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TRANSCRIPT
MUNUC 32
Topic A: Privatization of Outer Space Exploration
Topic B: Opium Trade and Trafficking
Special Political and
Decolonization Committee
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
______________________________________________________
Letter from the Chair………………………………………………………….. 3
Committee History………..…………………………………………………... 5
Topic A: Privatization of Outer Space Exploration…………………....… 6
Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….. 6
History of the Problem………………………………………………… 12
Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 17
Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 21
Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 24
Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 26
Bibliography……………………………………………………………. 27
Topic B: Opium Trade and Trafficking……………………………………. 33
Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….33
History of the Problem………………………………………………… 38
Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 43
Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 49
Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 52
Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 54
Bibliography……………………………………………………………. 55
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 3
LETTER FROM THE CHAIR
______________________________________________________
Dear Delegates,
Welcome to the Special Political and Decolonization Committee at MUNUC XXXII. My name is Jake
Walsh, and I look forward to serving as your committee chair. I am a fourth-year undergraduate at
the University of Chicago studying biochemistry and computer science; this will be my second year
staffing MUNUC.
This year, you will have the opportunity to discuss two topics that span the wide range of subjects
under the purview of the Special Political and Decolonization Committee: the burgeoning
privatization of outer space exploration, and the ongoing issue of opium trade and trafficking. Both
topics will require you to think creatively and develop collaborative solutions to problems without
clear answers. As you reflect upon the priorities of the nations you represent while keeping in mind
the particular decolonial lens of this committee, I hope you will all have the opportunity to learn from
one another and engage meaningfully with these global problems.
As you prepare for conference, I suggest you use this background guide as an introductory step into
your own research on the topics of this committee. Although the background guide will be an
invaluable starting point, you will have the best experience at conference if you have a strong
understanding of your nation’s position on both topics. Thorough preparation will empower you to
participate fully in the work of this committee. Whether this is your first experience with Model UN
or you are veteran delegate, I encourage you to be thoughtful, detailed, and open-minded to your
peers in both discussion and debate.
Whether we ultimately explore the role of private enterprise in humankind’s quest to go beyond
planet Earth or devise strategies to combat the opium trade’s dual crises of public health and
governmental instability, I look forward to hearing your creative solutions to some of the most
pressing issues of our time. Please feel free to reach out with any questions or concerns you may
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 4
have about the conference. Thank you for choosing the Special Political and Decolonization
Committee! I’ll see you at MUNUC XXXII.
Best,
Jake Walsh
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 5
COMMITTEE HISTORY
______________________________________________________
The Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization Committee) is somewhat atypical
compared to the other General Assembly committees. While the other GA committees typically
have quite narrow purviews – the First Committee focuses on disarmament and security, the Second
Committee on economic and financial matters, the Third Committee on social and humanitarian
matters, the Fifth Committee on the budget, and the Sixth Committee on legal affairs – the Fourth
Committee has a seemingly different one. The UN considers its purview to be broad enough to cover
peacekeeping reform, UN Missions, mines, atomic radiation, and “information”, but what are the
origins of a committee with such scattered topics of discussion?
The Fourth Committee was originally founded to focus entirely on decolonization issues. The UN
Trusteeship Council, one of the principal organs of the UN, was created in order to put countries in a
UN controlled trust as they transitioned from colonies to sovereign nations.1 The Fourth Committee
was set up in order to handle decolonization issues that fell outside the purview of the Trusteeship
Council. In addition to the normal composition of the General Assembly, there were a few smaller
supplemental committees – one in particular called the Special Political Committee (SPC)-designed
to deal with political issues that didn’t fall under the purview of any other bodies. As trusteeship and
decolonization became less of an issue, the decision was made to merge the SPC and Fourth
Committee – turning them into the Special Political and Decolonization committee that exists today.
1 “Trusteeship Council.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/trusteeship-council/
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TOPIC A: PRIVATIZATION OF OUTER SPACE EXPLORATION
______________________________________________________
Statement of the Problem
Introduction
NASA has been at the forefront of science and space exploration for over 60 years. Its motto “for the
benefit of all” has inspired generations of space exploration, including grand enterprises like the
Apollo moon landings and the Hubble Telescope launch.2 National space agencies, such as NASA,
have done incredible things, but the space exploration paradigm has recently shifted to include
privately funded programs by idealistic billionaires. The private funding of space is not a new
concept. In fact, this was the case since the beginning of rocketry. Robert Goddard, the Father of
Rocketry, funded his research out of his own paycheck.3 In addition, modern commercial air flight is
a direct result from the relationship between privatization and government-funding. World War I
spurred great leaps in airplane technology and manufacturing capability. To encourage commercial
use of this new capacity, the U.S. Congress passed the Air Mail Act of 1925,4 in which private
companies quickly took over the air mail industry. This spurred more technological development and
business, resulting in commercial passenger flights.
While national space industries have accomplished marvelous feats, not much profit has been
generated from these government-funded space missions. On the other hand, almost all private
companies are driven solely by the profit motive. Elon Musk funded SpaceX with cash from his first
project, PayPal.5 Now that SpaceX has a working heavy launch vehicle with reusable boosters, Musk
is eying colonies on Mars and beyond. Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon and his Blue Origin
company, performed the first successful vertical lading after spaceflight in 2015 with his Shepard
2 Deffree, Suzanne. “NASA: Revealing the Unknown to Benefit All Humankind.” EDN, www.edn.com/collections/4397490/NASA--Revealing-the-unknown-to-benefit-all-humankind. 3 Dunbar, Brian. “Robert Goddard: A Man and His Rocket.” NASA, NASA, www.nasa.gov/missions/research/f_goddard.html. 4 “AIRMAIL CREATES AN INDUSTRY: Postal Act Facts.” Postal Act Facts, Smithsonian National Museum , postalmuseum.si.edu/airmail/airmail/public/airmail_public_postal_long.html. 5 “Elon Musk.” Biography.com, A&E Networks Television, 12 Nov. 2019, www.biography.com/business- figure/elon-musk.
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rocket.6 SpaceShipOne was solely funded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, while its successor
SpaceShipTwo is now owned by billionaire Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic.7 Then, there is Russian
billionaire Yuri Milner and his breakthrough Starshot Program with the intention of sending the first
robotic probe to another star system.8 Private companies such as these have one very large
advantage over nationally funded programs: the ability to take risks. The private industry is simply
less constrained by politics and public opinion than the public sector. For example, SpaceShipX
recently put out a video estimating that the Flacon Heavy had a 50% chance of blowing up on the
launch pad, yet Musk continued with the launch anyways.9 Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo still
forges ahead, even after the fatalities of a test flight crash and an earlier tank explosion.10 Aerospace
billionaires see themselves as the new Wright brothers, seeing risks and unsuccessful investments as
necessary for innovation. Because of their ability to take risks, the private sector can fulfill the
unaddressed needs of government space programs, creating a symbiotic relationship rather than a
parasitic one. The privatization of space is both an inevitable and positive evolution during this new
era of space exploration.
The Existing Framework of Space Law
At first, national governments dominated human activities in outer space. This framework is in the
midst of major change as private enterprises develop a space infrastructure parallel to that of
national agencies. The privatization of space has led to a shift in the paradigm and nowadays private
enterprises have a considerable role in the space industry, usually with a predominantly commercial
purpose. SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin, Planetary Resources, MarsOne and Deep Space
Industries are only a few of the most notable players in this new space race. The emerging
movement of private enterprises being active in space is now known as the “NewSpace Industry,”
6 Howell, Elizabeth. “Jeff Bezos: Biography of Blue Origin, Amazon Founder.” Space.com, Space, 1 May 2018, www.space.com/19341-jeff-bezos.html. 7 Sharp, Tim. “SpaceShipOne: The First Private Spacecraft: The Most Amazing Flying Machines Ever.” Space.com, Space, 5 Mar. 2019, www.space.com/16769-spaceshipone-first-private-spacecraft.html. 8 Grady, Monica. “Private Companies Are Launching a New Space Race – Here's What to Expect.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 3 Oct. 2017, phys.org/news/2017-10-private-companies-space.html. 9 Harwood, William. “SpaceX Falcon Heavy Launch Puts on Spectacular Show in Maiden Flight.” CBS News, CBS Interactive, 6 Feb. 2018, www.cbsnews.com/news/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-spectacular-maiden-flight/. 10 Woolf, Nicky, and Amanda Holpuch. “One Pilot Dead as Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo Rocket Plane Crashes.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 1 Nov. 2014, www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/31/spaceshiptwo-richard-branson-virgin-crash-mojave.
