report submitted by the comptroller and auditor general of India on the performance of the state’s
electricity utility (CAG, 2010), the state had planned a capacity addition of 3977 MW but managed only
290 MW of capacity addition during those years. This was again due to improper project management
resulting in projects being delayed. Due to this, the state incurred an overrun cost of 392.37 crores
(INR).
In India, Planned Transmission projects are delayed most of the time due to acquiring of land.
Implementing transmission lines requires getting Right of Way clearance from the land owners across
the length of the transmission line. It is a time consuming process due to the magnitude of the
population present in India. According to the estimation of CEA, more than 120 Transmission projects in
25
India have been delayed due to the inability of the developer of the project to acquire the permission of
from the land owner. Delays are also faced in obtaining clearances from stake holders such as
environmental department, telecommunication committee and power committee.
5.1.2. Power Purchase
The state did not possess enough installed capacity to meet the state’s electricity demand. Delays in
commissioning new projects caused more stress to the utility. TNEB had to settle for procurement of
power in order to meet the demand of the state. The cost of purchasing power over short term is
expensive. In the year 2009-2010, 14500 GWh of electricity was purchased from the open market by
TANGEDCO (TNERC, 2012). The cost of electricity paid by TANGEDCO was Rs.15/unit (TNERC, 2015).
While even the highest tariff paying sector, the industrial sector only pays Rs 5.50/unit of electricity
supplied by TANGEDCO. The difference in cost will be added to the losses of TNEB.
TNEB due to desperation had agreed to buy from private power producers at high cost per unit. As of
2015, TNEB is in contract with two private power producers (Madurai power and Samalpatti power),
where they are paying Rs.12.32/unit and Rs.13.57/unit respectively (TNERC, 2012). Continuing to
purchase power from expensive sources will increase the losses to TNEB.
5.1.3. Tariff and Subsidies
According to the National Tariff policy of India, “the objective of a tariff is to reflect the cost of supply of
electricity”. “To achieve this objective, the state’s electricity utility has to provide an updated tariff,
every year to the state regulatory body, which will reflect the cost of supply of electricity. The state’s
regulating commission will notify the state government with a tariff structure that are within plus or
minus 20% of the average cost of supply” (Tariff policy, 2005). The government provides cross subsidies
to certain consumer groups depending upon the tariff rates. It is essential that tariff is adjusted every
year and the adjusted tariff information is to be provided to the government, as it enables the
government to plan the budget accordingly (Tariff policy, 2005).
In Tamil Nadu, the tariff structure is different for every consumer group. The highest tariff rate are
normally set for commercial consumers. The tariff rates are changed depending up on the consumption
rate for the consumers in Tamil Nadu, except for industrial consumers, where the tariff is set. The tariff
rate in Tamil Nadu for domestic users defer according to the level of use. For example: Domestic
consumers are divided into three categories, consumers who consume less than 200 units per 2 month
are charged Rs 3.5 per unit, domestic consumers who consume less than 500 units per two months are
charged Rs 4.6 per unit and domestic consumers who consume more than 500 units per 2 months are
charged Rs 6.6 per unit.
Government provides subsidies for domestic consumers depending on their consumption rate.
Consumers who consume less than 100 units per 2 months are provided with a subsidy of Rs 1.5 per
Unit. Consumers who consume less than 200 units per 2 months are provided with a subsidy of Rs 1 per
unit and consumers who consume 200 to 500 units per 2 months are provided with Rs .50 per unit
(TNEB, 2014). This helps the people of Tamil Nadu, as the poverty line in Tamil Nadu is about 15- 20
percent, there are people with low, middle and high income. This type of tariff is set as to be favorable
to the people of Tamil Nadu.
26
Table 5: Current Tariff set by TNERC
Type Units Cost
Domestic Consumers
Below 200 units/2months Rs 3.5/unit
Between 201 to 500 units/2months Rs 4.6/unit
Above 500 units Rs 6.6/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 50/month
Industrial Consumers
low Tension Rs 6.35/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 70/kw
High Tension Rs 6.35/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 350/kVA/month
Commercial Consumers
low Tension
Up to 100 units Rs 5/unit
Above 100 units Rs 8.05/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 140/kW
High Tension Rs 8/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 350/kVA/month
Private Schools & Colleges
low Tension Rs 7.50/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 120/kW
High Tension Rs 6.35/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 350/kVA/month
Government Buildings & Government-Aided Schools
low Tension Rs 5.75/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 120/kW
High Tension Rs 6.35/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 350/KVA/month
Temples
Rs 5.75/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 120/KW
Temporary Connection
low Tension Rs 12/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 345/KW/month
High Tension Rs 11/unit
Fixed Charges Rs 350/kVA/month
Source: TNERC, 2015
According to my analysis, the state’s part of the financial suffering is due to two reasons related to the
tariff. The tariff rates were unchanged for a prolonged period and the tariff for agriculture sector is set
low.
27
TNEB has to apply for a tariff revision every year with TNERC (APE, 2014) but TNEB has failed to follow
such regulation. For the industrial consumers, the tariff rate was set at 5.50 Rs/unit for 10 years straight.
The tariff rate for the industrial consumers hasn’t changed from 2003 till 2013 (TNERC, 2013, AF
mercados, 2014), while the cost of delivering electricity has been increasing every year. In the year 2015,
the tariff rates have been finally changed to 6.35 Rs/unit. Neither the state government nor the
electricity utility have managed to revise the industrial tariff for a period of almost 10 years. The tariff
was later revised in the year 2014 by TNERC on suo motu basis to reduce the gap between the average
cost of supply of electricity and the average rate of realization.
There are a few concerns in agricultural sectors. Initially, the tariff is fully subsidized by the state
government. The tariff rate for the agricultural consumers have always been set really low. The tariff
was just .4 Rs/Kwh till the year 2012 (Power & Energy, 2014). The tariff rate is set very low. The
minimum cost of producing electricity in the state is around 2 Rs/kWh. TNEB was making losses by
setting the tariff low.
Tamil Nadu is the only state that has fully subsidized the tariff for the agricultural sector. This is mainly
because, Agriculture is an age old tradition in the state of Tamil Nadu. Agriculture creates positive
externalities and hence the state government has fully subsidized the sector. The revenue from
agriculture sector is very low. Around 12000 GWh of electricity is used for agricultural sector (Power &
Energy, 2014). It adds up to an almost 20% of the total electricity consumption of the state.
