multiple discrimination: how law can re ect reality · the equal rights review, vol. one (2008) %%

The Equal Rights Review, Vol. One (2008)

24

1. Introduction

\(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% ,/% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%)-),;/.%6;$%Q$0/6;%6;%.#$%S)/,/%6c%460$%.#);%6;$%-06(;<D%Y%S*)Pd%<,/)S*$<%O64);%4)R2%c60%,;/.);P$2% $MQ$0,$;P$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% 6;% .#$%-06(;</% 6c% #$0% <,/)S,*,.R2% #$0% 0)P$% );<% #$0%-$;<$0D% T6;/,<$0).,6;% 6c% .#,/% Q#$;64$;6;%);<% ,./% ,4Q*,P).,6;/% c60% $'()*,.R% *$-,/*).,6;%,/% )% ;$P$//)0R% P606**)0R% 6c% 0$P6-;,.,6;% .#).%,;<,7,<()*/%#)7$%4(*.,Q*$% ,<$;.,.,$/D%T*$)0*R2%Q$6Q*$% )0$% 4(*.,b<,4$;/,6;)*% );<% /6% P);b;6.% S$% P*)//,_,$<% )PP60<,;-% .62% 60% <$_,;$<%SR2% )% /,;-*$% P#)0)P.$0,/.,PD% &)P#% 6c% (/% #)/% )%-$;<$02% /$M()*,.R2% )-$2% $.#;,P,.R2% $.PD% );<% ;6%/,;-*$% )/Q$P.% 6c% 6(0% ,<$;.,.R% ,/% ;$P$//)0,*R%460$%,4Q60.);.%.#);%)**%.#$%6.#$0/D%Y;R%6;$%6c%);%,;<,7,<()*^/%)..0,S(.$/2%60%);R%P64S,;)b.,6;%6c%.#$42%4)R2%.#$0$c60$2%c604%.#$%S)/,/%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%V;%/Q,.$%6c%.#,/%.0(,/42%4);R%46<$*/%6c%);.,b<,/P0,4,;).,6;%*)O%<$)*%O,.#%$)P#% -06(;<% 6c% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% /$Q)0).$*RD%"#$% *)O% .#(/% P6;P$,7$/% 6c% Q6.$;.,)*% P*),4b);./%)/% .#$%S$)0$0/%6c% /,;-*$% P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/%);<%)//(4$/%.#).%<,/P0,4,;).60/%)0$%/,4Q*$%P0$).(0$/%O#6%O,**%6;*R%S)/$%.#$,0%<,/P0,4,b;).,6;%6;%6;$%-06(;<%).% )% .,4$D% 9(0.#$02% ,;%0$P6-;,/,;-%6;*R%)%/,;-*$%)/Q$P.%6c%)%Q$0/6;^/%,<$;.,.R2% .#$% *)O% c),*/% .6%0$_*$P.% .#$% c)P.% .#).%Q$6Q*$%/#)0,;-%6;$%Q06.$P.$<%/.).(/%4)R%<,cbc$0%,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%.#$,0%6.#$0%P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/D%V.%6Q$0).$/%6;%.#$%Q0$4,/$%.#).%)**%Q$6Q*$%O,.#b,;%)%Q06.$P.$<%-06(Q%)0$%.#$%/)4$D%

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Multiple Discrimination: How Law can Re ect Reality

)<$'().$% Q06.$P.,6;% .6% ,;<,7,<()*% 7,P.,4/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%a$P6;<*R2% ,;% c),*b,;-%.6%)PP6446<).$%.#$%0$)*,.R%6c%)%Q$0/6;^/%,<$;.,.R2% /(P#% $'()*,.R% 0$-,4$/% ,;<,P).$% .6%.#$% ,;<,7,<()*% .#).% #$0% ,<$;.,.R% ,/% ;6.% 7)*b($<%SR%/6P,$.RD%"#,/%,/%P*$)0*R%)%P6;/$'($;P$%O#,P#%/#6(*<%S$%)76,<$<2%,c%,.%,/%)PP$Q.$<%.#).%$'()*,.R% *)O% ,/% ,;.$;<$<% .6% Q06.$P.% #(4);%<,-;,.RD% "#,0<*R2% ,.% #)/% $;-$;<$0$<% );% 67$0b/,4Q*,_,$<2%/,;-*$b-06(;<%);)*R/,/%6c%<,/P0,4b,;).,6;% )46;-% Q6*,PR% 4)d$0/D% Y/% )% 0$/(*.2%Q6*,P,$/% ,;.$;<$<% .6% .)Pd*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%c),*%.6%P6;P$,7$%6c%.#$%.RQ$/%6c%<,/)<7);.)-$%O#,P#% )0,/$% 6(.% 6c% 4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;D%9,;)**R2% .#$% /,;-*$b-06(;<% c6P(/% 6c% .#$% *)O%#)/%S$$;%4,0060$<%,;%P,7,*%/6P,$.RD%"#$%*)Pd%6c%*$-)*%Q06.$P.,6;%#)/% .#$0$c60$% *$<% ,;<,0$P.*R%.6%)%<$)0.#%6c%460)*%);<%Q0)P.,P)*%/(QQ60.%c60%7,P.,4/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D

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"#$%/$P6;<%Q)0.%6c%.#,/%)0.,P*$%O,**%6(.*,;$%.#$%<,[%$0$;.%O)R/% ,;%O#,P#%)%Q$0/6;^/%4(*.,Q*$%P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/%P);%,;.$0)P.%.6%c604%.#$%S)/,/%

Paola Uccellari1


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6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%);<%O,**%$M)4,;$%O#$.#$0%/,;-*$b-06(;<% *$-,/*).,6;% P);% Q067,<$% 0$b<0$//%c60%/(P#%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%X)0.%.#0$$%O,**%$MQ*60$%.#$%4,/4).P#%S$.O$$;%.#$%*)O^/%)QbQ06)P#%);<%.#$%0$)*,.R%6c%#(4);%$MQ$0,$;P$%);<%,./%,4Q*,P).,6;/%c60%#(4);%<,-;,.RD%"#,/%)0.,P*$% O,**% .#$;% /#6O% .#).% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%$MQ$0,$;P$<%6;% .#$%S)/,/%6c%460$% .#);%6;$%-06(;<%P);%S$%S6.#%'()*,.).,7$*R%);<%'();b.,.).,7$*R%<,[%$0$;.%c064%.#$%/(4%6c%<,/P0,4,b;).,6;% 6;% $)P#% 6c% .#6/$% -06(;</D% "#,/%O,**%/$07$% .6% /(QQ60.% .#$%O0,.$0^/% P$;.0)*% )0-(b4$;.2%O#,P#%,/%.#).%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%<$4);</% )% /Q$P,_,P% 0$/Q6;/$% c064% .#$% *)O2%;6.%6;*R%.6%,4Q067$%)PP$//%.6%j(/.,P$%c60%,;<,b7,<()*/2%S(.%/6%.#).%Q6*,PR%4)d$0/%GQ)0.%c6(0H%);<%P,7,*%/6P,$.R%GQ)0.%_,7$H%)0$%4)<$%)O)0$%6c%);<%$'(,QQ$<%.6%.)Pd*$%.#$%/Q$P,_,P%,4Q*,bP).,6;/%6c%.#$%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%$MQ$b0,$;P$D%X)0.%/,M%O,**%Q0$/$;.%)0-(4$;./%O#,P#%/(--$/.%.#).%/.).$/%)0$%6S*,-$<%.6%.)Pd*$%4(*b.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% SR% ,;.$0;).,6;)*% *)OD%9,;)**R2% );% 67$07,$O% 6c% .#$% c$).(0$/% 6c% .#$%A0,.,/#% *$-,/*).,7$% c0)4$O60d%O#,P#% 0$;<$0%,.% (;_,.% .6% )<<0$//% 4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%GQ)0.%/$7$;H%O,**%Q0$P$<$%)%<$.),*$<%);)*R/,/%6c%#6O%*$-,/*).,6;%4,-#.%S$/.%S$%<$/,-;$<%.6%<6%/6%GQ)0.%$,-#.HD%

2. Practicalities: Multiple discrimi-nation and Claims under Single-Ground Legislation

Types of Multiple Discrimination

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V;.$0/$P.,6;)*% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% ,/% .#$% .$04%O,<$*R%(/$<%.6%<$/P0,S$%/,.().,6;/%,;%O#,P#%.O6% 60% 460$% -06(;</% 6Q$0).$% ,;$M.0,P)S*R%)/% .#$% S)/,/% 6c% <,/P0,4,;).,6;2% /(P#% )/2% c60%$M)4Q*$2% O#$0$% S*)Pd% O64$;% )0$% 0$c(/$<%Q0646.,6;%,;%);%60-);,/).,6;%,;%O#,P#%O#,.$%O64$;%);<%S*)Pd%4$;%)0$%Q0646.$<D%=#,*$%.#$%Q6//$//,6;%6c%$,.#$0%)..0,S(.$%)*6;$%G.#).%,/2%.#$%<,/)<7);.)-$<%-$;<$0%60%0)P$H%O6(*<%;6.%#)7$% *$<% .6% .#$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2% ,.% ,/% .#$%P64S,;).,6;%6c%0)P$%);<%-$;<$0%O#,P#%c604%.#$% -06(;</% 6c% .#$% *$//% c)76(0)S*$% .0$).b4$;.D%Y%7,P.,4%O,**%;6.%S$%)S*$%.6%/#6O%.#).2%S(.% c60%#$0% 0)P$%60%-$;<$02% /#$%O6(*<%#)7$%S$$;%.0$).$<%<,[%$0$;.*RD%V;%*$-)*%Q06P$$<,;-/%.#$% -06(;</%4(/.2% .#$0$c60$2% S$% <$)*.%O,.#%.6-$.#$0D% a,;P$% ,.% ,/% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% <,/P0,4,b


26

;).,6;% O#,P#% 0$'(,0$/% /Q$P,_,P% .0$).4$;.%(;<$0% .#$% *)O2% .#$% 0$4),;<$0%6c% .#,/%)0.,P*$%O,**%c6P(/%*)0-$*R%6;%.#,/%c)P$.%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;D

Claims under Single-Ground Legislation

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W$/Q,.$%.#$%<$_,P,$;P,$/%6c%.#$%P(00$;.%A0,.b,/#% *$-,/*).,6;% ,;% .#,/% 0$/Q$P.2% .#$% -67$0;b4$;.%#)/%/.).$<%,;%,./%0$c604%Q06Q6/)*/%.#).%,.% <6$/% ;6.% #)7$% $7,<$;P$% .#).% Q$6Q*$% )0$%*6/,;-%60%c),*,;-%.6%S0,;-%P)/$/%,;%0$*).,6;%.6%4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% );<% #)/% ,;<,P).$<%.#).%.#,/%,/%)%4)..$0%*)0-$*R%6c%)P)<$4,P%,;b.$0$/.D9%%@$M.%.#$;2%O$%O,**%P6;/,<$0%O#R%o)Pb