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contrasting with the traditional space industry.11 This NewSpace Industry has no universally
accepted definition as it remains in a continuous state of flux; however, it can be best described as
“a worldwide phenomenon of entrepreneurs developing products and service enterprises focusing
on space and are using private funding in their initial developments… the ethos of the movement has
been to challenge the traditional ways of space exploration that are widely considered as too
expensive, time-consuming, and lacking in room for inventive risk-taking. Companies are primarily
funded by private capital to build products and services that challenge the cost to either access to
space itself or access to services based out of assets in space.”12
With the increasing pressure of privatized companies taking over space exploration, how will their
activities in space affect current space laws? Space law is a relatively new field of law. Its inception
can be traced back to October of 1957 with the launch of the world’s first artificial satellite.13 The
Soviet Union propelled Sputnik 1 into the unchartered territories of outer space, and at the time, the
law did not extend into outer space, but this launch changed everything. From this point onwards,
space law would evolve greatly.14
Nowadays, space law exists at a national and international level. The current legal framework was
established over half a century ago. When the framework was being formed, the international
context was wildly different from what it is today. National governmental bodies were the sole
players in the space industry as the U.S.’s NASA rivaled the Soviet Union’s space program. Both
programs had a strong emphasis on the military and its primary focus was to negotiate peace and
security; therefore, if economic, military, or political issues relating to space would arise,
international law would provide this legal footing.15 More recently, the privatization of space and the
birth of the NewSpace Industry has led to the emergence of national space law. Regulating space
11 “What's Up in The NewSpace Industry?” ASTROPRENEURS, 8 Mar. 2018, astropreneurs.space/2018/03/08/whats-newspace-industry/. 12 Jonckheere, Evarist. “Https://Lib.ugent.be/Fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.Pdf.” Faculty of Law and Criminology Ghent University, May 2018, lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.pdf. 13 Garber, Steve. “Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age.” NASA, 10 Oct. 2017, history.nasa.gov/sputnik/. 14 Jonckheere, Evarist. “Https://Lib.ugent.be/Fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.Pdf.” Faculty of Law and Criminology Ghent University, May 2018, lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.pdf. 15 Ibid.
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activities on a more national level seems like the most practical solution in this new era; however,
one cannot ignore the international legal framework already set in place.16 This committee must
therefore figure out how private enterprises and governments can cooperate.
The old regime of international space law was founded upon multi-lateral treaties and agreements
set forth by the United Nations generated within two decades after the launch of Sputnik. While the
history of these treaties will be described in more detail in the Past Actions section, the most
important of these treaties is the Treaty on Principles Governing of States in the Exploration and Use
of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (The Outer Space Treaty) of 1967.17
This treaty, as well as the others that follow, emphasize the same basic principle: the activities
carried out in outer space and the accompanying benefits should be devoted to evolving all countries
and all people.18 Thus, international cooperation is essential in space exploration. While these
treaties were formed with good intentions, the existing legal framework is too rigid, and it cannot
keep up with recent revolutions in the space industry and the needs of dynamic private enterprises.19
An example of a legal problem in the space industry concerns one of the U.N. treaties, the
Registration Convention of 1975.20 The registration of space objects is only applicable to those
nations that have ratified the Registration Convention. It is up to each nation what they consider
“space objects” to be, leading to a variety of interpretations. Registration is not equivalent to
commercial significance. A satellite can be sold to different companies, but the new owner will not
bear responsibility for the harm the satellite may cause because there is no way to transfer
registration of this object. This presents many legal problems and questions where the liability for
this object lies. There are many instances like this where the current legal framework proves
inadequate, and the privatization of space will only increase these types of issues. It is evident that
16 Ibid. 17 Avgerinopoulou, Dionysia-Theodora, and Katerina Solis. Current Trends and Challenges in International Space Law . www.essc.esf.org/fileadmin/user_upload/essc/Article_Current_Trends_and_Challenges_in_Space_Law.pdf 18 Jonckheere, Evarist. “Https://Lib.ugent.be/Fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.Pdf.” Faculty of Law and Criminology Ghent University, May 2018, lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/479/330/RUG01-002479330_2018_0001_AC.pdf. 19 Ibid. 20 Wickramatunga, Robert. “Registration Convebntion.” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introregistration-convention.html.
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modifications need to be made to the current space law, especially the need for a more uniform
reporting of information to the UN and a clearer definition of liability.
Evolution of the Modern Space Industry and Its Effects
Whereas “spaceflight in the 20th century was defined by heroic exploration, science, and national
pride, the 21st century has seen an unprecedented rise in private spaceflight investment, from a
combination of traditional defense contractors and Silicon Valley–backed startups”.21 SpaceX’s
Dragon Module was the first private space craft to dock with the International Space Station (ISS) in
2012.22 Orbital ATK followed closely behind SpaceX’s footsteps and now both companies regularly
resupply the ISS.23 These resupply missions are considered a big win for NASA, as its shuttle program
costs around $4 billion annually, yet these resupply missions cost approximately $50 million each.24
Besides restocking the ISS, private companies have been looking at the possibility of human
spaceflight. The main goal of these private companies is “to reduce the cost of access to space –
mainly through reuse of launchers and spacecraft – making space accessible to people who are not
specially trained astronauts”.25 To date, only one privately developed aircraft has carried a person to
space – SpaceShipOne. In 2004, the first private astronaut, Mike Melvill, blasted this rocket-powered
plane into a suborbital trajectory, topping 100 km in altitude and just touching space (but it counts).
SpaceShipOne’s manufaturer, Scaled Composites, partnered up with Virgin Galactic with the plan of
turning SpaceShipTwo into a regular space tourism vessel;26 however, with these goals and
upcoming innovations comes a plethora of problems.
Perhaps it is cynical to say, but with the increasing of privatization of space, there is a corresponding
increasing need for lawyers. Extensive regulation and law is necessary to provide for the scenario of
21 Baumann, Michael. “Who Gets to Own Outer Space?”. The Ringer. https://www.theringer.com/2017/12/27/16812048/future-of-space-x-nasa-elon-musk-donald-trump. 22 Howell, Elizabeth. “SpaceX's Dragon: First Private Spacecraft to Reach Space Station.” Space.com, Space, 14 Mar. 2019, www.space.com/18852-spacex-dragon.html. 23 Howell, Elizabeth. “NGIS: Cargo Ships to the ISS.” Space.com, Space, 21 June 2018, www.space.com/40950-northrop-grumman-innovation-systems-ngis.html. 24 “The Implications of the Privatization of Space Exploration.” Wharton Public Policy Initative, 12 Dec. 2016, publicpolicy.wharton.upenn.edu/live/news/1619-the-implications-of-the-privatization-of-space. 25 Baumann, Michael. “Who Gets to Own Outer Space?”. The Ringer. https://www.theringer.com/2017/12/27/16812048/future-of-space-x-nasa-elon-musk-donald-trump. 26 Howell, Elizabeth. “SpaceShipTwo: On a Flight Path to Space Tourism.” Space.com, Space, 5 Mar. 2019, www.space.com/19021-spaceshiptwo.html.
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multiple private companies and governments operating simultaneously in outer space. It is possible
that companies may take greater risks in order to increase profitability, even as space-focused
companies compete in nontraditional manners.27 With the emergence of private space enterprises in
the era of the NewSpace Industry, a plethora of legal concerns is introduced into space law. The goal
of this committee will thus be to figure out how to modify or, to a more radical extent, to completely
abandon the existing international framework that has been set forth by the United Nations in order
to meet the demands of the inevitable evolution of private space exploration. Furthermore, once
commercial spaceflight leaves Earth’s orbit and enters the wider solar system, international bodies
will need to be prepared with an adequate legal framework.
27 Grady, Monica. “Private Companies Are Launching a New Space Race – Here's What to Expect.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 3 Oct. 2017, phys.org/news/2017-10-private-companies-space.html.
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History of the Problem
World War II and the Nuclear Arms Race
During the late 1930’s, Adolf Hitler began planning an invasion of Poland. With the cooperation of
the Soviet Union, his armies would overrun the country, and it would be partitioned between the two
great powers. On September 1st of 1939, the invasion of Poland began.28 At this point, France and
Britain were drawn into the conflict by virtue of defense treaties they had signed with Poland. The
subsequent Second World War involved virtually every part of the globe from 1939 to 1945. The Axis
powers – Germany, Italy, and Japan – and the Allies – France, Great Britain, the United States, and
the Soviet Union fought brutally over this time period.29 While the Soviet Union was originally an
Axis power, Germany’s unsuccessful attempt at invading England led Hitler to break the Non-
Aggression Pact and invade the Soviet Union. In response, the Soviet Union joined the Allies and
vowed to fight Germany and the rest of the Axis powers.