5.1.4. Unmetered Supply of Electricity
The agricultural sector is unmetered and electricity supplied to huts are unmetered and that is of high
concern. The consumption of electricity is predicted every month by qualified personals. TNEB sends out
these personals to every location with agricultural activity or to the areas with huts and calculate the
rate of consumption (AF Mercados, 2014). For example: in case of irrigation purposes, the energy
consumption rate of the motor is multiplied with the hour of use for a day, if it is a 600watt motor and it
is run for 6 hours a day, then the consumption rate for a day is 600*6 = 3.6 kWh. In terms of irrigation,
days of rainfall are taken into consideration, and electricity consumption for these days will be
considered as zero, because there is no requirement for irrigation of water using electric motors during
rainy days. Following such method will result in insignificant errors in the calculation, as it involves many
assumptions. This is a major concern due to two main reasons. First the subsidy received by agriculture
sector from the state government will depend on these consumption numbers provided by TNEB.
Financial losses are incurred. Secondly, electricity is lost due to inaccurate calculation methods, adding
more financial loss.
There is also another concern caused due to unmetered supply, which is theft of electricity. Theft of
electricity occurs because of the fact that there exists no metering device to notice the electricity
consumption rate in the sector. All the electricity that is lost due to theft and due to the assumptions
because of not having a metering device, will be added to the total Annual Technical and Commercial
losses (AF Mercados, 2014). These inefficient methods adopted by TNEB are resulting in increased yearly
financial losses.
28
Table 6: Summary of Key Financial Parameters
SOURCE: AF Mercados, 2014
Table 7: Revenue/Expense of TNEB for the Years (2010-2014)
Particulars 2013-14 2012-2013 2011-2012 2010-2011
units sold(GWh) 70976 61662 61387 24159
Income (Rs in Lakhs)
Revenue from sale of power 2953639 2668882 2055559 832133
subsidies 498509 445723 207141 68857
other income 39128 32154 27138 15077
total income 3491276 3146759 2289838 916067
Expenditure
Purchase of Power 3052930 2574083 2103451 916906
Generation of power 761387 661461 611007 234448
Repairs & Maintenance cost 53209 37966 31033 12032
Employee costs 462217 390351 398002 154120
Administration cost 26411 23742 21143 8857
Depreciation & other related debits
73107 65270 62006 24672
Interest & finance charges 793378 550039 425227 165646
Total 5222639 4302912 3651869 1516681
Capitalized expenses
Interest & finance charges capitalized
115400 103798 66419 28243
Other expenses capitalized 223573 55823 25134 9162
Total expenses capitalized 338973 159621 91553 37405
total expenditure 4883666 4143291 3560316 1479276
other debits 2194 1155 3752 138
extra ordinary items 45 105 222 7
2239 1260 3974 145
Total 4885905 4144551 3564290 1479421
2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
17% 16% 16% 14% 19% 19% 20% NA NA
0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 9% 9% 34% 40%
0.49 0.44 0.81 1.55 1.77 2 2.47 NA NA
Key Parameters
AT&C losses
tariff hikes
ACS-ARR Gap, Rs./kWh
29
profit after tax -1394629 -997792 -1274452 -563354
Net prior period charges/credit
3872 170115 57681 0
Deficit -1398501 -1167907 -1332133 -563354
Source: TNEB, 2015
5.1.5. Conclusion
The performance of the state’s electricity utility has been poor. The system thinking chosen by TNEB to
provide electricity has failed and has resulted in huge financial losses for them (refer to figure 10). The
policies set by the government are not executed as planned.
Figure 10: Flowchart- System Thinking by TNEB
Firstly, commissioning of the power projects should be finished as planned. Failure to do so will cause
the electricity utility to purchase power from an expensive source. It will also result in incurring losses
due to the change of schedule in commissioning the plant- such as extra cash spent on labor for the
extra days.
Furthermore, transmission constraints has caused considerable losses to TNEB, mainly due to not being
able to utilize the generating capacity that is present in the state. Finally, forecasting wind in a
distributed grid is a necessity. Implementing forecasting strategies will increase the electricity utilization
from the wind turbines. Thus increasing use of cheap and clean source of energy. In context of tariff
reforms, TNEB has failed to update the tariff yearly for a period of 10 years, while the cost of producing
electricity has been on a rise. This had resulted in reduction in the revenue of TNEB every year. TNERC is
now implementing more strict measure on the SEB to present new tariff yearly.
30
To conclude, metering of agricultural sector as well as the huts are essential. Ensuring 100% metering in
all sector will reduce the electricity losses faced by the state. TNEB has failed to achieve all the above
and has chosen to procure power from a private source at a higher cost to neutralize the low working
efficiency of the SEB.
6. Policies Set For Betterment of the Future Energy Market in Tamil
Nadu This part of the report will analyze the policy (Vision 2023) set by the Government of Tamil Nadu and
summarize the policy set by the Central Government.
6.1. RAPDRP - Restructured Accelerated Power Development and Reforms Program
This is a scheme implemented by the central electricity authority of India. The overall objective of this
scheme was to provide reliable power to the consumers and reduce the Aggregate Technical and
commercial losses within 15% throughout India and this includes the state of Tamil Nadu (APDRP, 2015).
The objectives of this scheme included
Developing information technology services for energy auditing, supervisory control and data
acquisition and distribution management system for the state of Tamil Nadu in cities or towns
with population of 4, 00,000.
Improving the distribution efficiency, which included building new transformers, erection of new
feeders to reduce line losses and increasing the capacity of Low tension transformers.
6.2. Vision 2023
In the year 2012, The Government of Tamil Nadu introduced a strategic plan for development of the
state. Development of the electricity network was an important part of the plan, as electricity is a
requirement for development. VISION 2023 is the plan that was introduced by the government to
achieve a set outcomes before the year 2023. The government has noticed the electricity issue faced by
the state. Issues such as shortage in installed capacity and transmission constraints for interstate
transfer of electricity and also the constraints of evacuating wind power into the grid. The government
plans on implementing new projects to meet the electricity demand in the state, reducing the
transmission constraints by introducing higher capacity transmission cables and expanding the
transmission network and introduction of smart grid, which will help in managing the renewables into
the grid.