27

)<$4,P% P644$;.).60/p% )0$% P6;P$0;$<% .#).%4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% /#6(*<% S$% Q06Q$0*R%)<<0$//$<%SR%);.,b<,/P0,4,;).,6;%*)OD

3. Conceptual Problems: Multiple Discrimination and Human Dignity

"#$% Z6,;.% &'()*,.R% );<% 3(4);% +,-#./% 96b0(42%);%60-);,/).,6;%O#,P#%0$Q0$/$;./% .#$%#(4);% 0,-#./% );<% $'()*,.R% S6<,$/% 6c% A0,.b),;2%V0$*);<%);<%@60.#$0;%V0$*);<2%P644,/b/,6;$<%)%/.(<R2%o+$.#,;d,;-%V<$;.,.Rp2%.6%$MbQ*60$%.#$%,4Q*,P).,6;/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%,<$;.,.RD10%%];$%6c%,./%46/.%,4Q60.);.%P6;P*(/,6;/%,/%.#).%,<$;.,.R% ,/% ,4Q60.);.% .6% oQ$6Q*$^/% Q6/,.,7$%/$;/$%6c%/$*cpD11% %+$/Q$P.%c60%Q$6Q*$^/%/$;/$%6c% .#$,0% 6O;% ,<$;.,.R% ,/2% .#$0$c60$2% ,;.$-0)*%.6%0$/Q$P.%c60%.#$,0%<,-;,.RD%

];$%6c%.#$%),4/%6c%$'()*,.R%*$-,/*).,6;%,/%.6%Q06.$P.% #(4);% <,-;,.RD12% % Vc2% #6O$7$02% <,/bP0,4,;).,6;% *)O% ,4Q6/$/% ,./%6O;%;6.,6;%6c%,<$;.,.R% 6;% ,;<,7,<()*/2% ,.% O,**% (;<$04,;$%.#$% 7$0R% 7)*($/% ,.% ,/% ,;.$;<$<% .6% (Q#6*<D%"#$0$%)0$%.O6%O)R/%,;%O#,P#%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%*)O%P);%<6%/6D%9,0/.*R2%,.%0$'(,0$/%)%7,P.,4%.6%Q*)P$%#$0/$*c2% ,;%#$0%*$-)*%Q*$)<,;-/2%O,.#,;%)% P).$-60R% GS*)PdlY/,);lO64);l4);HD% Vc%.#$% )7),*)S*$% P).$-60,$/% <6% ;6.% 0$_*$P.% .#$%P*),4);.^/% Q$0P$Q.,6;% 6c% #$0% ,<$;.,.R2% /#$%O,**%S$%0$'(,0$<%.6%<$/P0,S$%#$0/$*c%,;%.$04/%O,.#%O#,P#%/#$%<6$/%;6.%,<$;.,cRD%"#$%*$-,/b*).60%.#(/%,;<,P).$/%.#).%#$0%.0($%,<$;.,.R%,/%;6.%7)*($<%SR%/6P,$.R2%)/%,.%,/%;6.%O60.#R%6c%Q06.$P.,6;%)-),;/.%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%a$P6;<*R2%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%*)O%O#,P#%P).$-60,/$/%.#6/$%,.% /$$d/% .6% Q06.$P.% O,**% $;P6(0)-$% Q6*,PR%4)d$0/% .6% P6;P$,7$%6c% .#$% ,;<,7,<()*/% .#$R%/$07$%,;%.$04/%6c%.#$%P).$-60,$/%<$_,;$<%SR%.#$%*)OD%"#$%0$/(*.,;-%Q6*,P,$/2%<$/,-;$<%SR%0$c$0$;P$%.6%)0.,_,P,)*%;6.,6;/%6c%,<$;.,.R2%)0$%*,d$*R%.6%$M$0.%Q0$//(0$%(Q6;%.#$,0%/(Sj$P./%.6% *,7$% )PP60<,;-% .6% .#6/$% ;6.,6;/D% X$6Q*$%O,**%.0R%);<%_,.%,;.6%.#$%P).$-60,$/%O#,P#%#)7$%,;_*($;P$<%Q6*,PRb<$/,-;%,;%60<$0%.6%-),;%.#$%

S$;$_,.% 6c% .#6/$% Q6*,P,$/D% Vc% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%*)O%,/%/(/P$Q.,S*$%.6%.#(/%,;_*($;P$%Q$6Q*$^/%/$;/$%6c%/$*c2% ,.% /#6(*<%S$%<$/,-;$<%/6% .#).%.#$% ;6.,6;/% 6c% ,<$;.,.R% ,.% Q06.$P./% 0$_*$P.%#(4);% $MQ$0,$;P$D% &'()*,.R% *$-)*% 0$-,4$/%O#,P#%P).$-60,/$% ,<$;.,.R%);<%0$'(,0$%$)P#%Q06.$P.$<%P#)0)P.$0,/.,P%.6%S$%<$)*.%O,.#%,;%,/6*).,6;%O,**2%.#6(-#2%;$P$//)0,*R%c),*%.6%0$b_*$P.%Q$6Q*$/^% /$;/$%6c%/$*cD%"#,/% ,/%S$P)(/$%.#$R%)0$%S)/$<%6;%);%)//(4Q.,6;%.#).%Q06b.$P.$<% -06(Q/% )0$% 6Sj$P.,7$*R% ,<$;.,_,)S*$2%4(.()**R% $MP*(/,7$% );<% ,;.$0;)**R% #646-$b;$6(/D% Y% c),*(0$% .6% )<<0$//% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%,/2%,;%c)P.2%6;*R%6;$%/R4Q.64%6c% .#,/% _*)O$<% )QQ06)P#D% V.% ,/% 7)*()S*$% .6%P6;/,<$0%#$0$%.#$%S06)<$0%/$;/$%,;%O#,P#%)%P).$-60,P)*%)QQ06)P#%.6%,<$;.,.R%,/%<,760P$<%c064% #(4);% $MQ$0,$;P$2% S$P)(/$% .#,/% O,**%,;_*($;P$% <,/P(//,6;/% )/% .6% #6O% 4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%/#6(*<%S$%)<<0$//$<%SR%.#$%*)OD%

"#$%P).$-60,/).,6;%6c%,<$;.,.R%,4Q*,P,.%,;%.#$%P(00$;.%/.0(P.(0$%6c%$'()*,.R%*$-,/*).,6;%0$b_*$P./%/6P,$.R^/%P6;/.0(P.,6;%6c%,<$;.,.R2%;6.%.#$% ,;<,7,<()*^/% $MQ$0,$;P$D% Y% Q)0.,P,Q);.%,;% +$.#,;d,;-% V<$;.,.R% .6*<% 0$/$)0P#$0/2%oV% <6;^.% /$$%4R/$*c% )/% )%Q$0/6;%O,.#% )%<,/b)S,*,.RD% V.^/%6;*R% .#$%6.#$0%Q$0/6;%O#6%/$$/%4$%)/%.#).pD13 "#$%*)O%$[%$P.,7$*R%*)S$*/%);<%6Sj$P.,_,$/%Q$6Q*$%);<%$;P6(0)-$/%/6P,$.R%.6%<6%/6%)*/6D%"#,/%,/%S$*,..*,;-%c60%.#$%,;<,7,<b()*%);<%<)4)-,;-%.6%#(4);%<,-;,.RD%];%.#,/%S)/,/2%,.%,/%.#$%/R/.$4%6c%P).$-60,/).,6;%,./$*c%O#,P#%/#6(*<%S$%P#)**$;-$<2%,c%.#$%*)O%,/%;6.%.6%(;<$04,;$%#(4);%<,-;,.RD%

&7$;%,c%)%/R/.$4%6c%P).$-60,/).,6;%O$0$%)PbP$Q.$<% )/% );% (;<$/,0)S*$% S(.% Q0)P.,P)*% ;$bP$//,.R2%.#$%*)S$*/%P6446;*R%)7),*)S*$%(;<$0%$'()*,.R% *)O%)0$% ,;)QQ06Q0,).$D%"#$%A0,.,/#%*)O^/% )QQ06)P#% ,/%S)/$<%6;%);%)//(4Q.,6;%.#).%-06(Q/%P);%S$%<$_,;$<%)PP60<,;-%.6%6Sbj$P.,7$%P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/D14%%"#,/%,/%SR%;6%4$);/%(;P6;.067$0/,)*N


28

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"#,/%4,/4).P#%S$.O$$;%.#$%)7),*)S*$% *)S$*/%);<% ,;<,7,<()*% $MQ$0,$;P$% ,/% $7$;% -0$).$0%c60% 7,P.,4/% 6c% 4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;D% V;%/$*$P.,;-% 4(.()**R% $MP*(/,7$% P).$-60,$/% .6%<$_,;$% -06(Q/2% $'()*,.R% *)O% /$07$/% .6% $Mb)--$0).$% <,[%$0$;P$/% S$.O$$;% -06(Q/% );<%,-;60$/% <,[%$0$;P$/% O,.#,;% -06(Q/D16% % "#,/%<6$/%;6.%0$_*$P.%);%,;<,7,<()*^/%/$;/$%6c%#$0%6O;% P64Q*$M% ,<$;.,.R% c60% /$7$0)*% 0$)/6;/D%9,0/.*R2% .#$0$% ,/% ;6% P*$)0% <,7,<,;-% *,;$% S$b.O$$;% -06(;</D% "#(/2% c60% $M)4Q*$2% $.#;,Pb,.R% ,/% o,;.,4).$*R% S6(;<% (Q%O,.#% 0$*,-,6;pD17%%a$P6;<*R2%.#$%-06(;</%)0$%;6.2%,;%c)P.2%4(.(b)**R%$MP*(/,7$D%X$6Q*$%)0$%;6.%$,.#$0%<,/)S*$<%60% -)R2% S(.% P);% S$% S6.#D% V;<,7,<()*/% <6% ;6.%P6;/,<$0% .#$4/$*7$/%)/%67$0O#$*4,;-*R%<$b_,;$<%SR%.#$,0%-$;<$0%60%.#$,0%0)P$2%S(.%)/%)%P64Q*$.$%O#6*$D%9,;)**R2%);%)QQ06)P#%O#,P#%0$;<$0/% <,[%$0$;P$/% O,.#,;% -06(Q/% ,;7,/,S*$%#)/%4$);.% .#).% .#$%-06(;</%)0$%o<$_,;$<%)/%,c% .#$R% #)7$% _,M$<% (;P#);-,;-% $//$;P$/Dp18%%X$6Q*$% O,.#,;% )% -06(Q% )0$% ;6.2% .#6(-#2% )**%.#$%/)4$D%"#(/2%$7$;%O#$0$%Q$6Q*$%/#)0$%.#$%/)4$%o6Sj$P.,7$p%4(*.,Q*$%,<$;.,.,$/2%.#$%Q6/b/$//,6;%6c%.#$%P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/%O#,P#%4)d$%(Q%.#).%,<$;.,.R%O,**%;6.%4$);%.#$%/)4$%.6%$7$0R%Q$0/6;%O,.#,;% .#$% -06(QD% 960% /64$% Q$6Q*$2%6;$%,<$;.,.R%P);%c$).(0$%460$%/.06;-*R%.#);%);6.#$0%,<$;.,.R%60%6.#$0%,<$;.,.,$/D19%%X$6Q*$%4)R%$4Q#)/,/$%6;$%)/Q$P.%6c% .#$,0% ,<$;.,.R%,;%6;$%P6;.$M.%);<%);6.#$0%)/Q$P.%,;%);6.#$0%P6;.$M.D20%%%3$0$%)-),;%.#$;%O$%/$$%.#).%$7$;%,c%,.%O$0$%Q6//,S*$%.6%Q067,<$%*)S$*/%O#,P#%)0$%460$% ;();P$<% );<% /6% )QQ*,P)S*$% ,;% .#$60R2%.#$%Q0)P.,P$%6c% *)S$**,;-%,./$*c%O6(*<%0$4),;%6Sj$P.,6;)S*$D