Besides the Soviet Union, the United States was another great power that did not join the Allies until
later in the war, specifically when the Japanese bombed American fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on
December 7, 1941.30 WWII eventually ended in May 1945 when the Allies defeated Germany. War
with Japan continued, however, and United States President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the
Manhattan Project to develop nuclear weapons in response to a letter he received from Albert
Einstein, warning Roosevelt that Nazi Germany was already at work developing nuclear arms. Robert
Oppenheimer headed the Manhattan Project, and on July 16, 1945, the first nuclear bomb was
detonated in New Mexico.31 After pressure from military advisors, President Truman authorized the
use of atomic weapons on Japan and on August 6, 1945, an American bomber dropped the first
atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, the United States dropped a
second bomb on Nagasaki with a total of 210,000 Japanese fatalities and injuries.32
28 Editors, History.com. “World War II.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 29 Oct. 2009, www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 “What's Up in The NewSpace Industry?” ASTROPRENEURS, 8 Mar. 2018, astropreneurs.space/2018/03/08/whats-newspace-industry/. 32 Ibid.
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WWII was the deadliest conflict in human history. This global conflict involved more than a hundred
million people from over 30 countries, and it caused more than 85 million casualties, most of whom
were citizens of the Soviet Union and China.33 The participating nations mustered their entire
economic, industrial, and scientific bases to achieve victory. The development of the atomic bomb
by the United States marked the end of WWII, but also heralded the beginning of the Cold War.
Despite the United States’ efforts to maintain its monopoly over the specific knowledge and the raw
materials necessary for nuclear weaponry, the Soviet Union eventually exploded an atomic bomb of
its own in 1949. The nuclear arms race was thus born with the United States and the Soviet Union
fighting for supremacy in nuclear technology.34 Both countries adopted a policy of nuclear
deterrence, using the threat of massive retaliation to prevent a nuclear attack by an enemy.35 This
missile-based nuclear arms race eventually foreshadowed the start of another race – the space race.
Sputnik: The Beginning of the Space Age
History changed on October 4th, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 or “Cпутник-1” –
the world’s first artificial satellite.36 The International Council of Scientific Unions established the
International Geophysical Year (IGY), a solar period between July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958. This
period was ideal for launching artificial satellites as a means of studying Earth and the solar system
due to the high frequency of solar activity.37 Space exploration only fueled the tension between the
world’s two greatest powers. The United States made plans in 1954 to launch an Earth-orbiting
satellite for the IGY, hoping to show their dominance in spaceflight capability and their overall
ideological superiority by being the first successful country to launch an artificial satellite;38 however,
33 Hedges, Chris. “'What Every Person Should Know About War'.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 6 July 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/07/06/books/chapters/what-every-person-should-know-about-war.html. 34 Harding, Rebecca. “How The End Of The Second World War Led To A Nuclear Arms Race.” Imperial War Museums, 20 June 2018, www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-the-end-of-the-second-world-war-led-to-a-nuclear-arms-race. 35 Ibid. 36 Editors, History.com. “The Space Race.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 22 Feb. 2010, www.history.com/topics/cold-war/space-race. 37 Ibid. 38 Garber, Steve. “Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age.” NASA, 10 Oct. 2017, history.nasa.gov/sputnik/.
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the successful launch of Sputnik 1 from the Soviet Tyuratam base shocked experts and citizens in the
United States.3940 This launch is most agreed upon as the moment that began the “space race”.41
The Effects of Sputnik
In response to the launch of Sputnik, United States President Eisenhower poured additional funds
and resources into the national space program in hopes of catching up to and then exceeding the
capacity of the Soviet Union. However, the Vanguard satellite, which was the first earnest satellite
launch attempt by the US, was incinerated on its launch pad due to flaws in the rocket.42 The US
would not find satellite success until the Explorer launch on January 31, 1958.43 Three months later,
President Eisenhower the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which turned the National Advisory
Committee into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which is to this day
responsible for the civilian space program, aeronautics, and space research.44 The US would not
remain caught up for long though, as the USSR soon managed to place a live dog into space.45At this
point, more drastic action was needed on the part of the United States to close the gap. It was with
this awareness in mind that the lunar-landing program began. In July 1969, the first men walked on
the moon, and the United states declared victory.46
The space race eventually ended with the Apollo-Soyez project (ASTP), a partnered spaceflight
between the USSR and the US. The Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft met on July 17, 1975 with a
39 Filmer, Joshua. “A Brief History of Sputnik 1.” Futurism, Futurism, 13 Aug. 2014, futurism.com/a-brief-history-of-sputnik-1. 40 “Sputnik Launched.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 24 Nov. 2009, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/sputnik-launched. 41 “The Start of the Space Race.” Khan Academy, Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/1950s-america/a/the-start-of-the-space-race. 42 “The Launch of Sputnik, 1957.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, 2001, 2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/lw/103729.htm. 43 Loff, Sarah. “Explorer 1 Overview.” NASA, NASA, 18 Mar. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/explorer-overview.html 44 Ibid.
45 George, Alice. “The Sad, Sad Story of Laika, the Space Dog, and Her One-Way Trip into Orbit.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 11 Apr. 2018, www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/sad-story-laika-space-dog-and-her-one-way-trip-orbit-1-180968728/. 46 Dunbar, Brian. “July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind.” NASA, NASA, 19 Feb. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.
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combined crew of five people — three Americans, two Soviets.47 This would not be the first
international space project, as the MIR station shuttle-docking and the International Space Station
followed in subsequent decades.48 Sputnik 1’s launch has proven to be one of the most pivotal
moments of the space race, the Cold War, and all of history, as the consequences of human space
exploration reverberate today.49 However, with this newfound desire for space exploration came a
multitude of unexpected problems which today highlight the desperate need to modify space laws
to better accommodate space activities of the 21st century.
The Origins of Space Law
In a paper in 1910, Emile Laude, a Belgian lawyer, declared the need for a new governing body to
oversee judicial relations in space.50 In 1931, Vladimir Mandl, a Czechoslovakian lawyer, surveyed
some of the emerging legal problems of space usage. Mandl conceptually asserted that the space
above the airspace, “the ether,” would have a completely different nature of flight from that of
aeronautical space in terms of speed and altitude.51 Thus, flights in “the ether” zone would be and
should be “free of and unrestrained by considerations of sovereignty over the airspace”.52
After the creation of the United Nations following WWII as well as the launch of Sputnik, the United
Nations Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) was established in 1959 “to review
the scope of international cooperation on peaceful uses of outer space, to devise new programs, to
encourage continued research on outer space matters, and to study legal problems that arise from
the exploration of outer space”.53 Although COPUOS has produced many resolutions that have been
constant drivers for the development of space law and international cooperation between the
Member States of the UN, resolutions adopted by the United Nations General Assembly are not
47 Loff, Sarah. “Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.” NASA, NASA, 16 Apr. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo-soyuz/index.html. 48 Howell, Elizabeth. “International Space Station: Facts, History & Tracking.” Space.com, Space, 8 Feb. 2018, www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html. 49 Wallace, Tim. “How Sputnik 1 Launched the Space Age.” Cosmos, 3 Oct. 2017, cosmosmagazine.com/space/how-sputnik-1-launched-the-space-age. 50 Sundahl, Mark J. “New Perspectives on Space Law.” Proceedings of the 53rd IISL Colloquium on The Law of Outer Space, 2011, www.iislweb.org/docs/NewPerspectivesonSpaceLaw.pdf. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Avgerinopoulou , Dr. Dionysia-Theodora, and Katerina Solis. Current Trends and Challenges in International Space Law. www.essc.esf.org/fileadmin/user_upload/essc/Article_Current_Trends_and_Challenges_in_Space_Law.pdf
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legally binding and the evolution of technology in the modern age has led to problems that were not
anticipated during the creation of these resolutions.
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Past Actions
Developments in the United Nations
Since the launch of Sputnik, the UN has been committed in ensuring that space is used peacefully.