31
Figure 11: Planned Capacity Addition
Source: Government of Tamil Nadu, 2014
Figure 12: Planned Capacity Share
Source: Government of Tamil Nadu, 2014
According to my analysis, there are a few good outcomes to this plan, which are, increased installed
capacity to meet the demand, improving the transmission network, implementing the smart grid,
creating gas pipeline infrastructure and introducing off shore wind projects.
6.2.1. Shortcomings
There are already shortcomings with this plan. Firstly, the execution of plans from VISION 2023 is
following a similar pattern like the government’s earlier plans. For example, government introduced a
coalbased
gas based hydrosolar PV &
CSPwind any
cost(Rs.crores) 90573 4000 10112 50000 62500 10000
capacity(MW) 14220 1000 2750 2000 10200 2000
0100002000030000400005000060000700008000090000
100000
planned capacity addition
cost(Rs.crores) capacity(MW)
coal based 44%
gas based 3%
hydro 9%
solar PV & CSP 6%
wind 32%
any 6%
capacity(MW)
coal based gas based hydro solar PV & CSP wind any
32
solar policy as a part of the VISION. According to the policy, solar capacity of 3000MW was to be
installed in the state by the year 2015. This policy fell through in the initiation stages and it meant the
state fell back on its plan of meeting the demand by 3000 MW (APE, 2013). Secondly, in relation to
planned capacity addition ( Refer figure 12 and 13), the government is following the same pattern,
which is, in terms of fossil fuel based electricity generation, majority of the projects planned are coal
based thermal plants, while there is only one gas based plant planned. The cost of coal is increasing as
the state has to resort to imported coal. Imported coal is 3 times more expensive than the domestic
coal. This will create more financial stress for the state, which is already in shambles. Coal linkage for
these new power plants are still not confirmed. Implementation strategy for a few of these projects are
not certain, leaving space for uncertainty regarding commissioning time frame of the power plants.
In terms of renewable energy, more wind energy addition is planned and less planning on solar (Refer to
figure 12 and 13). Plans are made on implementing more wind capacity in the state, yet there is no
mention of implementing forecasting techniques. Managing the renewables in the grid will continue to
be an issue, with renewables being an intermittent source of energy, it requires sources which can
support it. For example: In Tamil Nadu, wind capacity is around 7000MW and the wind is more constant
during May to October. There is no subsequent plan to meet the demand of electricity using another
source during these less wind period.
7. Requirements The state had planned to increase capacity addition. This capacity addition is majority dominated by coal
based power plants (44%) and wind power projects (32%). While the state has stuck to same generation
mix like earlier, it would be wise to implement a strategy which will complement with the state’s
existing plans. There are five main requirement for an energy source that can complement the already
available energy capacity. They are:-
A source that can provide short term and long term fix
A source that can complement the wind energy generation in the state
A source which will cause less strain to the weak transmission network
A source that will provide cheap and clean source of energy
A source which will enhance energy security in the state
8. Sustainability Option to Improve the Electricity Supply in TN
8.1. Switch focus to roof top residential solar generation
The solar policy submitted by the Government has not been successful. The policy has failed to generate
investments from private investors and it has failed to generate the investment from the domestic
consumers. When a new policy is introduced, it is the responsibility of the government to generate
significant push and pull for the policy. This can be achieved by creating good marketing strategy. In
Tamil Nadu, policy should be implemented to make it attractive and economically viable for the targeted
consumers. Achieving it will deliver substantial development of solar Power in the state and it will help
in delivering stability to the grid.
33
Tamil Nadu has the perfect conditions to generate solar power. Table 8 shows the solar isolation present
in each of the districts in Tamil Nadu. All the districts possess an average yearly radiation of 5
kWh/m2/day. Yet the technology is not widely used in the state. This is majorly due to the low
awareness of the technology among people in Tamil Nadu and the low feed in tariff rates set by the
government. The government introduced subsidies for the installation of Roof top solar PV system in the
year 2012. Yet majority of the population are not aware about the financial viability of the solar PV
systems. People in Tamil Nadu are not aware of the long term betterment of Investing in solar PV
system.
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy of India provides a subsidy for the domestic consumers for the
installation of roof top solar PV system. MNRE covers 30% capital cost of the solar PV systems (MNRE,
2015). Simultaneously, The Government of Tamil Nadu provides an extra subsidy of Rs.20000 per kWh
for first 10000 domestic consumers in the first phase of implementation of residential PV systems (Solar
policy, 2012). The subsidized capital cost of solar PV can still be expensive for a certain income group.
More support should be provided for development of solar rooftop systems in order to make it viable
for all income groups.
In Tamil Nadu, Banks provide low interest loans for consumer products such as car. Increased use of car
will increase congestion on roads; it will result in increased pollution in the environment; it will also
results in more accidents occurring on the roads due to congestion. This action creates negative
externality. Investing in solar power system creates positive externality because solar PVs produces
clean energy and it can simultaneously reduce the use of energy from fossil fuel.
The state government should implement better marketing strategy to increase the popularity of
residential solar rooftops use in the state. The state government should implement a structure which
will make solar power systems more viable for the general population of Tamil Nadu. This can be
achieved by passing a law which will entitle the financial institutes such as banks to provide low interest
loans for purchasing solar power systems. The capital cost of 1kW system with inverter, that is
manufactured in India will cost an approximate Rs.64000 after the subsidies. This cost is still considered
high for the average income group. Income per capita in Tamil Nadu is only Rs.98550. It is more than
half of the yearly earning. Lending measures should be introduced. Introducing a low debt to equity
ratio will increase the popularity of PV investment in state by the locals. Introducing attractive financial
assistance for implementing residential solar systems will increase the use of PVs in Tamil Nadu.
34
Figure 13: Average Annual Solar Intensity Received by TN
Source: NREL
Table 8: Possible Impact with Roof top PV
Cost of PV with inverter 120000 Rs./kW
Subsidy by MNRE (30%) 36000 Rs.
Subsidy by GOV.TN 20000 Rs.
Total cost of PV after being subsidized 64000 Rs./kW
Debt: Equity 20-80 Ratio
No of Domestic Consumers 17100000
Inverter Efficiency 0.9 %
PV Output 3.375 kWh
Output with 100% Roof top use 17313.75 GWh
Output with 75% Roof top use 12119.625 GWh
Output with 50% Roof top use 8656.875 GWh
Output with 25% Roof top use 4328.4375 GWh
Output with 10% Roof top use 1731.375 GWh
35
Simple calculations were made for Average PV output of 1 kWh system with a peak sun hour assumption
of 5 and a de-rating factor of .75. In a day a 1kWh roof top PV system is capable of producing 3.375 kWh.