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4. The Speciicity of the Multiple Discrimination Experience and Policy Re-sponses

"#$%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%$MQ$0,$;P$%P);%S$%<,[%$0$;.%c064%6.#$0%.RQ$/%6c%<,/P0,4,b;).,6;% ,;% .#0$$%O)R/D%9,0/.*R2%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%O#,P#% ,/% d;6O;% .6% )[%$P.% )% <,/)<7);.)-$<%-06(Q% 4)R% #)7$% P)(/$/% );<% P6;/$'($;P$/%O#,P#% )0$% <,[%$0$;.% ,;% 0$/Q$P.% 6c% )% /(S/$.%O,.#,;%.#).%-06(QD%\60$%/,-;,_,P);.*R2%/(S/$./%4)R% $MQ$0,$;P$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% O#,P#% <6$/%;6.%.6(P#%.#$%O,<$0%-06(QD%9(0.#$02%.#$%<,/b)<7);.)-$% $MQ$0,$;P$<% SR% /(S/$./% 4)R% S$%-0$).$0% .#);% .#).% $MQ$0,$;P$<%SR% .#$%-06(Q%)/% )%O#6*$D% &)P#% 6c% .#$/$% Q6,;./% #)/% ,4Q*,bP).,6;/%c60%Q6*,PR%4)d$0/2%O#,P#%O,**%S$%)<b<0$//$<%#$0$D

Vc%Q6*,PR%4)d$0/%)0$%;6.%$;P6(0)-$<%.6% *66d%).% .#$% 4(*.,<,4$;/,6;)*% )/Q$P./% 6c% <,/bP0,4,;).,6;2% .#$,0% (;<$0/.);<,;-% 6c% .#$% <,/bP0,4,;).,6;% /([%$0$<%O,**% S$% 7$0R% /,4Q*,/.,PD%T0$;/#)O2%0$c$00,;-%/Q$P,_,P)**R% .6%.#$% ,;.$0b0$*).,6;%S$.O$$;%0)P$%);<%-$;<$02%#)/%)0-($<%.#).% o;$,.#$0% .#$% -$;<$0% )/Q$P./% 6c% 0)P,)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%;60%.#$%0)P,)*%)/Q$P./%6c%-$;b<$0% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% )0$% c(**R% P64Q0$#$;<$<%O,.#,;%#(4);%0,-#./%<,/P6(0/$/pD21% %Y%c),*(0$%.6%)Pd;6O*$<-$%.#$%Q#$;64$;6;%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% ,;% .#$% *)O% #)/% 67$0$4Q#)b/,/$<%.#$%#646-$;$,.R%6c%-06(Q/D%"#,/%4$);/%.#).% Q6*,P,$/% ),4$<% ).% ,4Q067,;-% .#$% /,.()b.,6;%6c%)%-06(Q%)0$%<$/,-;$<%SR%0$c$0$;P$%.6%.#$%;$$</%6c%.#$%46/.%<64,;);.%4$4S$0/%6c%.#).%-06(Q2% .#).% ,/2% .#6/$%O#6%)0$% ,;%)%Q6/,b.,6;% .6% 0$Q0$/$;.% .#$% -06(Q% );<% <$_,;$% ,./%,;.$0$/./D% a(P#% Q6*,P,$/% c),*% .6% P6;P$,7$% 6c2%);<% .#(/% c),*% .6% )<<0$//2% .#$% /Q$P,_,P% ;$$</%6c%/(S/$./%O,.#,;%.#$%-06(QD%Vc2% c60%$M)4Q*$2%


29

)% *,;d% ,/% ,<$;.,_,$<%S$.O$$;%<,/)<7);.)-$% ,;%.#$% *)S6(0%4)0d$.% );<% -$;<$02% S(.% );)*R/,/%-6$/%;6%c(0.#$0%.#);%.#,/2%.#$%P64Q6(;<%<,/b)<7);.)-$% $MQ$0,$;P$<% SR% Y/,);%O64$;% 60%S*)Pd% O64$;2% O,**% 0$4),;% ,;7,/,S*$D% =#$0$%Q6*,PR%4)d$0/%)0$%(;)O)0$%6c%.#$%.0($%P64bQ*$M,.,$/%6c%.#$%Q06S*$42%.#$%$[%$P.,7$;$//%6c%0$4$<,)*%$[%60./%O,**%S$%*,4,.$<D%Y;R%4$)/(0$%),4$<%).%)<<0$//,;-%.#$%<,/)<7);.)-$%6c%.#$%-06(Q%)/%)%O#6*$2%O,.#6(.%<,/.,;P.,6;2%O,**%S$%,;)QQ06Q0,).$%.6%,4Q067$%.#$%/,.().,6;%6c%.#$%O#6*$%-06(Q2%S$P)(/$%.#$%P)(/$/%6c%.#$%<,/)<b7);.)-$%O,**%;6.%S$%.#$%/)4$%c60%)**%O,.#,;%,./%Q)0)4$.$0/D%9(0.#$02%/(P#%$[%60./%4)R%6;*R%S$%6c%)//,/.);P$%.6%.#$%o<64,;);.p%4$4S$0/%6c%)%<,/)<7);.)-$<%-06(Q%);<%/6%;6.%.)0-$.%.#6/$%O#6%)0$% .#$%46/.%<,/)<7);.)-$<%O,.#,;% .#$%<,/)<7);.)-$<D%Y/#,)-S60%;6.$/% .#).% .#6(-#%.#$% ,;P0$)/$% ,;% 0,-#./% c60%Q)0.% .,4$%O60d$0/%#)/%#)<%)%Q6/,.,7$%,4Q)P.%(Q6;%O64$;^/%$MbQ$0,$;P$/%,;%.#$%*)S6(0%4)0d$.2%,.%,/%6c%460$%S$;$_,.%.6%O#,.$%O64$;%.#);%.6%S*)Pd%O64$;2%/,;P$%S*)Pd%O64$;%)0$%460$%*,d$*R%.#);%O#,.$%O64$;%.6%O60d%c(**%.,4$D22%%

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V;% )<<,.,6;% .6%S$,;-% o'()*,.).,7$*R%<,[%$0$;.p%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% P);% )*/6% S$%o'();.,.).,7$*R% O60/$p% .#);% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%6;%)%/,;-*$%-06(;<D24% %"#$%&'()*,.,$/%+$7,$O%c6(;<% .#).2% o4(*.,Q*$% 4)0d$0/% 6c% <,/)<7);b.)-$p%<0)/.,P)**R%0$<(P$%.#$% *,d$*,#66<%6c%S$b,;-%$4Q*6R$<D25%"#$%$4Q*6R4$;.%Q$;)*.R%/(cbc$0$<% SR% X)d,/.);,% );<% A);-*)<$/#,% O64$;%).% .#$%S$-,;;,;-%6c% .#$%I1/.% P$;.(0R%O)/%J?%Q$0% P$;.2%O#,P#% P64Q)0$<%O,.#% 1I% Q$0% P$;.%c60%X)d,/.);,%60%A);-*)<$/#,%4$;%);<%IJ%Q$0%P$;.%c60%O64$;%)/%)%O#6*$D26%"#$/$%_,-(0$/%,*b*(/.0).$%.#).%O#$0$%)%Q$0/6;%S$*6;-/%.6%460$%.#);% 6;$% <,/)<7);.)-$<% -06(Q2% /#$% O,**% S$%460$%*,d$*R%.6%/([%$0%#)0</#,Q%.#);%.#6/$%S$b*6;-,;-% .6%6;*R%6;$% /(P#%-06(QD%"#$%-0$).$0%<,/)<7);.)-$%$MQ$0,$;P$<%SR%7,P.,4/%6c%4(*b.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%4,-#.% /(--$/.% .#).% /(P#%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%/#6(*<%S$%/Q$P,_,P)**R%.)0-$.$<D%e$.2%,c%.#$%*)O%c),*/%.6%0$P6-;,/$%.#$%,;.$0)P.,6;%6c% -06(;</2% .#$% /Q$P,_,P% );<% 460$% $M.0$4$%4);,c$/.).,6;/% 6c% <,/)<7);.)-$% )//6P,).$<%O,.#%,.%O,**%-6%(;)<<0$//$<D%

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30

5. Development of Civil Society

Y;% ,4Q60.);.% 4$//)-$% O#,P#% #)/% 0$/(*.$<%c064%.#$% *,4,.$<%0$/$)0P#% ,;.6%4(*.,Q*$%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;%,/%.#).%,.%,/%;6.%/(c_,P,$;.*R%0$P6-b;,/$<%SR%P,7,*%/6P,$.RD%=#,*$%.#$0$%)0$%$MP$*b*$;.%$M)4Q*$/%6c%S$/.bQ0)P.,P$%)46;-%@5]/%,;%)<<0$//,;-%.#,/%Q#$;64$;6;2%.#$%*$7$*%6c%)O)0$;$//% );<% P644,.4$;.% ,/% ;6.% P6;/,/b.$;.*R% #,-#% )P06//% .#$% /$P.60% );<%4);R% 60b-);,/).,6;/% _,;<% .#$4/$*7$/% *,4,.$<% SR% .#$%.$04/% 6c% .#$,0%4);<).$D% Vc% .#$% *)O%O$0$% .6%$MQ*,P,.*R%0$P6-;,/$%.#$%$M,/.$;P$%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% )/% )% 7)*,<% P6;P$0;% );<% 6[%$0%;$O% *$-)*% Q6//,S,*,.,$/% .6% P#)**$;-$% ,;/.,.(b.,6;)*%S$#)7,6(02%.#,/%O6(*<%0),/$%)O)0$;$//%,;% P,7,*% /6P,$.R% );<% $;P6(0)-$% .#$% <$7$*6Qb4$;.%6c%;$O%-06(Q/2%60%*,;d/%S$.O$$;%$M,/.b,;-% /,;-*$b-06(;<% 60-);,/).,6;/2% .6% $MQ*6,.%.#6/$% Q6//,S,*,.,$/D% "#,/% 7,$O% ,/% /#)0$<% SR%3);;$..2%O#6%)0-($/%.#).%.#$%$M,/.$;P$%6c%)%/,;-*$%$'()*,.R%/.).(.$%P);%/$07$%)/%)%oc6P(/%c60%*,;d/%);<%/6*,<)0,.R%S$.O$$;%-06(Q/%c)Pb,;-%<,/P0,4,;).,6;pD28%%Y%0$P$;.%/.(<R%6;%4(*b.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%P)00,$<%6(.%6;%S$#)*c%6c%.#$% &(06Q$);% T644,//,6;% )*/6% /(QQ60.$<%.#,/%Q06Q6/,.,6;%);<%Q0,60,.,/$<% .#$%Q0646b.,6;% 6c%4(*.,Q*$b-06(;<% @5]/% )/% 6;$% 6c% ,./%/$7$;%P6;P*(<,;-%0$P644$;<).,6;/D29%%