As the Cold War progressed, due to growing concern in the international community, the General
Assembly of the UN adopted resolution 1348 in 1958, which created the ad hoc Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).54 This specialized committee consisted of 18 members
that regulated the peaceful uses of outer space and facilitated international cooperation. One year
later, COPUOS became a permanent body with 24 members. COPUOS is a unique body in that there
is no voting; rather, decisions are taken by consensus (the absence of objections).55 Since 1958, the
membership of COPUOS has grown significantly and at this point it is one of the larger committees
in the UN. The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) was initially created in 1957
as a subgroup within COPUOS. Currently, it is a part of the UN Secretariat, implementing the
decisions of the General Assembly and COPUOS. This office has the objective of supporting
intergovernmental discussions in the Scientific and Technical and the Legal subcommittees, as well
as assisting developing nations in improving their space technology.56
United Nations Treaties
There are five principal treaties of the United Nations which form its core space law framework:
1. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (The Outer Space Treaty)57
54 Doyle, Stephen. “A Concise History of Space Law.” International Institute of Space Law, www.iislweb.org/website/docs/2010keynote.pdf.
55 Ibid.
56 Wickramatunga, Robert. “United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs.” COPUOS History, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/history.html. 57 Wickramatunga, Robert. “United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs.” Space Law Treaties and Principles, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties.html.
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 18
2. Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects
Launched into Outer Space (The Rescue Agreement)58
3. Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (The Space
Liability Convention)59
4. Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (The Registration
Convention)60
5. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (The
Moon Treaty) 61
The first treaty is known as the Outer Space Treaty (OST) and is the most crucial document, with the
others branching off from it and elaborating on its principles.62 The OST is the second non-
armament treaty with the Antarctic Treaty being the first. Like its predecessor, the OST seeks to
prevent a new form of resource competition and the possible damage that exploitation of outer
space might cause.63 The key points of each treaty are as follows
The Outer Space Treaty is the cornerstone of UN space law. It prevents any nation from claiming
sovereignty over any portion of outer space. Additionally, it designates that all planets and planetary
objects in the solar system, aside from the Earth, are to be set aside for peaceful purposes. Pursuant
to its stated aim of achieving peace in space, weapons of mass destruction are forbidden in Earth’s
orbit. However, other offensive methods such as kinetic bombardment are still allowed, since these
are not WMDs.64
58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 Ibid. 62 “Outer Space Treaty.” U.S. Department of State, 27 Jan. 1967, 2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm. 63 Howell, Elizabeth. “Who Owns the Moon?: Space Law & Outer Space Treaties.” Space.com, 27 Oct. 2017, www.space.com/33440-space-law.html. 64 Ibid.
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The Rescue Agreement states that if some entity observes a damaged or endangered spacecraft,
they must notify the Secretary-General of the UN of that spacecraft. Furthermore, the party must
provide all possible assistance to rescue the personnel of the spacecraft if they have landed within
that state’s territory, whether the landing was due to distress, accident, or emergency.65
The Space Liability Convention claims that countries bear international responsibility for any space
object launched within their territory. Thus, regardless of who launches the space object, if the
object was launched from State A’s territory or facility, then State A is fully liable for the damages
that result from that particular space object.66
The Registration Convention requires countries to provide to the UN enough information to
determine the orbit of every object they have in space. Additionally, they must describe the function
of each object placed in space.67
The Moon Treaty places the moon under the jurisdiction of the international community at large.
The major clauses of this treaty ban military use of celestial bodies, require that the UN Secretary-
General must be informed of all celestial activities, declare all states have an equal right to perform
research utilizing planetary objects, and ban claiming sovereignty over celestial bodies.68
Four additional General Assembly resolutions were adopted after 1980 containing declarations of
principles:
1. Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct
Television Broadcasting69
65 “Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Space.” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. 20 Feb. 2019. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 68 Ibid. 69 Sundahl, Mark J. “New Perspectives on Space Law.” Proceedings of the 53rd IISL Colloquium on The Law of Outer
Space, 2011, www.iislweb.org/docs/NewPerspectivesonSpaceLaw.pdf.
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2. Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space70
3. Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space71
4. Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the
Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking Particular Account of the Needs of
Developing Countries72
70 Ibid. 71 Ibid. 72 Ibid.
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Possible Solutions
Defining “Space”
The first step in drafting an ideal resolution is to define the term “space.” As simple as it may be, the
term “space” can be used in many different ways, including:73
1. A geographic location without sovereignty or governments
2. A hostile environment for human beings
3. An empty vacuum filled with debris
4. A place for military operations and defense.
There are clearly many ways to consider the definition of space, and each differing view of the term
can result in vastly different legal implications. For instance, if you were to view space as a place to
conduct business with a large source of potential revenue, then space might be a rather attractive
territory if you wish to commercialize, leading to the privatization of space. In this case, the value of
the orbital position will be higher than that of the previous definition.
Changing the Legal Framework
As mentioned in the introduction, registration of space objects holds no commercial significance – it
is not a statement of ownership.74 The registered bearer of a space object technically bears no
ultimate responsibility for the object, as space objects are unable to be transferred to other
companies or nations through registration. In order to improve upon the registration convention, a
more uniform reporting of information to the UN is necessary. For instance, in terms of joint
launches between multiple nations, each object must be registered separately by each nation. In
73 Hertzfeld, Henry. “Current and Future Issues in International Space Law.” NSU Works, 24 Oct. 2008, nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1640&context=ilsajournal. 74 “Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Space.” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. 20 Feb. 2019. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html.
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 22
addition, the registration convention must be modified to include commercial objects, and it is the
responsibility of each nation or company to notify the UN of any ownership changes of a space
object. Thus, the new owners will claim responsibility and liability in case of an accident or damage
that may be caused.
This is just one small symptom of the larger problem that the present UN legal framework for space
is thoroughly insufficient. Delegates may consider the treaties mentioned in the Past Actions section
to be jumping off points, and may decide primarily to add to the existing documents. Alternatively,
delegates may decide that that some elements of UN legislation which already exist are
incompatible with the update to space law that they wish to provide. Thus, they may want to strike
current international legislation. Delegates should read through all relevant UN documents to come
to this decision for themselves, but creating brand new legislation, expanding existing laws, and
scrapping present treaties are all options for SPECPOL.
The Role of Space Privatization
The private space industry reached a new technological level in 2012 when SpaceX became the first
private company to dock a spacecraft at the International Space Station. This momentous event
demonstrated that the private sector is capable of performing activities previously accomplished by
governmental space agencies. These private companies often focus on three types of missions:
reusable space launch vehicles, space tourism, and space mining.75 National governmental space
agencies have recognized the rapid growth in the private sector. Space agencies such as ESA and
NASA have already implemented new policies that are more open to cooperation with private space
companies.76 In 2010, President Obama announced that he will increase the stimulus of
development of private vehicles to send astronauts and cargo to the ISS.77 In 2010, NASA awarded
Boeing, Sierra Nevada, and SpaceX $10 million to develop innovations in the area of orbital and sub-
75 Weinzierl, Matthew C. "Space, the Final Economic Frontier." Journal of Economic Perspectives 32, no. 2 (Spring 2018): 173–192. 76 Gomes, Joana R. “THE ROAD TO PRIVATIZATION OF SPACE EXPLORATION: WHAT IS MISSING?” Institute for Aeronautics and Space, 2013, www.researchgate.net/publication/289635460_The_road_to_privatization_of_space_exploration_What_is_missing. 77 Jacobson, Louis. “Updated - The Obameter: Support Commercial Access to Space.” PolitiFact, 15 Feb. 2010, www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/349/support-commercial-access-to-space/.
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 23
orbital commercial services, with the goal of sending spacecrafts to the ISS.78 A paradigm shift is
indeed occurring, in which private companies are being challenged to invent new ways to transport
cargo and crew in space.
With this shift toward privatization comes several obstacles that must be solved, mainly obstacles
regarding technological improvements, space law, governmental policies, and financial and
economic issues. Besides financial risks, the private space sector must deal with export restrictions,
lack of details pertaining to private missions in the Outer Space Treaty, instability of governmental
financial support, global market conditions, among others. A possible solution to better harmonize
national space agencies and the private sector is to first establish an extensive international
legislation that provides support to the private exploration of space, specifically with respect to the
property, rights, obligations, of private companies in relation to national space agencies. While the
private sector can allow for the rapid development of a more accessible way to space, it is also
important not to let space exploration fall entirely to today’s billionaires. Space exploration should
be done to benefit all, not just wealthy CEOs.
78 Heiney, Anna. “Commercial Crew Program - Essentials.” NASA, NASA, 14 Aug. 2019, www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-crew-program-the-essentials.
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Bloc Positions
It is important to note we are gathered here in SPECPOL to collaborate, so do not feel constrained if
your country has not had much to say about either of these topics historically. This section is
intended to point you in the right direction for research and give all delegates a basis to contribute
meaningfully to the committee, regardless of their assigned country.