If 10 % of the total domestic consumer has 1kWh each, the total generating capacity will increase to
1731.375 GWh for a year. The overall consumption of electricity in domestic sector for the year 2012-
2013 is 18603 GWh (TNERC). It is although a long shot for 100% residential installation of solar PV in
Tamil Nadu and also the fact that it depends on the roof top space availability in consumer’s house, but
it is only important to understand that this is a likely solution, as it can significantly reduce the overall
demand and reduce the stress on the electricity utility.
8.1.1. Reduction in Technical & commercial losses
Rooftop Photovoltaics system in a distributed grid system will significantly reduce the Transmission &
distribution losses. Electricity created by the PV system is very close to the load, this will reduce the
Average T&D losses. Part of electricity generated by a power plant will be lost as heat when transferred
through a transmission line far to the load. TNEB has T&D loss of 19% (TNERC, 2014). This losses will be
reduced due to the use of roof top grid distributed PV system due to the result of electricity produced
near the load.
Studies have proved that advanced inverters are capable of solving the voltage issues and provide
creditability to the power system (Coddington et al. 2012). It also helps in real power restriction in
response to excess power generated by the PV, frequency ride through and so forth (Grattan Institute,
2015).
Any challenges faced due to the direct current produced by PV will be totally emulated using PV
inverters. Controlling the voltage produced by the photovoltaics and making it suitable for the grid is the
issue. The unwelcomed voltage rise can be caused by power injection. The electronics inside the
inverters makes it possible for correction of potential voltage challenges. It is performed by shifting the
phase angle of the sinusoidal current output to absorb or inject reactive power (Grattan Institute, 2015).
8.1.2. Profile of solar radiation
Solar radiation received from January to June in all districts of the state is high compared to the rest of
the months. This can be observed from the radiation data derived from NASA surface meteorology site.
Solar radiation received in most of the districts in Tamil Nadu during this period is between 5-6 kWh/m2.
The clearness index is higher during this period (January- June). This means that the sky is clearer during
these 6 month period. This makes it highly suitable for production of electricity by solar PVs. While wind
received by the state is most prominent during the south west monsoon (June till October), investing in
solar PVs will provide relief in the state for the rest of the months. Production of solar energy in the
state will be complementary to wind energy capacity that already exist in the state. Solar energy can
significantly ease the stress of wind energy industry to produce electricity to meet the consumer load
during low wind months.
8.1.3. Other reasons
Rooftop PV projects takes a maximum of 6 months to be finished and connect to the grid in
Tamil Nadu (solar policy, 2012). If even 20% domestic consumers invested in PVs, it can result in
significant change in demand in a short time span due to the short time span required in setting
up PV system. Low working efficiency of TNEB will not affect this plan, where there will be no
36
chance of delay in commissioning such small projects. It will provide relief for short term and in
long term in terms of providing stability for the state.
The domestic consumers can enjoy electricity without interruption, reduces the dependence on
the SEB to provide electricity.
Yearly spending on power purchase from expensive source can be eliminated due to reduced
demand from the residential sector
It will increase the energy security in the state due to the availability of different mix of energy
sources available in the system and it will increase the use of clean energy in TN
Financial burden on TNEB will be reduced due to less requirement on power procurement.
Increasing the use of PV in TN, will have factor on the reduction in prices of the technology in
the longer run.
9. Potential for further work In terms of rooftop solar projects, an analysis of the timeline distribution of solar and wind
energy in the state, in order to understand how both these renewables complement each other.
In terms of all India Grid synchronization (once fully functional), an analysis of how the grid can
be used to maximize the renewable potential in the country.
10. Conclusion Tamil Nadu’s growth has been deeply affected by the SEB’s ability to supply constant electricity. The
SEB’s low working efficiency is the main cause for the electricity problem. TNEB has failed in planning
and execution and that has led to the electricity crisis faced in the state. TNEB has failed to create
sufficient generating and transmitting capacity in the state. The SEB has not been stringent in neither
applying nor following the regulations. The unpredictability of wind generation has caused the SEB to
purchase power in short term, while implementing forecasting strategies would have abolished the
need for power procurement. The wrong doings has led the SEB in huge losses.
The state’s current policies is directed towards strengthening the network and increasing the generating
capacity. However the plans are already faltering due to poor implementation techniques set by the
state government and the SEB. So it is not certain whether the state’s current policy will be able to solve
the problems faced.
The state’s policy on developing solar energy have failed but the correct marketing techniques can
revive the policy. The state is blessed with good solar resource to generate solar energy. The domestic
consumer base is enormous in Tamil Nadu. Implementing an objective of increased use of roof top PVs
among these consumer group will reduce the overall demand of electricity that has to be supplied by
the SEB. Subsidies and other lending measures will encourage the use of roof top Photovoltaics among
domestic consumers.
To conclude, the poor implementation techniques of TNEB has led Tamil Nadu to an electricity crisis, but
the state’s solar resource can help in solving the crisis. Residential roof top can provide an answer to this
situation. Therefore, increased domestic use of Rooftop PVs will increase the overall stability of the
system and provide security and sustainability to the state’s electricity system.
37
11. Recommendation Attractive financial measures should be introduced to increase residential use of solar
photovoltaics in Tamil Nadu
Swift implementation of SCADA is required in all of the wind turbines existent in the state.
Forecasting techniques should be implemented first before planning new wind energy projects.
The state government should introduce incentives for finishing the projects as planned. This will
be help in increasing the working efficiency of the SEB and will help in decreasing pointless
economic losses.
Tariff rates should be adjusted yearly as structured by the Central Electricity Authority.
100% metering should be implemented on all agricultural & hut services. This will help in
reducing the total electricity losses
Following these recommendations will help the SEB in reducing economic losses and to improve the
working efficiency. It will also help in directing the electricity sector towards sustainable
development.
38
12. Reference Census.tn.nic.in. 2015. 'Directorate of Census Operations - Tamil Nadu'. http://www.census.tn.nic.in/.
India. Ministry of Power. 2014. Executive summary for February. New Delhi:
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/executive_rep/feb14.pdf .