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6. EU and International Law

"#$%;$M.%/$P.,6;%O,**%S0,$_*R%);)*R/$%.#$%$Mb.$;.% .6% O#,P#% .#$% Q#$;64$;6;% 6c% 4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% #)/% S$$;% 0$P6-;,/$<% SR2% 60%,;P60Q60).$<% ,;.62%&(06Q$);32% %);<% ,;.$0;)b.,6;)*% *$-)*% ,;/.0(4$;./% Q06.$P.,;-% $'()*b,.R%);<%O#$.#$0%$,.#$0%6c%.#$/$%.O6%/R/.$4/%,4Q6/$% 6S*,-).,6;/% 6;% /.).$/% .6% ,4Q*$4$;.%<64$/.,P%*$-,/*).,6;%Q06#,S,.,;-%.#,/%.RQ$%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D

European Law%%

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31

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International Law

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32

,;).,6;% 6c% +)P,)*% W,/P0,4,;).,6;% GT&+WH%#)/% ,//($<% )% 5$;$0)*% +$P644$;<).,6;% 6;%.#$%-$;<$0%0$*).$<%<,4$;/,6;/%6c%0)P,)*%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;42%%);<2%,;%);)*R/,;-%)%/.).$%0$Q60.%c064%Y(/.0,)2% P*)0,_,$<% .#).% .#$% ,;.$0/$P.,6;%6c%0)P$%);<%-$;<$0%,/%6;*R%6;$%$M)4Q*$%6c%.#$%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%O,.#%O#,P#%,.%,/%P6;bP$0;$<D43%%"#$%T644,..$$%6;%.#$%&*,4,;).,6;%6c%W,/P0,4,;).,6;% )-),;/.%=64$;% GT&WY=H%#)/% )<<0$//$<% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% ,//($/% S6.#%,;% ,./% 5$;$0)*% +$P644$;<).,6;/% );<% ,;% ,./%T6;P*(<,;-%]S/$07).,6;/%.6%P6(;.0R%0$Q60./D%&M)4Q*$/% 6c% .#,/% )QQ06)P#% )0$% .6% S$% c6(;<%,;% ,./%5$;$0)*%+$P644$;<).,6;%6;%<,/)S*$<%O64$;44%%);<%,./%0$P644$;<).,6;%6;%O64b$;%);<%#$)*.#2%O#,P#%/(--$/./%.#).%/Q$P,)*%).b.$;.,6;%/#6(*<%S$%-,7$;%.6%.#$%#$)*.#%;$$</%);<%0,-#./%6c%O64$;%S$*6;-,;-%.6%7(*;$0)S*$%);<%<,/)<7);.)-$<%-06(Q/D45% %"#$%Q0$)4S*$%.6% .#$%T6;7$;.,6;%6;% .#$%+,-#./% 6c% X$0/6;/%O,.#% W,/)S,*,.,$/% $MQ0$//$/% P6;P$0;% o)S6(.%.#$%<,c_,P(*.%P6;<,.,6;/%c)P$<%SR%Q$0/6;/%O,.#%<,/)S,*,.,$/%O#6%)0$%/(Sj$P.%.6%4(*.,Q*$%60%)-b-0)7).$<%c604/%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%6;%.#$%S)/,/%6c%0)P$2%P6*6(02%/$M2%*);-()-$2%0$*,-,6;2%Q6*,.,bP)*%60%6.#$0%6Q,;,6;2%;).,6;)*2%$.#;,P2% ,;<,-b$;6(/% 60% /6P,)*% 60,-,;2% Q06Q$0.R2% S,0.#2% )-$%60%6.#$0% /.).(/pD46% % 9(0.#$02% )0.,P*$/%>%);<%K%)0$%<$76.$<%.6%O64$;%);<%P#,*<0$;%O,.#%<,/b)S,*,.,$/%0$/Q$P.,7$*R%);<%Y0.,P*$%1>%0$'(,0$/%a.).$%X)0.,$/%.6%$;/(0$%-$;<$0b%);<%)-$b/$;b/,.,7$%)//,/.);P$%);<%/(QQ60.%);<%Q06.$P.,6;%/$07,P$/%c60%Q$0/6;/%O,.#%<,/)S,*,.,$/D

"#,/% S0,$c% <)/#% .#06(-#% ,;.$0;).,6;)*% <,/bP0,4,;).,6;% *)O% 6;*R% /$$d/% .6% S$% ,**(/.0)b.,7$% 6c% ,;P0$)/,;-% 0$P6-;,.,6;% 6c% 4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% ).% .#$% ,;.$0;).,6;)*% *$7$*D% V.%P$0.),;*R%<6$/%;6.%Q6,;.%.6%)%P*$)0%6S*,-).,6;%(Q6;% /.).$/% .6% ,4Q*$4$;.% <64$/.,P% *$-,/*)b.,6;% ,;% .#,/% 0$/Q$P.D% V.% ,/2%#6O$7$02% )0-()S*$%.#).%/.).$/%O,/#,;-%.6%P64Q*R%O,.#%.#$%/Q,0,.%6c% .#$% *)O% /#6(*<% <6% /6D% X06.$P.,6;% )-),;/.%4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% O)/% ;6.2% Q$0#)Q/2%O,.#,;% .#$% P6;P$Q.% 6c% .#$% 0,-#.% .6% $'()*,.R%

)/% 60,-,;)**R% P6;P$,7$<D% V.% ,/2% #6O$7$02% O$**%0$P6-;,/$<% ,;% ,;.$0;).,6;)*% #(4);% 0,-#./%j(0,/Q0(<$;P$%.#).%.#$%(;,'($%;).(0$%6c%#(b4);% 0,-#./% ,;/.0(4$;./% j(/.,_,$/% )% <R;)4,P%)QQ06)P#%.6%.#$,0%,;.$0Q0$.).,6;2%/6%.#).%.#$%P6;.$;.%6c%#(4);%0,-#./% *)O%P);%<$7$*6Q%.6%0$_*$P.%P#);-$/%,;%)..,.(<$/D47% %];%.#,/%S)/,/2%0$P$;.*R% -),;$<% )O)0$;$//% 6c% <,[%$0$;.% );<%)--0)7).$<% c604/% 6c% <,/P0,4,;).,6;2% /#6O;%.6%S$%$'()**R2%,c%;6.%460$2%O60.#R%6c%Q06.$Pb.,6;%)/%.0)<,.,6;)*%;6.,6;/%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2%4$);%.#).%.#$/$%;6.,6;/%/#6(*<%c604%Q)0.%6c%6(0%(;<$0/.);<,;-%6c%O#).%.#$%0,-#.%.6%$'()*b,.R%$;.),*/D48%%

3)7,;-% 6(.*,;$<% .#$% P6;P$Q.()*2% Q0)P.,P)*%);<% *$-)*% 0$)/6;/% .#).% <64$/.,P% *$-,/*).,6;%/#6(*<%)<<0$//%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2%,.%,/%)QQ06Q0,).$%;6O%.6%P6;/,<$0%.#$%c$).(0$/%6c%A0,.,/#%*$-,/*).,6;%O#,P#%0$;<$0%,.%(;)S*$%.6%<6%/6D

7. The British Experience

Division and Hierarchy

"#$% A0,.,/#% );.,b<,/P0,4,;).,6;% *$-,/*).,6;%#)/%<$7$*6Q$<%,;%);%ad hoc%c)/#,6;2%)4$;<$<%)/%/6P,$.)*%)..,.(<$/%$76*7$<2% ,;%0$/Q6;/$%.6%,44$<,).$% Q6*,.,P)*% <$4);</2% 602% 460$% 0$bP$;.*R2%)/%0$'(,0$<%SR%&(06Q$);%*)OD%"#,/%#)/%0$/(*.$<% ,;% )% c(;<)4$;.)*% /R4S6*,P% <,7,<$%S$.O$$;% .#$% -06(;</2% )/% $)P#% ,/% <$)*.%O,.#%SR%)%<,/P0$.$%/.).(.60R%0$-,4$D%9(0.#$02%Q0,60%.6% .#$% &'()*,.R% YP.% I??>2% /$Q)0).$% $'()*,.R%S6<,$/%O$0$% 0$/Q6;/,S*$% c60% 67$0/$$,;-% .#$%O60d,;-% 6c% .#$% *$-,/*).,6;% )<<0$//,;-% 0)P$2%-$;<$0% );<% <,/)S,*,.RD% "#(/% 7,P.,4/% 6c%4(*b.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%O$0$%;6.%6;*R% 0$'(,0$<%.6%-0)QQ*$%O,.#%<,/.,;P.%/.).(.60R%0$-,4$/%.6%<$.$04,;$%.#$,0%0,-#./2%S(.%O$0$%)*/6%(;)S*$%.6%.(0;%.6%)%/,;-*$%S6<R%)/%)%/6(0P$%6c%,;c60b4).,6;D% "#,/% /R4S6*,P% <,7,<$% S$.O$$;% .#$%-06(;</%,/%P64Q6(;<$<%SR%.#$%c)P.%.#).%.#$0$%,/%;6%(;,c604,.R%,;%.#$%Q06.$P.,6;%)[%60<$<%SR%


33

$)P#%0$-,4$D%V;%/64$%P)/$/%.#,/%,/%)/%.#$%0$b/(*.%6c%)%Q6*,PR%<$P,/,6;%.#).%.#$%Q06.$P.,6;%,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%6;$%-06(;<%/#6(*<%S$%460$%$M.$;b/,7$%.#);%.#).%)[%60<$<%6.#$0%-06(;</D%V;%6.#b$0%P)/$/2%P6;P$Q./%O#,P#%)0$%P6446;%.6%)**%.#$%*$-,/*).,6;%#)7$%S$$;%<$_,;$<%<,[%$0$;.*R%,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%<,[%$0$;.%-06(;</D%9(0.#$02%<,cbc$0$;.%$MP$Q.,6;/%)QQ*R%,;%0$*).,6;%.6%<,[%$0b$;.%-06(;</D%"#$/$%c)P.60/2%O#,P#%$[%$P.,7$*R%Q06<(P$%)%#,$0)0P#R%6c%-06(;</2%O6(*<%4)d$%,.%<,c_,P(*.%.6%S0,;-%)%P)/$%P*),4,;-%,;.$0/$Pb.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%$7$;% ,c% ,.%O$0$%.$P#;,bP)**R%Q6//,S*$%.6%<6%/6D%