While a symbiotic relationship between private and public space exploration is certainly ideal, the
public and private sectors have yet to reach this level of harmony. Instead, there are many nations
that believe that their governmental space agencies are unable to revolutionize space exploration
alone. Governmental space agencies have needs that the private sector can fulfill. On the other
hand, many countries are opposed to the privatization of space exploration. Grand enterprises like
the Apollo moon landings inspired generations of space exploration.79 The Hubble Space Telescope
and other space-based observatories have revealed the deepest mysteries of our cosmos and have
kept a watchful eye on our own fragile planet.80 Humans have sent probes to every planet in our solar
system and even landed on several. National and regional space agencies have done incredible
things, and some countries fear that the space exploration paradigm will shift to the hands of
idealistic billionaires with pure profit motives. Should the grandest enterprises be funded and
operated collectively by a national organization or is it okay to cede these important decisions to
individuals and private companies?
Developed Nations, Pro Space Privatization
There are some UN member states which have already experienced significant privatization of space
exploration. The most obvious example is the United States, which is the headquarters of numerous
such companies. NASA has found it beneficial to work with private companies, which can provide
certain services more cheaply than NASA can provide them. This frees up more funding to go
towards other exciting projects that NASA wishes to undertake. Other countries may observe the
79 “Apollo 11 (AS-506).” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/apollo-program/landing-missions/apollo11.cfm. 80 Garner, Rob. “About the Hubble Space Telescope.” NASA, NASA, 27 Jan. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/story/index.html.
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 25
relative success of the system in the United States, and work to create a free international
framework for private actors to flourish, within reason.
Developed Nations, Against Space Privatization
While some nations are attracted to the innovation and fast growth of the private sector, others are
more opposed to privatized space exploration because a small increase in privatization might lead to
large increase in company control over national space agencies and thus control over the entire
population. Privatization can lead to companies withholding information from the public with the
sole intention of producing profit or increased exploitation of natural resources. The mining of
celestial bodies and the possibility of space colonization will not only lead to ethical problems but
issues in terms of rights to sovereignty as well. Some European nations will be more skeptical of
space privatization than their American counterparts.
Developing Nations
While not every nation may have a well-established governmental space exploration agency, it is
only a matter of time before more nations join this modern-age space race. Most developing
countries use their limited funds to support their impoverished people. Nevertheless, there are more
than 70 nations which operate satellites which is a good benchmark of having a minimally successful
space program in progress.81
Nations in this bloc will generally not have enough presence in the modern space race to have
formed a strong or meaningful position on these issues. These nations will first want to begin
developing a larger space exploration program, and then consider which stance to take, whether
that is for or against the privatization of space.
81 Dan, Major. “How Many Countries Have Space Programs?” History and Headlines, 24 Feb. 2019, www.historyandheadlines.com/how-many-countries-have-space-programs/.
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Glossary
Kinetic Bombardment: Essentially dropping a massive object from space, which gathers a huge
amount of kinetic energy as it falls hundreds of miles, and then violently disperses that energy when
it strikes its traget
NewSpace Industry: A movement encompassing a globally emerging private spaceflight industry
Privatization: A move towards formerly government-controlled programs or processes being taken
over by private entities.
Satellite: Any object that has been intentionally placed into orbit
Sovereignty: The ability of a country or other entity to exercise jurisdiction over itself, or in other
words to rule over itself as the ultimate authority in its territory
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 27
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TOPIC B: OPIUM TRADE AND TRAFFICKING
______________________________________________________
Statement of the Problem
The Origins of Opium
Opium, a potent narcotic substance, has been prevalent across various societies for many centuries,
but recently the danger associated with opium use has become increasingly paramount. The first
reference to opium cultivation dates back to 3400 B.C. in Lower Mesopotamia.82 As more people
became aware of the powerful medicinal properties of opium as well as its addicting euphoria-
inducing effects, opium cultivation expanded, increasing the availability of opium while decreasing
its cost. The Silk Road allowed for the expansion of opium from the Mediterranean through Asia and
finally to China, where it stimulated the Opium Wars in the mid-1800s.83 Opium consumption in
China decreased dramatically when opium was mixed with the Dutch imported tobacco, and it
began to be smoked.84
The German pharmacist Sertuner made a shocking discovery in 1803 when he isolated the principal
alkaloid in opium, naming morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams.85 Later inventions,
such as the syringe, and the discovery of other products of opium, including codeine and papaverine,
heightened the potency of the drug.86 Starting from the 19th century, morphine found use as a
painkiller for wounded soldiers; this sort of usage was particularly prominent during the Civil War.87
The chemists at the Bayer pharmaceutical company of Germany developed an opium-based,
82 “Cannabis, Coca, & Poppy: Nature's Addictive Plants.” DEA Museum, www.deamuseum.org/ccp/opium/history.html. 83 Ibid.
84 Scheltema, J. F. “The Opium Trade in the Dutch East Indies. I.” American Journal of
Sociology, vol. 13, no. 1, 1907, pp. 79–112. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2762537.
85 Larsen, Staci. “Morphine's Modest Origin.” The Hospitalist, 14 Sept. 2018, www.the-hospitalist.org/hospitalist/article/123203/morphines-modest-origin. 86 Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia , U.S. Department of Justice, Sept. 1992, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/141189NCJRS.pdf. 87 Ibid.
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supposedly nonaddictive substitute for morphine – heroin.88 However, scientists later discovered
that heroin had narcotic and addictive properties that exceeded those of morphine.
What is Opium?
Opium is a highly addictive narcotic drug that is derived from the milky, latex sap found in the poppy
plant, Papaver somniferum.89 Opiates can be synthesized into opioids, which are man-made pain
relievers. There are both synthetic and semisynthetic opioids.90 Heroin is a type of opioid derived
from morphine. In the United States, drugs are organized into five different categories or schedules,
determined by their potential to generate addiction, and medical potential, among other
properties.91 Heroin is a Schedule I drug, the most severe class, which means that it has a high
potential for abuse and serves no medical purpose.92 It is illegally sold as a white or brown powder
that is “cut” with sugars, starch, powdered milk, or quinine. Heroin is often injected into the veins,
but it can be consumed in a variety of manners. Due to its ability to give euphoria, heroin is the most
widely used recreational drug, and one of the most dangerous drugs in the world.
Effects of Opium
The brain and spinal cord of the human body are the most affected during opium consumption.93
The structure of opium closely resembles that of endorphins, which are hormones in the central
nervous system that suppress pain and enhance mood. Opium can suppress the transmission of pain
and mimic the effects of endorphins by binding to the same receptor sites as that endorphins.94 In
terms of medical use, opiates are the most effective substance in managing extreme pain. They are
88 Ibid.
89 Kenoyer, Chris. “A DEA Report That Basically Is Their Own Guide ‘To Teach You How To Grow Your Very Own OPIUM!".” OnlinePot Comprehensive Resource on Medical Marijuana, www.onlinepot.org/dea-report-that-teaches-anyone-how-to-grow-opium/.
90 “Synthetic Opioid Overdose Data.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2 Apr. 2019. www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/fentanyl.html. 91 “Drug Scheduling.” DEA, www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling. 92 Ibid.
93 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Opium.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 21 Dec. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/opium.
94 Ibid.
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able to reduce a person’s respiration and heartbeat, prevent automatic bodily responses such as gags
or coughs, and relax the smooth muscles of a person’s gastrointestinal tract.95
Due to its addictive nature, opium dependency can occur, and many opium users find themselves
experiencing withdrawal symptoms. Chronic opium users can eventually develop an opiate
tolerance, which means that larger doses are be required to achieve the same euphoric effect.
However, these larger doses then further increase the amount of opiate which must be consumed,
leading to a vicious positive feedback loop or increasing drug abuse. The habitual use of opium
produces a dependency which can lead to overdose fatality.96
Harvesting and Processing of Opium
Since the opium poppy plant is an annual plant, it can only bear a flower once.97 On average, opium
growth and cultivation occurs over a span of 120 days. To harvest opium, an incision into the plant,
allowing the opium to ooze out and coagulate on the surface of the pod.98 In the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, China, India, Persia, and the Eastern Mediterranean were all centers of
opium production. At this time, opium grown in China was mainly cultivated for domestic
consumption, while raw opium from the other production centers became a worldwide export.99 Due
to the decrease in demand of opium, the government began taking control of raw opium processing
in some colonies. For instance, the Dutch built an opium factory in the Netherlands East Indies,
known today as Indonesia. Similarly, the British started their own factories in Neemuch and
Ghazipur, India.100
Opium Production in Afghanistan
95 Ibid. 96 Ibid. 97 Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia , U.S. Department of Justice, Sept. 1992, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/141189NCJRS.pdf. 98 Ibid. 99 Chandra, Siddharth. “Economic Histories of the Opium Trade.” EHnet, eh.net/encyclopedia/economic-histories-of-the-opium-trade/. 100 Ibid.