India. TANGEDCO.2013. Petition for final true up for FY 11, Provisional True for FY 12, APR for FY 13, ARR
for FY 14 to FY18 & Tariff determination for FY2013-14. Chennai:
http://www.tangedco.gov.in/linkpdf/ARR13-14.pdf .
Teda.in. 2015. 'TEDA | Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency'. http://teda.in/.
India. Central Electricity Authority. 2008. Annual Report 2007-2008.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/annual_rep/2007-08/annual_report_07_08.pdf
India. Central Electricity Authority. 2009. Annual Report 2008-2009.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/annual_rep/2008-09/ar_08_09.pdf
India. Central Statistics Office.2014. Energy Statistics.
http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/Energy_stats_2014.pdf .
India. Central Electricity Authority. 2012. Power scenario at a glance.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/planning/power_scenario.pdf .
India. Central Electricity Authority. 2015. Load Generation Balance Report 2015-16.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/lgbr_report.pdf .
India. Central Electricity Authority. 2015. Executive summary power sector January 2015.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/executive_rep/jan15.pdf .
Pfcindia.com. 2015. 'Home: Power Finance Corporation Limited, Government of India Undertaking'.
http://www.pfcindia.com/.
Srpc.kar.nic.in. 2015. 'Southern Regional Power Committee – Government of India, Ministry of Power'.
http://www.srpc.kar.nic.in/.
Phadke, A., Abhyankar, N. and Rao, P. 2014. Wind Generation in India: Implications for Grid Integration.
Berkeley, California: Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Government of Tamil Nadu. 2014. Vision Tamil Nadu 2023 - Strategic plan for infrastructure
development in Tamil Nadu V.
http://www.ficci.com/SEDocument/20303/TN_VISION%202023_Volume%20II.pdf .
Indianelectricity.com. 2015. 'Indian Electricity'. http://www.indianelectricity.com/rural.html.
39
Apdrp.gov.in. 2015. 'Welcome to R-APDRP; Government of India, Ministry of Power'.
http://www.apdrp.gov.in/.
Beeindia.in. 2015. 'Bureau of Energy Efficiency'. http://www.beeindia.in/.
Solar Power. 2014. 'PRICE LIST'. http://www.solarpowerenergyindia.com/price-list/.
Chennai.climatemps.com. 2015. 'Chennai, Tamil Nadu Climate Chennai, Tamil Nadu Temperatures
Chennai, Tamil Nadu Weather Averages'. http://www.chennai.climatemps.com/.
Government of Tamil Nadu. Energy Department. 2012. Tamil Nadu Solar Policy 2012.Chennai:
http://mnre.gov.in/file-
manager/UserFiles/guidelines_sbd_tariff_gridconnected_res/Tamilnadu%20Solar%20Energy%20Policy%
202012.pdf.
Appellate Tribunal for Electricity.2014. Appeal No.92 of 2013 & IA no. 151 of 2013 & Appeal No.109 of
2013. Chennai:
http://aptel.gov.in/judgements/Appeal%20nos.%2092%20&%20109%20of%202013_21.01.2014.pdf.
Government of India. National Institute of Wind Energy. 2015. 'Homepage National Institute of Wind
Energy'. http://niwe.res.in/.
Government of India. Power & Energy Division. 2014. Annual report (2013-14) on the working of state
power utilities & electricity department.
http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_arpower0306.pdf.
Government of India. Central Electricity Authority. 2012. Performance Review of Thermal Power Stations
2011-12. New Delhi:
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/thermal_perfm_review_rep/1112/complete_1112.pdf.
Green peace India. 2014. Investor briefing: Costly Coal, Shareholder risk in Coal India.
http://www.greenpeace.org/india/Global/india/Navdha/Reports/CostlyCoal_GreenpeaceInvestorBriefin
g.pdf.
ICLEI. 2013. State Level Urban Low Carbon Policy Notes: Tamil Nadu
http://urbanlowcarbonfinance.iclei.org/resources/Policy%20Notes_RE&EE_TN.pdf.
Government of India. Comptroller and auditing general of India. 2010. Performance review relating
statutory corporation.
http://saiindia.gov.in/english/home/our_products/audit_report/Government_Wise/state_audit/recent
_reports/Tamil_Nadu/2010/Commercial/CHAPTER-III.pdf.
40
Government of Tamil Nadu. TANGEDCO. 2014. Revenue Account for the Year 2013-14.
http://www.tangedco.gov.in/linkpdf/Gedco%20porofit.pdf.
Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation Ltd. 2012. DISCLOSURE DOCUMENT FOR PRIVATE
PLACEMENT OF UNSECURED, REDEEMABLE, NON-CONVERTBLE, TAXABLE BONDS SERIES -1/2013-14
GUARANTEED BY GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU GOVERNMENT AGGREGATING TO Rs 500 CRORES+
GREEN SHOE OPTION UP TO THE AMOUNT OF Rs 500 CRORES.
http://www.bseindia.com/downloads/ipo/201437154928tangedco.pdf.
EEP - Electrical Engineering Portal. 2011. 'How Reactive Power Is Helpful To Maintain A System Healthy '.
http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/how-reactive-power-is-helpful-to-maintain-a-system-healthy.
Government of India. Power system operation Corporation Limited. 2013. Synchronization of southern
regional grid with NEW grid.
http://posoco.in/NLDC-CR/System_Operation/Operation_Planning/System%20Studies/NEW-
SR%20Synchronisation_final_27Dec2013.pdf.
Government of Tamil Nadu. TNERC. 2009. Wind energy wheeling agreement.
http://tnerc.tn.nic.in/EPA-EWA/2009/Wind%20EWA%20for%20Order%201%20dt.20-3-2009.pdf.
Government of Tamil Nadu. TNERC.2014. Comprehensive Tariff Order on Wind Energy.
http://tnerc.tn.nic.in/Concept%20Paper/2014/Wind%20Consultative%20paper-25-09-2014.pdf.
Government of Tamil Nadu. TANGEDCO. 2015. Wind Passes in Tamil Nadu.
http://www.tangedco.gov.in/new-wind.php.
Government of Tamil Nadu. TANTRANSCO. 2015. Daily Statement.
http://tnebldc.org/tnercreports.htm.
Government of Tamil Nadu. TANTRANSCO. 2015. State Load Dispatch Centre.
http://www.tantransco.gov.in/template_4.php?tempno=4&cid=0&subcid=212.