Direct Discrimination

V;% 60<$0% .6% /#6O% <,0$P.% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% (;b<$0% .#$% P(00$;.% *$-,/*).,7$% c0)4$O60d% ,;%50$).% A0,.),;2% .#$% P*),4);.% 4(/.% /#6O% .#).%#$0% .0$).4$;.%O)/% *$//% c)76(0)S*$% .#);% .#).%O#,P#%O)/2% 60%O6(*<% #)7$% S$$;2% )[%60<$<% .6%);6.#$0%Q$0/6;2%0$c$00$<%.6%)/%.#$%oP64Q)0)b.60pD% V.% ,/%O$**% d;6O;% .#).% P)/$/% P);%S$%O6;%60% *6/.% )PP60<,;-% .6%O#$.#$0% );%)QQ06Q0,).$%P64Q)0).60%,/%P#6/$;%SR%.#$%P*),4);.D%"#$/$%Q06S*$4/%6c%Q066c%)0$%$M)P$0S).$<%,;%P)/$/%6c%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% <,/P0,4,;).,6;D% "#$% P6(0./% ,;%A0,.),;%#)7$%;6.%)**6O$<%0$c$0$;P$%.6%);%o6QbQ6/,.$p%P64Q)0).60D%Y%S*)Pd%O64);%/$$d,;-%.6%Q067$% /$M% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%4(/.% P64Q)0$% #$0%.0$).4$;.%O,.#%)%o4);pD%3,/%0)P$2%S$%,.%S*)Pd2%O#,.$%60%6.#$0O,/$2%,/%;6.%.)d$;%,;.6%)PP6(;.%c60%.#$%Q(0Q6/$/%6c%)%/$M%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%P)/$D%V;%)%P*),4%6c%0)P$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%)%S*)Pd%O64b);%4(/.%0$c$0% .6%)%O#,.$%P64Q)0).602%O#6% ,/%-$;<$0bc0$$%c60%.#$%Q(0Q6/$/%6c%.#$%P64Q)0,b/6;D%a(P#%)%0(*$%.#O)0./%P*),4/%0$*).,;-%.6%/,.b().,6;/%,;%O#,P#%,.% ,/%6;*R%S*)Pd%O64$;%.#).%)0$%<,/)<7);.)-$<D%"#$%)**$-$<%<,/P0,4,;).60%O6(*<%S$%)S*$%.6%Q6,;.%.6%;6;b<,/)<7);.)-$<%O#,.$%O64$;%.6%<,/Q067$%)%P*),4%6c%/$M%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;D%Vc%.#$%0$/Q6;<$;.%,/%)S*$%.6%,<$;b.,cR%S*)Pd%4$;%O#6%#)7$%;6.%S$$;%/(Sj$P.$<%.6%.#$%/)4$%.0$).4$;.%)/%.#$%P*),4);.2%.#,/%O,**%O$)d$;%#$0%P)/$%6c%0)P$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%

Indirect Discrimination

V;%Q067,;-%,;<,0$P.%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2% ,.% ,/%;$Pb$//)0R% .6% /#6O% .#).% );% )QQ)0$;.*R% ;$(.0)*%Q067,/,6;2%P0,.$0,6;%60%Q0)P.,P$%GXTXH%Q*)P$/%4$4S$0/%6c%)%Q06.$P.$<%-06(Q%).%)%Q)0.,P(b*)0% <,/)<7);.)-$% O#$;% P64Q)0$<% O,.#% .#$%P64Q)0).60% -06(QD% V;% 60<$0% .6% Q067$% .#,/2%0$c$0$;P$% ,/% 6c.$;% 4)<$% .6% /.).,/.,P/D% Vc% .#$%*)O% c),*/% .6% .)d$% ,;.6%)PP6(;.% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2% P*),4);./% O,**% S$% 0$'(,0$<%.6% P64Q)0$% /.).,/.,P/% 0$*).,;-% .6% .#$% S06)<%-06(Q/% <$_,;$<% SR% .#$% *)OD%=#$0$% .#$% XTX%<,/)<7);.)-$/%6;*R%)%/(Sb-06(Q%6c%.#$%O,<$0%-06(Q2%)%P*),4);.^/%P)/$%O,**%S$%O$)d$;$<%SR%.#$%,;P*(/,6;%6c%.#6/$%;6.%)<7$0/$*R%)[%$P.$<%SR%.#$%XTX%O,.#,;%.#$%o<,/)<7);.)-$<p%Q66*D%Y% P6446;*R% (/$<% $M)4Q*$% 6c% ,;<,0$P.% <,/bP0,4,;).,6;%O,**%/$07$%.6%,**(/.0).$%.#,/%Q6,;.D%Vc% );% $4Q*6R$0% 0$'(,0$/% .#).% )**% /.)[%% O60d%c(**%.,4$2%O64$;2%O#6%/.).,/.,P)**R%)0$%460$%*,d$*R%.6%#)7$%P#,*<P)0$%0$/Q6;/,S,*,.,$/2%O,**%S$%*$//%*,d$*R%.#);%4$;%.6%S$%)S*$%.6%P64Q*R%O,.#% .#,/% 0$'(,0$4$;.D% V.% ,/2% #6O$7$02% )*/6%/.).,/.,P)**R%.0($%.#).%S*)Pd%O64$;%)0$%460$%*,d$*R% .#);%O#,.$%O64$;% .6%O60d% c(**% .,4$D%Vc%Q06.$P.$<%-06(Q/%)0$%6;*R%<$_,;$<%)PP60<b,;-% .6% /,;-*$% P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/2% ,;%<$.$04,;,;-%O#$.#$0%.#$%0$'(,0$4$;.%.6%O60d%c(**%.,4$%,/%,;<,0$P.*R%<,/P0,4,;).60R%)-),;/.%O64$;%)/%)%-06(Q2%,.%O,**%S$%;$P$//)0R%.6%)//$//%.#$%;(4bS$0%6c%4$;%.#).%P);%P64Q*R%O,.#%.#$%0$'(,0$b4$;.%.6%O60d%c(**% .,4$%);<%.6%P64Q)0$%.#,/%O,.#%.#$%;(4S$0%6c%O64$;%.#).%)0$%)S*$%.6%<6%/6D%"#$%,;P*(/,6;%6c%S*)Pd%O64$;%O,.#,;%.#$%P*)//%6c%O64$;%O,**%/$07$%.6%O$)d$;%.#$%/.).,/.,P)*%<).)%,;%/(QQ60.%6c%)%O#,.$%O64);^/%P)/$D49%%

Equal Pay

V;% 0$*).,6;% .6%46/.% -06(;</% (;$'()*% Q)R% ,/%.0$).$<%)/%<,0$P.%60% ,;<,0$P.%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%T*),4/% 0$*).,;-% .6%Q)R% )0$2% #6O$7$02% $MP*(<b$<%c064%.#$%/P6Q$%6c%.#$%a$M%W,/P0,4,;).,6;%


34

YP.%1UK8%GaWYHD50%V;/.$)<2%.#$%&'()*%X)R%YP.%1UK?%G&XYH%,;/$0./%)%P*)(/$%,;.6%P6;.0)P./%6c%$4Q*6R4$;.%.6%.#$%$[%$P.%.#).%);R%.$04%,;%)%O64);^/%$4Q*6R4$;.%P6;.0)P.%O#,P#%,/%*$//%c)76(0)S*$% .#);% .#).% P6;.),;$<% ,;%)% P64Q)b0)S*$%4);^/%P6;.0)P.%,/%.0$).$<%)/%46<,_,$<%/6%)/%;6.%.6%S$%*$//%c)76(0)S*$D51%9(0.#$02%O#,*$%,;%P*),4/%6c%<,/P0,4,;).60R%Q)R%S)/$<%6;%6.#b$0%-06(;</% ,.% ,/%Q6//,S*$% .6%0$c$0% .6%)%#RQ6b.#$.,P)*%P64Q)0).60%)/%$7,<$;P$%6c%<,/P0,4,b;).,6;2%,;%$'()*%Q)R%P*),4/%0$*).,;-%.6%-$;<$02%,.%,/%;$P$//)0R%.6%,<$;.,cR%);%)P.()*%P64Q)0)b.60D52%%",4$%*,4,./%);<%P64Q$;/).60R%0$-,4$/%)*/6%<,[%$0%S$.O$$;%$'()*%Q)R%);<%<,/P0,4,b;).,6;%P)/$/D%"#$/$%<,/.,;P.%0$-,4$/%);<%<,cbc$0,;-% $7,<$;.,)*% S(0<$;/% Q0$/$;.% 6S/.)P*$/%.6% P*),4/% ,;% 0$*).,6;% .6% <,/P0,4,;).60R% Q)R%O#,P#%)0$%S)/$<%6;%.#$%,;.$0/$P.,6;%6c%-$;b<$0%O,.#%);6.#$0%-06(;<D%\60$67$02%.#$%Q)0b.,P(*)0%<,c_,P(*.,$/%)//6P,).$<%O,.#%S0,;-,;-%)%/(PP$//c(*% $'()*% Q)R% P*),42%O#,P#% )0$%O$**b0$#$)0/$<2%)0$%*,d$*R%.6%#)7$%)%<,/Q06Q60.,6;b).$*R%;$-).,7$%,4Q)P.%(Q6;%.#6/$%O#6%/([%$0%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% <,/P0,4,;).,6;D% "#$% ;$$<% .6%0$c$0% .6% );% )P.()*% P64Q)0).60% ,;% $'()*% Q)R%P*),4/%#)/%4$);.%.#).%$'()*%Q)R%*$-,/*).,6;%,/%(;)S*$%.6%)<<0$//%,;/.);P$/%6c%6PP(Q).,6;)*%);<%O60dQ*)P$%/$-0$-).,6;2%O#,P#%P6;.0,S(.$%P6;/,<$0)S*R%.6%.#$%-$;<$0%Q)R%-)QD%V.%,/%Q6/b/,S*$% .#).% .#,/% ,//($%O,**% ,4Q)P.%Q)0.,P(*)0*R%(Q6;% .#6/$% $MQ$0,$;P,;-%4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,b;).,6;2%S$P)(/$%6PP(Q).,6;)*%);<%O60dQ*)P$%/$-0$-).,6;%6PP(0/%)*6;-%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%*,;$/D%a.(<,$/%#)7$2%c60%,;/.);P$2%/#6O;%.#).%O64b$;%O,.#%)%4,-0);.%S)Pd-06(;<%)0$%Q)0.,P(*)0b*R%P6;P$;.0).$<%,;%*6O%Q)R,;-2%*6O%/.).(/%);<%,;/$P(0$%/$P.60/%6c% .#$% *)S6(0%4)0d$.2% /(P#%)/%P*$);,;-2%P).$0,;-2%Q$0/6;)*%);<%<64$/.,P%/$07,P$/2%#$)*.#%);<%P)0$D53%%