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There are three main opium-producing countries: Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Latin America. Since
2001, Afghanistan has been the world’s leading illicit opium producer, producing more than 90% of
illicit heroin globally.101 The surge in opium production in Afghanistan occurred in the mid-20th
century in order to meet the demands of Iran after poppy cultivation was banned there.
Figure 1: Main Global Trafficking Flows of Opiates.102
Out of 177 countries, Afghanistan is ranked number 173 by the United Nations Development
Program (UNDP), according to the human development index.103 Development indicators included
nutrition, infant mortality, life expectancy, and literacy, in which Afghanistan are all amongst the
worst in the world.104 A shift from wheat farming to opium production has allowed farmers in
Afghanistan to make a sufficient income, despite the fact that opium may be a more dangerous
product to produce and distribute.
The global opium trade unites some of the worst factors in the world. This trade generates
tremendous potential for transnational crime and terrorism. The product being conveyed is
responsible for a bevy of deaths every year across the world. The global addictive liability of opium
usage only grows year after year as more users become addicts. Opium trafficking represents exactly
the variety of special political crisis that SPECPOL is charged with addressing. It is a tremendously
101 “The Global Heroin Market.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/1.2_The_global_heroin_market.pdf. 102 Ibid.
103 Afghanistan Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments. Vol. 1, International Business Publications, 2013. 104 Ibid.
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pressing issue, but the full member body of the United Nations operating together will prove capable
of solving it.
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History of the Problem
Ancient Use
Although no one knows exactly when opium was discovered by the human race, the Mediterranean
region does contain the earliest archeological evidence of human use. Opium was discovered at a
Neolithic burial site near Barcelona, where it appears to have been used for its narcotic effects, as
well for its food and ritual purposes.105 Cultivation of the poppy originated in Sumerian regions, but
eventually spread to the Middle East by the Assyrians.106 Opium production continued through the
Babylonians and the Egyptians. Through trade in the Mediterranean Sea, the ancient Greeks
eventually learned about the poppy, who held the plant sacred. A figure was recovered from the
Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, wearing a crown of three opium poppies, meaning the Greeks ascribed
significant religious meaning to the plant.107 108
The Islamic Empire
While some Muslims believed that certain hadiths banned consuming intoxicating substances, most
scholars agreed that intoxicants for medicinal purposes should be permitted. Thus, opium came to
be used in the Islamic world. A famous Muslim physician, Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi,
recommended the use of opium in anesthesia. Specifically, he recommended opium in his work “in
the absence of a physician,” a home medical manual for self-treatment when a doctor was not
available.109 He may have been the first physician to use opium as a general anesthetic. In addition,
the Persian physician labeled opium as the most powerful stupefacient in The Canon of Medicine. This
105 Peakman, Julie. “A History of Opium.” History Today, Oct. 2018, www.historytoday.com/reviews/history-opium. 106 Krikorian, Abraham D. “Were the Opium Poppy and Opium Known in the Ancient Near East?” State University of New York at Stony Brook, link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF00129597.pdf. 107 Kritikos, P. G., and S. P. Papadaki. “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” UNODC, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1967-01-01_3_page004.html. 108 Tsoucalas, Gregory & Markatos, Kostas & Korres, Dimitrios & Karamanou, Marianna. (2018).
Diagoras of Cyprus (3rd century BC) – An eminent oculist and opposer to the use of opium. Archives of the Balkan
Medical Union. 53. 179-183. 10.31688/ABMU.2018.53.3.22.
109 “Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi (841 - 926).” The Jewish Virtual Library, www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/abu-bakr-muhammad-ibn-zakariya-al-razi.
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text not only describes the medicinal effects of opium, including analgesia, hypnosis, and respiratory
depression, but also as its potential as a poison.110
Opium in China
Arab traders on the Silk Road first introduced opium in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907).111
Later during the Song (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) Dynasties, medical practitioners started
using opium as a means of controlling bodily fluids and preserving the qi, or vital force.112 In 1589,
opium became a taxable commodity, remaining legal until the end of the Ming Dynasty in 1637.
Until the 17th century, opium was quite limited in quantity and was generally reserved for medical use
to relieve tension. Importation would soon force a dramatic change, and by 1729, opium addiction
became so rampant that the Yongzheng emperor (1722-1735) placed an interdict on the usage of
opium.113 Despite this prohibition, the opium trade continued, forcing the Jiaqing emperor to
eventually outlaw opium importation and cultivation in 1796.114 The attempt at banishing opium
importation, however, was not successful and trade only expanded.
In the 18th century, the Portuguese made a considerable profit by importing opium from India while
simultaneously selling it to China. By 1773, the British followed in the Portuguese’s footsteps when
the British East India Company (EIC) won the Battle of Buxar against the Mughal Empire of India in
1764. The British EIC then established a monopoly on opium cultivation in Bengal, developing opium
poppies cheaply and abundantly. The British eventually became the leading suppliers of the Chinese
market. In order to facilitate this trade, the East India Company provided opium to private traders
who could swiftly enter the Chinese market and gain gold and silver, which was then turned over to
the EIC.115 Before this increase of opium imports into China, there was a trade imbalance due to the
110 Heydari, M; Hashempur, M. H.; Zargaran, A (2013). "Medicinal aspects of opium as described in Avicenna's Canon of Medicine". Acta Medico-historica Adriatica. 11 (1): 101–12. 111 Li, Xiaobing; Fang, Qiang (2013). Modern Chinese Legal Reform: New Perspectives. Asia in the new millennium. University Press of Kentucky. 112 Zheng, Yangwen (2005). The Social Life of Opium in China. Cambridge University Press. 113 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Opium Trade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 3 Jan. 2018, www.britannica.com/topic/opium-trade. 114 Ibid. 115 Ibid.
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demand for Chinese goods (silk, porcelain, and tea) in Europe.116 The influx of narcotics by the EIC
reversed this trade imbalance between the Qing Empire and Great Britain.
In 1729, approximately 200 chests of opium were imported into China.117 By 1767, up to 1,000 chests
were imported. Eventually, between 1820-1830, opium imports reached 10,000 chests per year. By
1838, 40,000 chests were imported into China annually and for the first time, the balance of
payments ran in favor of Britain rather than China.118 The increase in opium imports into China led to
a rampant addiction, causing a widespread social and economic disruption. Over 20,000 chests of
opium that were warehoused in Guangzhou by British merchants ended up being confiscated.119
The First Opium War arose in response to China suppressing the opium trade. The British
government demanded compensation for the opium destroyed by Commissioner Lin during the
Guangzhou raid and responded to Lin’s confiscation by dispatching a military force to China and
using gunboat diplomacy to inflict a series of humiliating defeats over the Chinese Empire through
naval power. Subsequent successful British campaigns eventually led to the capture of Nanking in
1842, ending the fighting between the British and Chinese forces. The Qing Dynasty was then forced
to sign the Treaty of Nanking – the first of the unequal treaties – which granted the opening of five
treaty ports to Britain and ceded Hong Kong to the British Empire.120
116 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. “Opium.” Edited by Kara Rogers, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/science/opium. 117 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Opium Trade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 3 Jan. 2018, www.britannica.com/topic/opium-trade. 118 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. “Opium Trade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/opium-trade. 119 Hayford, Charles W. “Lin Zexu.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 26 Aug. 2019, www.britannica.com/biography/Lin-Zexu. 120 Pletcher, Kenneth. “Opium Wars.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Feb. 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars#ref326269.
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Figure 2: The East India Company steamship Nemesis (right background) destroying Chinese war
junks during the Second Battle of Chuenpi, 7 January 1841.121
Amidst Taiping Rebellion in the mid-1850s, the British sought to extend their trading rights in China.