Indian Wind Power Association. 2015. Wind Evacuation in Tamil Nadu.
http://www.windpro.org/circula/IWPA-circular-No-138-dated-07-april-2015.pdf.
Government of Tamil Nadu. MNRE.2012. Wind Power Scenario.
http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/presentation-
01082012/Presentation%20on%20Wind%20Power%20Scenario%20in%20Tamil%20Nadu%20by%20Shri
%20Rajeev%20Ranjan,%20Chairman,%20TNEB.pdf.
41
AF Mercados. 2014. Power sector operations and impact on state finances. All India Summary of key
Aspects of Power sector.
http://www.fincomindia.nic.in/writereaddata/html_en_files/fincom14/others/41.pdf.
Government of India. Ministry of power. 2013. Impact on Tariff in the concluded PPAs due to shortage in
domestic coal availability and consequent changes in NCDP. New Delhi:
http://powermin.nic.in/upload/pdf/Impact_on_tariff_in_the_conclude_PPAs.pdf.
Appellate Tribunal for Electricity. 2013. Appeal No 327 of 2013.
http://aptel.gov.in/judgements/Appeal%20no.%20327%20of%202013_30.06.2014.pdf.
Government of Tamil Nadu. TNERC. 2012. Determination of Tariff for Generation and Distribution.
http://tnerc.tn.nic.in/orders/Tariff%20Order%202009/2012/T.O%20No.%201%20of%202012%20dated
%2030-03-2012.pdf.
Government of India. Central Electricity Authority. 2010. System Planning & Project Appraisal Division.
New Delhi:
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/powersystems/sppa/scm/sr/minutes_meeting/31st.pdf
Government of India. Central Electricity Regulatory Commission. 2015. Recent Orders/ Records of
Proceedings.
http://www.cercind.gov.in/recent_orders_rops.html.
Government of Tamil Nadu. TANGEDCO. 2012. Equitable power distribution pattern in the state of Tamil
Nadu as per the direction of Honorable Madurai bench of Madras high court in W.P.
http://www.tangedco.gov.in/linkpdf/mp44.pdf.
Government of Tamil Nadu. Industry Department. 2014. Tamil Nadu Industrial Policy 2014.
http://www.investingintamilnadu.com/files/whats_new_docs/Tamil_Nadu_Industrial_Policy_2014.pdf.
India Ratings/Research. 2014. Public Finance: Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation Ltd.
https://www.indiaratings.co.in/upload/sectors/ratingReports/2014/10/28/indra28Nadu.pdf.
Chaudhary, Abhishek. 2014. Development of Financial Model and Bankable Feasibility Analysis of a 1MW
rooftop solar PV project in India.
http://www.npti.in/Download/MBAInternshipProject/Renewable/Roll%20No%2097/Report_Lahmeyer_
intern_abhi.pdf.
Prasanna, M., G. Sameer, S., M. Hemavathi, G. 2014. Financial Analysis of Solar Photovoltaic power plant
in India. IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance e-ISSN: 2321-5933.
http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jef/papers/ICIMS/Volume-1/2.pdf.
42
Seci.gov.in. 2015. 'Home Page: Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), a Government of India
Enterprise, Under Ministry of New and Renewable Energy'. http://seci.gov.in/content/.
Government of India. 2014. Press Information of Bureau. “State wise per capita income and gross
domestic product at current price”.
http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2013/dec/d2013121703.pdf
Denholm, Paul. Margolis, Robert. Palmintier, Bryan. Barrows, Clayton. Ibanez, Eduardo. Bird, Lori. 2014.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. “Methods for Analyzing the Benefits and costs of Distributed
Photovoltaic generation to the U.S. Electric Utility system”.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/62447.pdf.
Mapsofindia.com. 2015. 'Latitude and Longitude of Tamil Nadu, Lat Long of Tamil Nadu'.
http://www.mapsofindia.com/lat_long/tamilnadu/.
NASA. Atomic Science Data Centre. 2015. Surface Meteorology and solar energy.
https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/[email protected]+s01#s01.
German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2013. Analysis of system stability
in Developing and emerging countries. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. http://www.giz.de/fachexpertise/downloads/giz2013-en-power-system-
stability-india.pdf
Powermin.nic.in. 2015. 'Ministry Of Power'. http://powermin.nic.in/.
Government of Tamil Nadu. Energy Department. 2014. Policy Note 2014-2015.
http://www.investingintamilnadu.com/files/whats_new_docs/Energy_Policy_Note_2014_15.pdf.
Government of India. Central Electricity Authority. 2003. Data on petroleum fuels used by Various Gas
Turbine & Diesel Engine power plants in the country during 2003-2004. New Delhi:
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/articles/thermal/data_petroleum_fuels.pdf.
Tamil Nadu Electricity Regulatory Commission. 2008. Tamil Nadu Electricity Grid Code.
http://tnerc.tn.nic.in/regulation/REVISED_GRID_CODE.pdf.
Kumar, J., P. Ambigai, R. 2012. A case study Approach on Koodankulam Nuclear Power plant. Namex
International Journal of Management Research. Vol.No.2, Issue No.1.
http://eprints.manipal.edu/139604/1/article%203.pdf.
Prayas Energy Group. 2014. True up for FY 2011-12, FY 2012-13, Annual Performance Review for FY
2013-14 and suo moto tariff determination for FY 2014-15 for TANGEDCO.
43
http://prayaspune.org/peg/publications/item/282-prayas-submission-regarding-the-tnerc-suo-moto-
tariff-process-2014-15.html.
Government of Tamil Nadu, Energy Department. 2013. Policy 2012-2013.
http://cms.tn.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents/energy_7.pdf.
Government of Tamil Nadu, Energy Department. 2014. Policy note 2013-2014.
http://cms.tn.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents/energy_8.pdf.
Kumar, Ashvini. Gomathinayagam,s. MNRE. 2010. Solar Resource Assessment and Mapping of India.
New Delhi:
https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB
0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublictopics.PublicPostFileLoader.html%3Fid%
3D53caab92cf57d7a15c8b45fe%26key%3D7b288560-79e4-404e-b07a-
cc0b5348d4de&ei=t5GjVcPsLMLEmwX_0JvAAw&usg=AFQjCNG3553HP5N-
QDkERMeByC42C1d3jg&bvm=bv.97653015,d.dGY.