8. Implications for Law Makers

V.% ,/%4),;*R% .#$% <,/j(;P.,7$% /.0(P.(0$% 6c% .#$%$'()*,.R% 0$-,4$% ,;%50$).%A0,.),;% );<%<,[%$0b$;P$/%,;%.#$%Q06.$P.,7$%0$-,4$%,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%

$)P#% -06(;<%O#,P#% #)7$% *$<% .#$% j(<-$/% .6%$MP*(<$%)%460$%_*$M,S*$%)QQ06)P#%.6%Q067,;-%)% 4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% P*),4D% \(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%P);2%.#$0$c60$2%S$%)<<0$//$<%.#06(-#%)%c$O%'(,.$%/,4Q*$%/.$Q/D%\60$%0)<,bP)*%Q06Q6/)*/%#)7$2%#6O$7$02%S$$;%4)<$%)/%.6% #6O% *$-,/*).,6;%4,-#.% S$/.% )<<0$//% .#,/%Q#$;64$;6;D

Structure

V.% ,/% P*$)0% c064% .#$% Q0$P$<,;-% <,/P(//,6;%.#).%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% /#6(*<%S$% )<b<0$//$<% SR% )% /,;-*$% $'()*,.R% *)O2% $;P64bQ)//,;-% )**% -06(;</D%"6%4)d$%4(*.,Q*$%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;% P*),4/% )% 0$)*,.R% ,;% Q0)P.,P$2%.#$% )P.% /#6(*<% )76,<% P0$).,;-% )% #,$0)0P#R%6c%-06(;</%);<%/#6(*<2% .#$0$c60$2% /6% c)0%)/%Q6//,S*$2%Q067,<$%c60%.#$%/)4$%*$7$*%6c%Q06b.$P.,6;% )P06//% -06(;</D% =#$0$% 0$*$7);.2%$'()*,.R% *$-,/*).,6;% /#6(*<% )QQ*R% .#$% /)4$%P6;P$Q./2% <$_,;,.,6;/% );<% Q06P$//$/% .6% )**%-06(;</D% aQ$P,_,P)**R2% (;$'()*% Q)R% /#6(*<%c)**% .6% S$% P6;/,<$0$<% (;<$0% .#$% Q067,/,6;/%<$)*,;-%O,.#%<,0$P.%);<%,;<,0$P.%<,/P0,4,;)b.,6;D

V;%<$/,-;,;-%$'()*,.R%*$-,/*).,6;%.6%)<<0$//%4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;2% *$-,/*).60/% 4(/.%<$P,<$% #6O% .#$% $MP$Q.,6;/%O#,P#% )QQ*R% .6%$)P#% ,;<,7,<()*% -06(;<% /#6(*<% )QQ*R% .6% )%P64S,;).,6;%6c%-06(;</D%"#$0$%)QQ$)0%.6%S$%.O6%Q6//,S*$%)QQ06)P#$/D54%=#$;%);%$MP$Qb.,6;%)QQ*,$/%.6%6;$%-06(;<2%.#,/%4,-#.%S*6Pd%.#$%O#6*$% P*),4% c064% /(PP$$<,;-D% Y*.$0;)b.,7$*R2%*$-,/*).60/%4)R2%)/%.#$R%#)7$%<6;$%,;%5$04);R2% P6;/,<$0% ,.% )QQ06Q0,).$% .6% )**6O%)%P*),4%.6%Q06P$$<2%(;*$//%);%$MP$Q.,6;%)QbQ*,$/% .6% $)P#% -06(;<D55% T*$)0*R2% .#$% /$P6;<%)QQ06)P#%O,**%S$%.#).%O#,P#%,/%46/.%Q06.$Pb.,7$2%S(.%O6(*<%0$'(,0$%)%P)0$c(*%);)*R/,/%6c%.#$%/,-;,_,P);P$%6c%$MP$Q.,6;/% ,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%$)P#%-06(;<2%O#,P#% ,/%S$R6;<%.#$%/P6Q$%6c%.#,/%Q)Q$0D%


35

Redeining Discrimination

V.% #)/% S$$;% $MQ*),;$<% )S67$% .#).% .#$% c(;b<)4$;.)*% ,//($% .#).% #)/% 0$;<$0$<% 4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%P*),4/%,;%50$).%A0,.),;%(;/(PbP$//c(*%,/%6;$%6c%Q066cD%"#$%j(<-$/%#)7$%c$*.%0$b/.0),;$<%,;%0$c$00,;-%.6%o6QQ6/,.$p%P64Q)0)b.60/%);<%)QQ06Q0,).$%/.).,/.,P/%S$P)(/$%6c%.#$%<,7,<$%S$.O$$;%-06(;</%,;%.#$%*$-,/*).,6;D%];%.#,/%S)/,/2%0$467)*%6c%.#$/$%6S/.)P*$/%/#6(*<2%O,.#6(.% 460$2% 67$0P64$% .#$% S)00,$0/% .6%S0,;-,;-%)%/(PP$//c(*%P*),4%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%6;%460$%.#);%6;$%-06(;<D%"#$%$MQ$0,$;P$%,;%.#$% B;,.$<% a.).$/% O6(*<2% #6O$7$02% /(--$/.%6.#$0O,/$D%"#$%,;P*(/,7$%/.0(P.(0$%6c%",.*$%mVV%6c%.#$%T,7,*%+,-#./%YP.%0$;<$0/%,.%c)76(0)S*$%.6%);% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%)QQ*,P).,6;D% %"#$% j(<,P,)0R%#)/2%#6O$7$02% 0$/.0,P.$<% ,./%Q6.$;.,)*% ,;% .#,/%0$/Q$P.%SR%#6*<,;-%.#).%P*),4);./%)0$%;6.%Q$0b4,..$<%.6%P64S,;$%460$%.#);%.O6%-06(;</%)/%.#$%S)/,/%6c%)%P*),4D56%&7$;%,c%$'()*,.R%*)O%,/%<$/,-;$<% /6% )/% .6% $*,4,;).$% .$P#;,P)*% *$-)*%);<%Q06P$<(0)*%S)00,$0/%.6%P*),4/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2%j(<-$/%4)R%P6;.,;($%.6%.)d$%)%P6;/$07).,7$%)QQ06)P#%.6%.#,/%,//($%,c%*$-,/b*).,6;%<6$/%;6.%$MQ0$//*R%Q067,<$%.#).%P*),4/%4)R%S$%S06(-#.%,;%0$*).,6;%.6%)%P64S,;).,6;%6c% -06(;</D57% % "#$% T);)<,);% 3(4);% +,-#./%YP.%1UL8%O)/%)4$;<$<%.6%,;/$0.%)%Q067,/,6;%.6% .#$% $[%$P.% .#).% )% <,/P0,4,;).60R% Q0)P.,P$%,;P*(<$/% )% Q0)P.,P$% S)/$<% 6;% 6;$% 60% 460$%Q06#,S,.$<%-06(;</%60%6;%.#$%$[%$P.%6c%)%P64bS,;).,6;%6c%Q06#,S,.$<%-06(;</D58%%"#$%&(06bQ$);%T644,//,6;^/%0$Q60.2%o")Pd*,;-%\(*.,Q*$%W,/P0,4,;).,6;p2% #,-#*,-#./% .#$% ,4Q60.);P$%6c% .#,/% )4$;<4$;.% ,;% $;P6(0)-,;-% .#$% <$b7$*6Q4$;.% 6c% );% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% )QQ06)P#2%)/% ,.% o,;$7,.)S*R%<0$O%)..$;.,6;% .6% .#$%;$$<%c60%T6(0./2%3(4);%+,-#./%T644,//,6;/%);<%"0,S(;)*/%.6%P6;/,<$0%O#$.#$0%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% #)/% 6PP(00$<pD59% V;% 60<$0% .6%0),/$%)O)0$;$//%6c%.#$%;$$<%.6%<$)*%O,.#%.#,/%Q#$;64$;6;% )46;-% .0,S(;)*/2% P6(0./2% P,7,*%/6P,$.R%);<%Q6*,PR%4)d$0/2%*$-,/*).,6;%/#6(*<%$MQ0$//*R% Q06#,S,.% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% S)/$<% 6;%

460$%.#);%6;$%-06(;<%);<%6;%)%P64S,;).,6;%6c%-06(;</D

=$%#)7$% /$$;% .#).% )% P64Q)0).,7$% )QQ06)P#%.6% .#$% );)*R/,/% 6c% <,0$P.% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% #)/%Q0$/$;.$<% 6S/.)P*$/% .6% S0,;-,;-% P*),4/% 6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%"#$%];.)0,6%3(4);%+,-#./%T644,//,6;%#)/%/.0$//$<%.#).N

% ovYw;% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% );)*R/,/%O6(*<%0$P6-;,k$% .#).% P64Q)0,/6;/% 4(/.% S$% (/$<%O,.#%-0$).%P)(.,6;%)/%);%,;)QQ06Q0,).$%P64bQ)0,/6;% P);% *$)<% .6% .#$% <,/4,//)*% 6c% )% P)/$%.#).%/#6(*<%#)7$%S$$;%)<j(<,P).$<Dp60%

"#$%;6.60,6(/*R%<,c_,P(*.%.)/d%6c%P#66/,;-%);%)QQ06Q0,).$%P64Q)0).60%);<%6c%)<<(P,;-%$7,b<$;P$% .6% /#6O%#6O% .#).% P64Q)0).60%O6(*<%#)7$% S$$;% .0$).$<% G,c% )% #RQ6.#$.,P)*% P64bQ)0).60%,/%0$c$00$<%.6H%S$P64$/%,;P0$)/,;-*R%6;$06(/% )/% .#$% ;(4S$0% 6c% -06(;</% c60% .#$%.0$).4$;.%,;P0$)/$/D%];$%O)R%6c%$*,4,;).,;-%.#$/$%<,c_,P(*.,$/%,/%.6%467$%c064%)%/R/.$4%6c%*)O%O#,P#%)/d/%O#$.#$0%)%Q$0/6;%O)/%.0$).b$<%*$//%c)76(0)S*R%.#);%/64$6;$%$*/$2%.6%6;$%O#,P#%)/d/%O#R%)%Q$0/6;%O)/%.0$).$<%,;%.#$%O)R% .#).% /#$%O)/D61% % V.% ,/% 0$P6-;,/$<%SR% .#$%j(<,P,)0R% ,;%50$).%A0,.),;%.#).% .#,/%4,-#.%S$%460$%Q0)P.,P)*%,;%P$0.),;%P)/$/N%