In 1856, Chinese officials boarded a ship belonging to the British in Guangzhou.122 These officials
were arrested for allegedly lowering the British flag. In response, a British warship set sail to
bombarded Canton, renewing hostilities. Trading between the Chinese and British ceased and a
stalemate ensued. Matters quickly escalated and Second Opium War begun, also known as the
“Arrow War”.123 The British, allied with the French, quickly captured Canton and Tientsin, forcing the
Chinese to sign treaties of Tientsin in 1858.124 This treaty opened even more new ports for the
Western powers. The defeat in the aftermath of the Opium Wars led to an entire collection of the
“Unequal Treaties”, contributing to a “Century of Humiliation” for China.125
Modern-day Issues with Opium
121 Duncan, Edward. Destroying Chinese War Junks. London, 1843. 122 Pletcher, Kenneth. “Opium Wars.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Feb. 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars#ref326269. 123 Ibid. 124 “The Treaties of Tianjin.” History Today, www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/treaties-tianjin. 125 Schiavenza, Matt. “How Humiliation Drove Modern Chinese History.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 16 Feb. 2017, www.theatlantic.com/china/archive/2013/10/how-humiliation-drove-modern-chinese-history/280878/.
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In 1980, approximately 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses of opium.126 By 2006,
worldwide production of opium dropped to 6,610 metric tons, which is about one-fifth of the level of
production in 1906.127 The UNODC reported that the production of opium rose by 65 percent from
2016 to 2017 to 10,500 tons, a record level.128 In recent years, opioid crisis has become a major threat
to public health with opioids accounting for 76 percent of deaths where drug use disorders were
implicated. 63,632 people died in 2016 due to a drug overdose in the U.S., a 21 percent increase since
2015.129
126 “The Global Heroin Market.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/1.2_The_global_heroin_market.pdf. 127 Ibid. 128 “Global Opium and Cocaine Production at Record Highs, UN Report Says.” France 24, 27 June 2018, www.france24.com/en/20180627-global-opium-cocaine-production-record-highs-un-report-says. 129 “Opioid Overdose Crisis”. National Institute on Drug Abuse. January 2019. https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/opioids/opioid-overdose-crisis
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Past Actions
Introduction
Despite the fact that opium has long been the basic raw material for the world’s narcotic drug
industry, its production has never been directly controlled or even limited by an international treaty.
In order to curtail the excessive production of opium, the International Opium Convention, the first
international drug control treaty, was signed at the Hague in 1912 during the First International
Opium Conference through the League of Nations.130 This treaty attempted to establish control
regimes for the manufacturing of opium and its movement in international commerce. This treaty
merely attempted to impose restrictions on the export of opium rather than prohibiting the drug
itself or even criminalizing it. Furthermore, member states were unable to agree on what should
constitute a legitimate production level, as some nations believed that traditional or indigenous uses
of opium should not be regarded as legitimate for the purposed of calculating production.
The Commission on Narcotic Drugs
In order to eliminate the persistent problems associated with the trafficking and addiction liability of
narcotic drugs, the United Nations (previously the League of Nations) entrusted the Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC) to establish the Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND).131 This commission
was created in 1946 and the principal problem of the Commission has been to counter the
overproduction of opium. The CND has achieved two major milestones in with respect to the world
drug problem: The Political Declaration of 1998 and the Political Declaration of 2009.132 Both
declarations aimed to enhance international cooperation in countering narcotic drug use and
trafficking by reducing the supply and demand for illicit drugs. The Declaration of 1998 requested
Member States to report their efforts in meeting relevant goals and targets in combating the world
drug problem to the Commission.133 Then, the Political Declaration and Plan of Action on
130 Gregg, Robert W. “The United Nations and the Opium Problem.” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 1, 1964, pp. 96–115. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/756095. 131 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” The Commission on Narcotic Drugs, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/index.html. 132 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Political Declarations on the World Drug Problem, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/Political_Declarations/Political-Declarations_Index.html. 133 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Political Declaration 1998, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/Political_Declarations/Political-Declarations_1998-Declaration.html.
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International Cooperation towards and Integrated and Balanced Strategy to Counter the World Drug
Problem was adopted by the General Assembly in 2009.134 The purpose of this declaration was to
enhance international cooperation and identify areas requiring further action in countering the world
drug problem. This declaration also required Member States to report biennially to the CND on their
efforts in fully implementing these goals. Besides adopting policy documents, the CND also meets
annually to consider budgetary and administrative matters, as well as forming new ideas and
resolutions in tackling narcotic drugs.
The Ad Hoc Committee: The Interim Agreement and the International Monopoly
After the establishment of the CND, the United States proposed the adoption of a unified
convention on narcotic drugs. Under this new convention, the production of opium for scientific and
medical purposes would be limited.135 China suggested an interim agreement between Member
States that actually produced and manufactured narcotic drugs. The Commission thus endorsed the
establishment of an ad hoc committee consisting of opium-producing states with the purposed of
drafting a plan for limiting the production and allocation of narcotic drugs.136 Representative from
India, Iran, Turkey, and Yugoslavia met in Ankara, Turkey in 1949 and agreed to freeze their
respective shares of the opium trade and establish machinery for distributing opium on the world
market.137
The Interim Agreement that emerged called for a limitation in the production of opium by assigning
opium-producing states a shared responsibility in manufacturing a specified percentage respective
to each country.138 The major achievement of this conference was the establishment of quotas.
Besides setting a quota, the ad hoc committee also agreed on establishing an international
monopoly with the purpose of acting as an international control authority to buy and sell opium.139
134 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Political Declaration 2009, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/commissions/CND/Political_Declarations/Political-Declarations_2009-Declaration.html. 135 Gregg, Robert W. “The United Nations and the Opium Problem.” The International and
Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 1, 1964, pp. 96–115. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/756095.
136 Ibid. 137 Ibid. 138 Ibid. 139 Ibid.
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Transactions outside of the monopoly would be considered automatically illicit. An advantage of the
international monopoly was that the price and supply of opium would no longer be dependent upon
uncertain factors, such as weather or shifting international relations.
The international monopoly unfortunately was never established due to the problems with
establishing a fixed price. The international monopoly would have to set a fixed price formula that
was acceptable to both the producing and importing states.140 This fixed price formula was never
found due to the fact that producing states wanted a high price for opium to deter farmers from
selling opium in the illicit market. On the other hand, importing states clearly wanted to purchase
opium at a low cost in order to manufacture drugs at a competitive price. Due to this reason, the
establishment of a monopoly system was unfeasible.
The Opium Protocol
Still determined to reach limited opium production, the CND’s new goal was to limit global
production but allow free trade simultaneously. In 1953 the Commission proposed that the
production of opium should be limited by indirectly setting a country-specific maximum size of
opium stocks.
At the UN Opium Conference in 1953, a treaty was drafted with special consideration of stock level
as a control factor. The Opium Protocol had eight major points:141
1. “The use of opium as well as its import and export should be limited to medical and scientific
needs. It is important to note that the protocol did not limit the production of opium to
medical and scientific needs, only its use”.142
140 Ibid.
141 Gregg, Robert W. “The United Nations and the Opium Problem.” The International and
Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 1, 1964, pp. 96–115. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/756095.
142 Ibid.
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2. “Estimates of areas to be cultivated, the anticipated yield, and the amounts to be exported
should be reported annually to the Permanent Central Opium board”. 143
3. “Opium stocks of a country should be limited depending on the category of each State with
opium-producing countries hold the largest stocks of opium”.144
4. “Statistical returns should be used to reveal the scope of opium cultivation and the amount of
opium used for manufacturing and consumption, as well as the amount seized for illicit
purposes”.145
5. “National agencies should be created in each opium-producing country in order to license
cultivators, specify areas to be cultivated, and determine the total amount of opium”.146
6. “Import certificates and export authorizations should be required in any opium
transaction”.147
7. A quasi-monopoly of opium-producing states should be established”.148
8. “The Permanent Opium Board has the authority to take corrective action against countries
not complying with the provisions of the Protocol or tending to become illicit sources
themselves”.149
Despite some imperfections, the Opium Protocol established for the first time the principle of opium
supply limitation.
The Single Convention of 1961
143 Ibid.
144 Ibid.
145 Ibid.
146 Ibid.
147 Ibid.
148 Ibid.
149 Ibid.
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The Opium Protocol was the greatest contribution in limiting opium production and it eventually
shaped the adoption of the Single Convention. The United Nations 1961 Single Convention
expanded existing control measures by including all plants that lead to the production of narcotics.