Government of India. Power System Operation Corporation Limited. “Daily power supply Position”.
http://posoco.in/2013-03-12-10-34-42/daily-report
Tnerc.tn.nic.in. 2015. 'TNERC - Tariff Orders of the Commission'. http://tnerc.tn.nic.in/order.htm.
Government of India. Power Finance Corporation Ltd. 2009 – 2014. Annual Reports for years 2009- 2014.
http://www.pfcindia.com/Content/Annual_Reports.aspx.
Government of India. Centre for Wind Energy Technology. 2014. Annual Report 2013-2014. Chennai:
http://niwe.res.in/assets/Docu/annual_report/Annual_Report_2013_2014_English.pdf.
Government of India. Central Electricity Authority. 2013. Annual Report 2012-2013.
http://cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/annual_rep/2012-13/ar_12_13.pdf.
Government of India. Central Electricity Authority. 2011. Reports. http://www.cea.nic.in/report.html.
Government of India. Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation Limited. 2012. Best Practices.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/articles/god/bestpractices/tn.pdf.
Tangedco.gov.in. 2015. 'TANGEDCO Welcomes You.'. http://www.tangedco.gov.in/.
ICRA. 2012. Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation Limited.
http://www.icra.in/Files/Reports/Rationale/Tamil%20Nadu%20Generation%20and%20Dist-r-
04072012.pdf.
44
ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited. 2014. Power sector: Status, Challenges and Way ahead.
Chennai: http://indiaenergyforum.org/chennai-
conference/presentations/Anand%20Madhavan%20Theme%20Paper.pdf.
Sahanaa, M. Arunkumar, S. Murugavel, K. 2014. Feasibility Study for the Net Metering Implementation in
Residential Solar PV installations across Tamil Nadu.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6915390&tag=1.
Government of India. Central Electricity Authority. 2013. Large scale Grid Integration of Renewable
Energy Sources- Way Forward.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/powersystems/large_scale_grid_integ.pdf.
Government of India. India Meteorology Department. 2015
http://www.imdchennai.gov.in/
Government of Tamil Nadu. State Planning commission. 2015
http://www.spc.tn.gov.in/
Government of India. Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited. 2015.
http://www.nlcindia.com/
Government of India. Coal India Limited. 2015
https://www.coalindia.in/
Government of India. Ministry of Power. 2005. “Tariff Policy”
http://www.mahadiscom.com/consumer/national%20tariff%20policy.pdf
Government of India. Ministry of Power. 2015. “Accelerated Power Development Reform Program”.
http://www.apdrp.gov.in/Default_RAPDRP
U.S. Department of Energy. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
http://www.nrel.gov/international/ra_india.html
Government of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency. 2015
http://teda.in/
Government of India. South Regional Power Committee. 2015. “Meeting on LVRT associated issues at
1430 hours of 20.07.2015 at TANTRANSCO/ TANGEDCO office, Chennai”. Bengaluru.
http://www.srpc.kar.nic.in/website/2015/meetings/special/lvrt-20-07-15.pdf
45
13. Appendix Table 9: Solar isolation on a horizontal surface in all districts of Tamil Nadu, kWh/m2/day
location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Adirampattinam 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Ambasamudram 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
Ambur 4.63 5.5 6.23 6.79 6.72 5.05 3.92 3.7 4.4 5.12 4.75 4.47 5.1
Anaimalai Hills 5.68 6.24 6.66 6.12 5.49 4.04 4.25 4.7 5.4 4.84 4.92 5.22 5.29
Arakkonam 4.93 5.85 6.42 6.45 5.94 5.09 4.59 4.7 4.9 4.3 4.05 4.23 5.11
Arantangi 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Arcot 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
Arni 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
Aruppukkotai 4.66 5.5 6.18 5.69 5.69 5.18 4.98 5.2 5.3 4.59 4.12 4.18 5.1
Attur 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
Atur 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Bodinayakkanur 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Calimere, Point 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Carnatic 5 5.92 6.76 6.71 6.15 5.47 5.09 5.1 5.3 4.47 4.05 4.34 5.36
Chidambaram 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Chingleput 5 5.92 6.76 6.71 6.15 5.47 5.09 5.1 5.3 4.47 4.05 4.34 5.36
Coimbatore 5.07 5.84 6.5 6.08 5.85 4.84 4.5 4.6 5 4.45 4.22 4.46 5.11
Comorin, C. 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
Coromandel Coast
5 5.92 6.76 6.71 6.15 5.47 5.09 5.1 5.3 4.47 4.05 4.34 5.36
Cuddalore 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Devakottai 4.66 5.5 6.18 5.69 5.69 5.18 4.98 5.2 5.3 4.59 4.12 4.18 5.1
Dhanushkodi 5 5.98 6.69 6.31 5.97 5.61 5.49 5.6 5.7 4.82 4.22 4.38 5.47
Dharapuram 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Dharmapuri 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
Dindigul 4.74 5.74 6.47 5.94 5.81 5.29 5.01 5.2 5.4 4.58 4.09 4.22 5.2
Dodabetta. Mt. 5.46 5.94 6.39 5.93 5.35 3.87 3.71 4.1 4.8 4.54 4.65 4.99 4.97
Ennore 4.93 5.89 6.64 6.72 6.12 5.24 4.73 4.8 5 4.42 4.05 4.24 5.22
Erode 5.07 5.84 6.5 6.08 5.85 4.84 4.5 4.6 5 4.45 4.22 4.46 5.11
46
Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Fort St George 4.93 5.89 6.64 6.72 6.12 5.24 4.73 4.8 5 4.42 4.05 4.24 5.22
Gudiyatam 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
Hospur 5.36 6.06 6.56 6.38 6.03 4.84 4.5 4.5 5 4.63 4.5 4.74 5.25
Jalarpet 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