% oy,;%Q0)P.,P$%.0,S(;)*/%,;%.#$,0%<$P,b/,6;/% ;604)**R% P6;/,<$02% _,0/.2% O#$.#$0% .#$%P*),4);.%0$P$,7$<% *$//% c)76(0)S*$%.0$).4$;.%.#);% .#$% )QQ06Q0,).$% P64Q)0).60% G.#$% r*$//%c)76(0)S*$% .0$).4$;.^% ,//($H% );<% .#$;2% /$Pb6;<*R2%O#$.#$0%.#$%*$//%c)76(0)S*$%.0$).4$;.%O)/%6;%.#$%0$*$7);.%Q06/P0,S$<%-06(;<%G.#$%r0$)/6;% O#R^% ,//($Hy"#(/% .#$% *$//% c)76(0b)S*$% .0$).4$;.% ,//($% ,/% .0$).$<%)/% )% .#0$/#b6*<% O#,P#% .#$% P*),4);.% 4(/.% P06//% S$c60$%.#$% .0,S(;)*% ,/% P)**$<% (Q6;% .6% <$P,<$% O#R%.#$% P*),4);.%O)/% )[%60<$<% .#$% .0$).4$;.% 6c%O#,P#% /#$% ,/% P64Q*),;,;-ya64$.,4$/% .#$%*$//% c)76(0)S*$% .0$).4$;.% ,//($% P);;6.% S$%0$/6*7$<% O,.#6(.2% ).% .#$% /)4$% .,4$2% <$P,<b


36

,;-%.#$%0$)/6;bO#R%,//($D%"#$%.O6%,//($/%)0$%,;.$0.O,;$<yDD"#,/% );)*R/,/% /$$4/% .6%4$% .6%Q6,;.%.6%.#$%P6;P*(/,6;%.#).%$4Q*6R4$;.%.0,bS(;)*/%4)R%/64$.,4$/%S$%)S*$%.6%)76,<%)0,<%);<%P6;c(/,;-%<,/Q(.$/%)S6(.%.#$%,<$;.,_,P)b.,6;%6c% .#$%)QQ06Q0,).$% P64Q)0).60%SR% P6;bP$;.0).,;-%Q0,4)0,*R%6;%O#R%.#$%P*),4);.%O)/%.0$).$<%)/%/#$%O)/D%=)/%,.%6;%.#$%Q06/P0,S$<%-06(;<%O#,P#%,/%.#$%c6(;<).,6;%6c%.#$%)QQ*,bP).,6;q%"#).%O,**%P)**%c60%);%$M)4,;).,6;%6c%)**%.#$%c)P./%6c%.#$%P)/$Dp62%

"#,/%)QQ06)P#%4,-#.%S$%0$_*$P.$<% ,;% *$-,/*)b.,6;%,;%.#$%O)R%Q06Q6/$<%,;%.#$%&'()*,.R%A,**%,;.06<(P$<%SR%:60<%:$/.$0%6c%3$0;$%3,**%iDTD%,;%.#$%36(/$%6c%:60</D63%%"#$%S,**%<$_,;$<%<,b0$P.%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%.#(/N

“10 Meaning of direct discriminationG1H%Y%Q$0/6;%GoXpH%<,0$P.*R%<,/P0,4,;).$/%

)-),;/.% );6.#$0% Q$0/6;% GoApH% ,c2% c60% )% 0$)b/6;%0$*).$<%.6%6;$%60%460$%6c%.#$%Q06#,S,.$<%-06(;</z

G)H%X%.0$)./%A%*$//%c)76(0)S*R%.#);%);6.#$0%Q$0/6;%GoTpH%,/2%#)/%S$$;%60%O6(*<%S$%.0$).$<%SR%#,4%,;%)%P64Q)0)S*$%/,.().,6;g%60

GSH%X%/(Sj$P./%A%.6%)%<$.0,4$;.Dp

a$P.,6;% 1?G1HGSH% 4$0$*R% 0$'(,0$/% .#).% oAp%/#6O%.#).%/#$%O)/%/(Sj$P.$<%.6%)%<$.0,4$;.%oc60% )% 0$)/6;% 0$*).$<% .6%6;$%60%460$%6c% .#$%Q06#,S,.$<% -06(;</p% );<% <6$/% ;6.% 0$'(,0$%oAp%.6%/#6O%.#).%.#,/%.0$).4$;.%O)/%*$//%c)b76(0)S*$% .#);% .#$% .0$).4$;.% 6c% /64$% 6.#$0%Q$0/6;2%.#(/%)76,<,;-%.#$%;$$<%.6%,<$;.,cR%)%P64Q)0).60D%"#,/%O6(*<%;6.2% )/% .#$% -67$0;b4$;.% 6c% .#$% BC% #)/% /(--$/.$<2% 4$);% .#).%Q$6Q*$%P);%S0,;-%P*),4/%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%6;%.#$% S)/,/% .#).% .#$R% #)7$% /,4Q*R% S$$;% .0$).b$<% S)<*R264% % )/% ov.w#$R%O6(*<% #)7$% .6% /#6O%.#).%.#$R%O$0$%/(Sj$P.$<%.6%)%r<$.0,4$;.^%6;%-06(;</% 6c% .#$,0% )-$2% $.PDpD65% % "#,/2% .#6(-#2%Q0$/$;./% ,./%6O;%<,c_,P(*.,$/2%O#,P#%4(/.%S$%)<<0$//$<%.#06(-#%)QQ06Q0,).$%0(*$/%,;%0$*)b.,6;%.6%Q066c%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D

Proof

V;% P)/$/% P6;P$0;,;-% <,0$P.% <,/P0,4,;).,6;2%P*),4);./%O,**%6c.$;%c)P$%,;/(046(;.)S*$%<,cb_,P(*.R% ,;% /#6O,;-%O#).%O)/% ,;% .#$%4,;<%6c%.#$%0$/Q6;<$;.%,;%4$.,;-%6(.%.#$%.0$).4$;.%/([%$0$<D%B;*)Oc(*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%,/%;6.%(/(b)**R%67$0.2%;60%$7$;%<$*,S$0).$D%"#$%P#)**$;-$%6c% Q067,;-% .#$% 0$)/6;/% S$#,;<% .0$).4$;.%O,**% S$% $7$;% -0$).$0% c60% 7,P.,4/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2%O#$;% );R% 6;$% 60%460$% 6c% )%;(4S$0%6c%-06(;</%4)R%#)7$%46.,7).$<%.#$%0$/Q6;<$;.D% "#,/% /#6(*<% S$% .)d$;% ,;.6% )PbP6(;.%,;%.#$%)**6P).,6;%6c%.#$%S(0<$;%6c%Q066c%(;<$0%$'()*,.R%*$-,/*).,6;D%"#$%&B%<,0$P.,7$/%Q067,<$% .#).% O#$0$% )% P*),4);.% $/.)S*,/#$/%c)P./% c064%O#,P#% ,.% P6(*<%S$%Q0$/(4$<%.#).%.#$0$%#)/%S$$;%<,0$P.%60%,;<,0$P.%<,/P0,4,;)b.,6;2% ,.% /#)**% S$% c60% .#$% <$c$;<);.% .6% Q067$%.#).% .#$0$% #)/% ;6.% S$$;% );R% /(P#% <,/P0,4,b;).,6;D66% W64$/.,P% Q067,/,6;/% .6% .#,/% $[%$P.%#)7$% .#$% Q6.$;.,)*% .6% .0);/c604% )% .$P#;,P)*%0,-#.%.6%S0,;-%P*),4/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;)b.,6;%,;.6%)%0$)*,.R%,;%Q0)P.,P$D%"#$,0%,4Q)P.%,;%.#,/%0$/Q$P.%O,**2%.#6(-#2%<$Q$;<%6;%j(<,P,)*%<$P,/,6;/% )/% .6% O#).% c)P./% )0$% /(c_,P,$;.% .6%/#,c.%.#$%S(0<$;%6c%Q066cD%Vc%.#$%P6(0./%O$0$%.6%#6*<%.#).%P*),4);./%4(/.%Q067$%.#).%.#$R%O$0$%/(Sj$P.$<%.6%)%<$.0,4$;.2%S(.%;$$<%;6.%)<<(P$% $7,<$;P$% )/% .6% .#$% 0$)/6;% S$#,;<%.#).%.0$).4$;.2%)%P*),4);.%S$*6;-,;-%.6%460$%.#);% 6;$% Q06.$P.$<% P*)//% P6(*<% Q*$)<% )*.$0b;).$%60% P(4(*).,7$%-06(;</%O,.#6(.%#)7,;-%.6%Q067$%O#,P#%-06(;<%60%-06(;</%46.,7).$<%.#$% )**$-$<%<,/P0,4,;).60D%];P$%<$.0,4$;.)*%.0$).4$;.%O$0$%/#6O;%.#).%P6(*<%#)7$%S$$;%S)/$<% 6;% );R% 6;$% 60%460$% 6c% )% ;(4S$0% 6c%-06(;</2% ,.%O6(*<% S$% c60% .#$% 0$/Q6;<$;.% .6%/#6O% .#).% .#$0$% O)/% )% ;6;b<,/P0,4,;).60R%0$)/6;%c60%.#$%.0$).4$;.D%"#$%6S7,6(/%6Sj$Pb.,6;%.6%/(P#%);%)QQ06)P#%,/%.#).%,.%O,**%)**6O%)% _*66<% 6c% P*),4/%O#,P#2% .#6(-#% .#$R% 0$*).$%.6% (;0$)/6;)S*$% .0$).4$;.2% <6% ;6.% P6;P$0;%<,/P0,4,;).60R% .0$).4$;.D% "0,S(;)*/% O6(*<%;6.2%.#6(-#2%Q06P$$<%<,0$P.*R%c064%)%_,;<,;-%


37

6c%)%<$.0,4$;.%.6%);%,;c$0$;P$%6c%<,/P0,4,;)b.,6;2% S(.% O6(*<% 4)d$% /(P#% );% ,;c$0$;P$% ,;%.#$% )S/$;P$%6c% );%)<$'().$% $MQ*);).,6;% c60%.#$%.0$).4$;.D%"#$%0$/Q6;<$;.%P6(*<%Q0$7$;.%);R%,;c$0$;P$%S$,;-%<0)O;%SR%/).,/cR,;-%.#$%.0,S(;)*% .#).% /#$% #)<% )% -$;(,;$% o,;;6P$;.p%0$)/6;%c60%.#$%.0$).4$;.D%"#$%0$)/6;%O6(*<%#)7$%.6%S$%;6;b<,/P0,4,;).60R2%S(.%;$$<%;6.%S$%0$)/6;)S*$D%V;%$[%$P.%)**%.#).%)%0$/Q6;<$;.%O6(*<%S$%0$'(,0$<%.6%Q067$%,/%.#).%<$P,/,6;/%O$0$% ;6.% 4)<$% )0S,.0)0,*RD% a,;P$% )0S,.0)0R%.0$).4$;.% ,/%6c.$;% .#$%6;*R%$7,<$;P$%6c%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;%);<% ,.% ,/% c0$'($;.*R%0$/Q6;/,S*$%c60%-,7,;-%$[%$P.%.6%/(SP6;/P,6(/%<,/P0,4,;)b.,6;2%,.%/#6(*<%S$%-()0<$<%)-),;/.%SR%$'()*,.R%*$-,/*).,6;D%B*.,4).$*R2% ,c% .#$% *)O%,/% .6%-$.% .6%.#$% 066.% 6c%4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;2% ,.%4(/.%.)Pd*$%.#$%/(S.*$%);<%P64Q*$M%O)R/%,;%O#,P#%)% 0);-$%6c%<,/P0,4,;).60R% c)P.60/% P);% ,;.$0b)P.%.6%c604%.#$%S)/,/%6c%<,/P0,4,;).60R%P6;b<(P.D%%"#$%6;*R%O)R%.#).%,.%4,-#.%<6%/6%,/%.6%<$4);<% .#).% )% 0$/Q6;<$;.% .)d$% .#$% /,4Q*$%/.$Q%6c%$MQ*),;,;-%P6;<(P.%O#,P#%6;%.#$%c)P$%6c%,.%)QQ$)0/%(;j(/.,_,$<2%0).#$0%.#);%0$'(,0b,;-%P*),4);./%.6%.)d$%6;%.#$%,4Q6//,S*$%.)/d%6c%Q067,;-%O#,P#%c)P.60/%,;_*($;P$<%0$/Q6;b<$;./^%)P.,6;/D