Traditional producer countries like those in Asia, Latin America and Africa were impacted severely
due to widespread use cultivation of the opium poppy, the coca leaf, and the cannabis within these
countries. The Single Convention created four lists of controlled substances and are classified
according to their respective degrees of control:
“Schedule I contains the substances considered the most addictive and harmful. Schedule IV
contains a small number of substances with ‘particularly dangerous properties’ and with little
or no therapeutic usefulness. With regard to Schedule IV narcotics in particular, Article 2, 5 (b)
of the Convention says that “A Party shall, if in its opinion the prevailing conditions in its
country render it the most appropriate means of protecting the public health and welfare,
prohibit the production, manufacture, export and import of, trade in, possession or use of any
such drug except for the amounts which may be necessary for medical and scientific research
only…’”.150
UNODC World Drug Report: Afghanistan
In the UNODC’s annual world drug report, global production of opium in Afghanistan hit a record
high. According to the report, the global production of opium increased by 65 percent from 2016 to
2017 with a total of 10,500 tons – the highest estimate recorded by the UNODC since it started
monitoring global opium production at the start of the 21st century.151 Afghanistan accounts for
9,000 of the 10,500 tons produced annually.152 The possible drivers of this sudden increase include
political instability and reduced economic opportunities.153 Due to Afghanistan’s increase in opium
150 Armenta, Amira, and Martin Jelsma. “The UN Drug Control Conventions.” Edited by Nick
Buxton, TNI, 8 Oct. 2015, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/single-convention.html.
151 “United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.” Afghan Opium Report, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/afghan-opium-report.html 152 Ibid.
153 Ibid.
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production, the UNODC has urged NATO to take a more active role in countering opium production
by supporting Afghan forces in destroying drug labs, markets, convoys.
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Possible Solutions
Introduction
Historically, the UN has focused on supply-side measures in countering opium growth and use,
including targeting opium crops and drugs in transit; however, as drug trafficking complexity
increases, nations must modernize their anti-drug policy in order to battle the situation at hand. This
includes initiatives to reduce the demand for opium, which could be at least as successful as the
supply-side initiatives.
Tackling Drug Trafficking at the Maritime Level: An Underrated Problem
Based on seizure and consumption data, the annual flow of the opium market is nearly 45o tons.154
Myanmar and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic produce 50 tons of that total, while the rest is
produced exclusively by Afghanistan.155 The Balkan and northern routes enable Afghanistan to
traffic to the robust markets of the Russian Federation and Western Europe.156
In response maritime trafficking, various anti-trafficking strategies have been established, including
the EU’s Maritime Analysis Operations Centre-Narcotics (MAOC-N).157 Suggestions for tackling
maritime drug trafficking can build upon the EU’s MAOC-N and incorporate a similar counter-drug
organization at the international level. Besides creating counter-drug organizations, developing
intelligence networks to target elements of the drug trade may prove useful.
Improving the Communications System
In order to tackle opium trafficking at a global level, counter-drug operations need to be
monitored through the use of a secure database and communications system. Currently, INTERPOL
154 United Nations. “GLOBAL MARITIME CRIME PROGRAMME ANNUAL REPORT 2018.” UNODC, 2019, www.unodc.org/documents/Maritime_crime/20190131_-_GMCP_Annual_Report_2018.pdf. 155 Ibid.
156 Ibid.
157 “Maritime Analysis and Operations Centre - Narcotics (MAOC-N).” EPSA, 2015, www.epsa-projects.eu/index.php/Maritime_Analysis_and_Operations_Centre_-_Narcotics_(MAOC-N).
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has created a system known as I-24/7, which can issue within minutes drug alerts and time sensitive
information (including photos) related to traffickers and new trafficking schemes.158 Besides their I-
24/7 communication system, INTERPOL has also established the Global Security Initiative (GSI) in
2008 in order to create lasting partnerships between law enforcement agencies and information
technology (IT) companies.159 These technological innovations are just a couple of examples that
help increase communication between member states on this increasingly transnational trade.
When developing solutions, consider how solutions like these can help monitor the trade globally as
well as regionally.
Unintended Consequences of Drug Trafficking
As you draft your solutions and eventually your resolutions, you must consider the possible
unintended socio-economic consequences of opium trafficking and trade in your country and at the
international level. Some social implications of opium abuse include effects of the family and the
community, health, education, crime, and work and employment. You should consider these factors
when coming up with possible solutions. Some solutions to combat the unintended consequence of
opium trafficking on a social level are to help individuals who are currently addicted or developing an
addiction to opium through treatment, counseling, hotlines, etc.
Questions to Consider
1. To what extent should member states pursue a trans-national strategy in combatting
problems caused by drug trafficking?
2. How can the international supply of drugs be reduced?
3. How can the international demand for drugs be reduced?
158 “Databases.” INTERPOL, www.interpol.int/en/How-we-work/Databases. 159 “INTERPOL Initiative with Microsoft Aims to Raise Global Standards against Cybercrime through Strategic Partnership with IT Sector.” INTERPOL, www.interpol.int/en/News-and-Events/News/2009/INTERPOL-initiative-with-Microsoft-aims-to-raise-global-standards-against-cybercrime-through-strategic-partnership-with-IT-sector.
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4. What can be done to counter negative effects of the War on Drugs on healthcare, the
environment, and vulnerable communities?
5. How can member states cooperate to battle illegal trans-national organizations that deal in
the production, trafficking, and distribution of drugs?
6. Are there currently any laws or regulations in place in your country concerning the illegal drug
trade?
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Bloc Positions
The opioid crisis has affected many countries around the world in numerous ways. As such, countries
may have different approaches or bloc positions on how to solve the opioid crisis. The most evident
bloc positions are countries that fall under the category of opioid producers and those that fall under
opioid consumers. While these bloc positions are not set in stone, they provide guidance for
collaboration amongst delegates in addressing this issue.
The Opioid Producers
Some countries are heavily involved in this issue and are major producers of opioids around
the world. These countries include Afghanistan, Burma, and Colombia.160 Countries that fall under
this bloc are responsible for most of the illegal production of opioids and are generally against efforts
attempting to combat the flow of opioids around the world. For instance, most of the heroin that is
produced in poppy farms in Mexico is trafficked through the United States. Thus, the drug cartels in
Mexico would oppose stricter border regulations, as it would disrupt its entire operation and flow of
funds. Furthermore, although the Mexican government has made previous efforts to combat opium
trade and trafficking, the government has received much retaliation from the drug cartel, sometimes
leading to political unrest.161
The Opioid Consumers
Once opioid has been produced from the poppy farms in opioid-producing nations, there are many
countries that buy and consumer these opioid drugs, including but not limited to the United States,
Germany, Canada, Austria, and China. These countries face a crisis of opioid overuse and may feel a
sense of urgency when it comes to solving the opioid crisis than countries where the rates of
addiction and consumption are much lower. Most of these countries have already launched
160 “Cannabis, Coca, & Poppy: Nature's Addictive Plants.” DEA Museum, www.deamuseum.org/ccp/opium/production-distribution.html. 161 “The Destabilizing Influence of Drug Trafficking on Transit Countries: The Case of Cocaine.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/3.0_Destabilizing_influence_of_drug_trafficking_Case_of_cocaine.pdf.
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initiatives, such as stricter border restrictions, but the rates of opioid addiction and overdose
continue to increase, calling the need for more consequential solutions.162
Another important aspect of opioid trade and trafficking are citizens’ rights to healthcare. Some
countries have relatively easy access to healthcare while others struggle in getting proper care.
Countries with a strong healthcare system allow for greater exposure to prescribed opioid drugs
making drug access somewhat normalized; however, in other countries such as Nigeria or Sierra
Leone, many citizens might obtain opioid through illegal drug trafficking.163 Therefore, the
approaches in combatting the opioid crisis could differ depending on a country’s specific healthcare
policy.
162 “The Global Heroin Market.” UNODC, 2010, www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2010/1.2_The_global_heroin_market.pdf. 163 Kasarla, Madhukar. “The Opioid Epidemic and Its Impact on the Health Care System.” The Hospitalist, 14 Sept. 2018, www.the-hospitalist.org/hospitalist/article/149858/mental-health/opioid-epidemic-and-its-impact-health-care-system.
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Glossary
Drug trafficking: The transportation of drugs or drug-related products from the site of production
towards consumers, often broken up into many distinct legs of transit
Opiate: A naturally occurring narcotic substance, often derived from the same poppy plant as opium
Opioid: A narcotic substance distinct from an opiate, because it is artificial. An opioid may be
produced by a chemical process from an opiate.
Opium: A naturally occurring narcotic substance found in the sap of the poppy plant prized for its
euphoric effects, which has been one of the most prominent drugs used throughout history.
Narcotic: Any drug which primarily serves to alter the mood of a person instead of providing some
other medical effect
Psychoactive substance: Any substance which alters the mental state of a person who consumes it
Quota: Some limit imposed by a government which sets either the maximum or minimum amount
of some product which can be imported, exported, or otherwise produced.
Special Political and Decolonization Committee | MUNUC 32 55
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