Javadi hills 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
Kanchipuram 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
Karur 4.74 5.74 6.47 5.94 5.81 5.29 5.01 5.2 5.4 4.58 4.09 4.22 5.2
Kaveri R. 5.07 5.84 6.5 6.08 5.85 4.84 4.5 4.6 5 4.45 4.22 4.46 5.11
Kayalpatnam 4.99 5.91 6.67 6.26 5.95 5.57 5.63 5.8 6 5.18 4.3 4.41 5.55
Kilakarai 4.66 5.5 6.18 5.69 5.69 5.18 4.98 5.2 5.3 4.59 4.12 4.18 5.1
Kodaikanal 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Krishnagiri 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
Kumbakonam 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Madras (Chennai) 4.93 5.89 6.64 6.72 6.12 5.24 4.73 4.8 5 4.42 4.05 4.24 5.22
Madurai 4.66 5.5 6.18 5.69 5.69 5.18 4.98 5.2 5.3 4.59 4.12 4.18 5.1
Madurantakam 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
Mahabalipuram 5 5.92 6.76 6.71 6.15 5.47 5.09 5.1 5.3 4.47 4.05 4.34 5.36
Mannargudi 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Mayuram 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Mettupalaiyam 5.46 5.94 6.39 5.93 5.35 3.87 3.71 4.1 4.8 4.54 4.65 4.99 4.97
Mettur Dam 5.07 5.84 6.5 6.08 5.85 4.84 4.5 4.6 5 4.45 4.22 4.46 5.11
Nagarjunasagar Dam
4.87 5.58 6.28 6.47 6.08 4.91 4.3 4.3 4.6 4.49 4.57 4.53 5.07
Nagercoil 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
Namakkal 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
Nanguneri 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
Neiveli 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Pachaimalai Hills 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
47
Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Padmanabhapuram 5.75 6.25 6.67 6.12 5.45 4.3 4.54 5 5.4 5.05 4.95 5.3 5.39
Palayankottal 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
Palladam 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Pallavaram 5 5.92 6.76 6.71 6.15 5.47 5.09 5.1 5.3 4.47 4.05 4.34 5.36
Pallivasal 4.95 5.73 6.27 5.53 5.23 4.26 4.19 4.5 4.9 4.3 4.15 4.41 4.86
Palni Hills 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Panruti 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Paramakkudi 4.66 5.5 6.18 5.69 5.69 5.18 4.98 5.2 5.3 4.59 4.12 4.18 5.1
Pattukkottal 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Perambalur 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
Periyakulam 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Pollachi 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Ponneri 4.93 5.89 6.64 6.72 6.12 5.24 4.73 4.8 5 4.42 4.05 4.24 5.22
Porto Novo 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
Pudukkottal 4.74 5.74 6.47 5.94 5.81 5.29 5.01 5.2 5.4 4.58 4.09 4.22 5.2
Pulicat, L. 4.93 5.89 6.64 6.72 6.12 5.24 4.73 4.8 5 4.42 4.05 4.24 5.22
Rajapalayam 4.95 5.73 6.27 5.53 5.23 4.26 4.19 4.5 4.9 4.3 4.15 4.41 4.86
Ramanathapuram 4.66 5.5 6.18 5.69 5.69 5.18 4.98 5.2 5.3 4.59 4.12 4.18 5.1
Rameswaram 5 5.98 6.69 6.31 5.97 5.61 5.49 5.6 5.7 4.82 4.22 4.38 5.47
Salem 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
Sankaranayinarkovil 4.95 5.73 6.27 5.53 5.23 4.26 4.19 4.5 4.9 4.3 4.15 4.41 4.86
Sattur 4.95 5.73 6.27 5.53 5.23 4.26 4.19 4.5 4.9 4.3 4.15 4.41 4.86
Satyamangalam 5.07 5.84 6.5 6.08 5.85 4.84 4.5 4.6 5 4.45 4.22 4.46 5.11
Seven Pagodas 5 5.92 6.76 6.71 6.15 5.47 5.09 5.1 5.3 4.47 4.05 4.34 5.36
shencottah 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
shevaroy Hills 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
St. Thomas Mount 4.93 5.89 6.64 6.72 6.12 5.24 4.73 4.8 5 4.42 4.05 4.24 5.22
Tenkasi 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
Thanjavur (Tanjore) 4.63 5.64 6.38 5.97 5.77 5.41 5.16 5.3 5.5 4.51 3.93 4.09 5.18
Tindivanam 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
48
Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Tiruchchirappalli 4.74 5.74 6.47 5.94 5.81 5.29 5.01 5.2 5.4 4.58 4.09 4.22 5.2
Tiruchendur 4.99 5.91 6.67 6.26 5.95 5.57 5.63 5.8 6 5.18 4.3 4.41 5.55
Tiruchengodu 5.07 5.84 6.5 6.08 5.85 4.84 4.5 4.6 5 4.45 4.22 4.46 5.11
Tirukkoyilur 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Tirumangalam 5 5.98 6.69 6.31 5.97 5.61 5.49 5.6 5.7 4.82 4.22 4.38 5.47
Tirunelveli 4.84 5.58 6.14 5.52 5.31 4.46 4.53 4.9 5.1 4.42 3.97 4.23 4.91
Tiruppur 5.07 5.84 6.5 6.08 5.85 4.84 4.5 4.6 5 4.45 4.22 4.46 5.11
Tiruvallur 4.93 5.85 6.42 6.45 5.94 5.09 4.59 4.7 4.9 4.3 4.05 4.23 5.11
Tiruvannamalai 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
Tondi 5 5.98 6.69 6.31 5.97 5.61 5.49 5.6 5.7 4.82 4.22 4.38 5.47
Tranquebar 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Turaiyur 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
Tuticorin 4.99 5.91 6.67 6.26 5.95 5.57 5.63 5.8 6 5.18 4.3 4.41 5.55
Udagamandalam 5.46 5.94 6.39 5.93 5.35 3.87 3.71 4.1 4.8 4.54 4.65 4.99 4.97
Udamalpet 4.88 5.74 6.36 5.77 5.64 4.61 4.4 4.7 5.1 4.38 4.08 4.28 4.99
Udiyarpalaiyam 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Uttangarai 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
Vaniyambadi 5.05 5.93 6.51 6.32 5.99 5.05 4.57 4.7 5 4.43 4.17 4.36 5.16
Vellore 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
Villupuram 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Virudhunagar 4.95 5.73 6.27 5.53 5.23 4.26 4.19 4.5 4.9 4.3 4.15 4.41 4.86
Vriddhachalam 4.68 5.65 6.37 6.14 5.87 5.32 4.95 5.1 5.3 4.37 3.9 4.09 5.14
Wandiwash 4.82 5.72 6.43 6.28 5.92 5.19 4.75 4.9 5.1 4.37 3.99 4.16 5.13
Yercaud 4.88 5.82 6.49 6.16 5.98 5.21 4.8 5 5.2 4.51 4.09 4.29 5.19
Source: NASA
49