Grounds

X)0./%.O6%);<%.#0$$%6c%.#,/%)0.,P*$%$/.)S*,/#$<%.#).% ,c% )% *$-)*% /R/.$4% ,/% .6% 0$/Q$P.% .#$% 0,-#.%6c%,;<,7,<()*/%.6%*,7$%)PP60<,;-%.6%.#$,0%6O;%/$;/$%6c%,<$;.,.R%);<%$[%$P.,7$*R%-()0<%)-),;/.%)**%(;c),0%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%)%460$%#6b*,/.,P%)QQ06)P#%4(/.%S$%.)d$;%.6%<$_,;,;-%.#$%-06(;</% Q06.$P.$<% SR% $'()*,.R% *$-,/*).,6;D%Y/%4(P#%<,/P0,4,;).60R%<,/)<7);.)-$%)0,/$/%6(.% 6c% P64Q*$M% /.0(P.(0)*2% /R/.$4,P% );<% ,;b/.,.(.,6;)*% c)P.60/2% ,.% P);% ;6.% )*O)R/% S$% ).b.0,S(.$<%.6%.#$%)P./%6c%6;$%,;<,7,<()*2%)-),;/.%);6.#$0% ,;<,7,<()*2% 6;% .#$% S)/,/% 6c% );% ,;<,b7,<()*%-06(;<D%X$6Q*$%<6%;6.%/$$%.#$4/$*7$/2%60%6.#$0/2%)/%)%Q06<(P.%6c% .#$,0%P6;/.,.($;.2%S(.%<,/P0$.$2%,<$;.,.,$/%);<%/6%4(P#%<,/P0,4,b

;).,6;%O,**% )0,/$%6(.%6c%)%7)-($% c$$*,;-% .#).%)% Q$0/6;%O,**% ;6.% o_,.% ,;p% 0).#$0% .#);% .0$).b4$;.%O,.#% P*$)0*R% ,<$;.,_,)S*$% -06(;</D%"#$%Q06S*$4/%O#,P#%)0,/$%,;%0$*).,6;%.6%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%)0$%,;%c)P.%j(/.%);%,**(/.0).,6;%6c% .#$%Q06S*$4/%6c%)% *$-,/*).,7$%)QQ06)P#%.6%$'()*,.R%O#,P#% c6P(/$/%460$% 6;% .#$% 0$)/6;%c60%S)<% .0$).4$;.2% .#);%6;% ,./% $[%$P.%6;% .#$%,;<,7,<()*N

% o=$% O,**% ;$7$0% )<<0$//% .#$% Q06Sb*$4% 6c% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% P64Q*$.$*R2% 60% c$00$.%,.%6(.%,;%)**%,./%c604/2%,c%O$%P6;.,;($%.6%c6P(/%6;% )S/.0)P.% P).$-60,$/% );<% -$;$0)*,k).,6;/%0).#$0%.#);%/Q$P,_,P%$[%$P./D%AR%*66d,;-%).%.#$%-06(;</%c60%.#$%<,/.,;P.,6;%,;/.$)<%6c%).%.#$%,4Q)P.%6c%.#$%<,/.,;P.,6;y%O$%0,/d%(;<$0.)db,;-%);%);)*R/,/%.#).% ,/%<,/.);P$<%);<%<$/$;b/,.,/$<%c064%0$)*%Q$6Q*$^/%0$)*%$MQ$0,$;P$/yD%\60$% 6c.$;% .#);% ;6.2% <,/)<7);.)-$% )0,/$/%c064%.#$%O)R%,;%O#,P#%/6P,$.R%.0$)./%Q)0.,P(b*)0%,;<,7,<()*/2%0).#$0%.#);%c064%);R%P#)0)Pb.$0,/.,P%,;#$0$;.%,;%.#6/$%,;<,7,<()*/Dp67%

V.% ,/% /(--$/.$<% .#).% )%460$% /(S/.);.,7$% )QbQ06)P#% .6%<$.$04,;,;-%O#$.#$0%)%-06(;<% ,/%Q06.$P.$<2%O#$0$%.#$%c6P(/%,/%6;%.#$%$7,<$;P$%6c%(;c),0%<,/)<7);.)-$%);<%.#$%,4Q)P.%6c%.#$%.0$).4$;.%6;%.#$%7,P.,42%O,**%/$07$%.6%)<<0$//%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%O#$;% .#,/% ,/% <($% .6% )%4(*.,b.(<$%6c%/.0(P.(0)*2%/R/.$4,P%);<%,;/.,.(.,6;)*%0$)/6;/D

The South African Approach

Y%/R/.$4%6c%$'()*,.R%*)O%O#,P#%#)/%S$$;%<$b/,-;$<%O,.#% /(P#% P6;/,<$0).,6;/% ,;%4,;<% ,/%.#).% 6c% a6(.#%Yc0,P)D%\6;)-#);% )0-($/% .#).%.#$% a6(.#% Yc0,P);% X0646.,6;% 6c% &'()*,.R%);<%X0$7$;.,6;%6c%B;c),0%W,/P0,4,;).,6;%YP.%I???% G.#$% oX0646.,6;% 6c% &'()*,.R% YP.pH% ,/%460$%/(,.$<%.#);%6.#$0%$'()*,.R%0$-,4$/%.6%.)Pd*$%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%.#);d/%.6% ,./%c6P(/%6;%/(S/.);.,7$%$'()*,.R2%.#$%S0$)<.#%6c%.#$%-06(;</%Q06.$P.$<%);<%,./%'()/,b-$;$0)*b


38

,k$<%)QQ06)P#D68% %"#$%YP.%6(.*)O/%<,/P0,4,b;).,6;%6;%)% *,/.%6c%-06(;</2%S(.%)*/6%6;%);R%6.#$0%-06(;<%O#$0$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%6;% .#).%-06(;<%P)(/$/%60%Q$0Q$.().$/%/R/.$4,P%<,/b)<7);.)-$% 60% (;<$04,;$/% #(4);% <,-;,.RD69%%V.%4,-#.%S$%)0-($<%.#).%.#).%SR%/,4Q*R%4)db,;-%)**6O);P$%c60%c(0.#$0%-06(;</2%.#$%a6(.#%Yc0,P);%*$-,/*).,6;%<6$/%;6.%)76,<%.#$%c(;<)b4$;.)*%Q06S*$4/%6c%)%P).$-60,P)*%)QQ06)P#2%S(.% 4$0$*R% )**6O/% .#$% Q06.$P.,6;% 6c% )<<,b.,6;)*%P).$-60,$/D%"#,/%,/%;6.%.#$%P)/$2%#6Ob$7$02%S$P)(/$%6c%.#$%O)R%,;%O#,P#%.#$%c(0.#$0%-06(;</% )0$% .6% S$% ,<$;.,_,$<D% "#$% c6P(/% 6c%);)*R/,/%)/%.6%O#$.#$0%)%-06(;<%,/%Q06.$P.$<%0$/./%6;%.#$%$[%$P.%6c%.0$).4$;.%6;%.#$%,;<,b7,<()*%);<%0$'(,0$/%)%P6;.$M.()*%);)*R/,/%6c%.#$% P*),4);.^/% /,.().,6;D%@$O% -06(;</%4)R%.#(/% S$% 7$0R% <,[%$0$;.% ,;% ;).(0$% c064% .#$%*,/.$<%-06(;</%);<%4,-#.%S$%<$_,;$<%)PP60<b,;-%.6%)%P*),4);.^/%6O;%/$;/$%6c%,<$;.,.RD%"#$%_*(,<% a6(.#% Yc0,P);% )QQ06)P#% ,/% .#(/% )S*$%.6% )<<0$//% );R% -06(;<2% #6O/6$7$0% <$_,;$<%SR%.#$%P*),4);.2%/6%*6;-%)/%,.%P);%S$%/#6O;%.6% P6;/.,.(.$% )% r4)0d$0%6c%<,/)<7);.)-$ 2̂% 60%.#).%,.%,/%);%,4Q60.);.%$*$4$;.%6c%)%Q$0/6;^/%/$;/$% 6c% /$*cD% a(P#% )% /R/.$4% O6(*<2% .#$0$bc60$2%$*,4,;).$%.#$%4),;%6S/.)P*$/%.6%S0,;-b,;-%)%P*),4%6c% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%)//6P,).$<% O,.#% P).$-60,P)*% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%*)OD% V;%<6,;-% /62% ,.%O,**% )**6O%Q$6Q*$% .6% $MbQ0$//%);<%*,7$%)PP60<,;-%.6%.#$,0%,<$;.,.R%);<%$;P6(0)-$%Q6*,PR%4)d$0/%.6%,;7$/.,-).$%);<%.)Pd*$%.#$%460$%P64Q*$M%P)(/$/%);<%P6;/$b'($;P$/%6c%<,/)<7);.)-$D%

A Non-Exhaustive List of Grounds

Y0.,P*$% 1F% 6c% .#$% &(06Q$);% T6;7$;.,6;% c60%.#$%X06.$P.,6;%6c%3(4);%+,-#./%);<%9(;<)b4$;.)*% 90$$<64/% G&T3+H% Q06.$P./% )-),;/.%o<,/P0,4,;).,6;%6;%);R%-06(;<%/(P#%)/%/$M2%0)P$2% P6*6(02% *);-()-$2% 0$*,-,6;2% Q6*,.,P)*% 60%6.#$0%6Q,;,6;2%;).,6;)*%60%/6P,)*%60,-,;2%)/b/6P,).,6;%O,.#%)%;).,6;)*%4,;60,.R2%Q06Q$0.R2%S,0.#%60%6.#$0%/.).(/pD%"#6(-#%.#$%Q067,/,6;%

<6$/% ;6.% 0$c$0% $MQ*,P,.*R% .6% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%6;%)%P64S,;).,6;%60%4(*.,Q*,P,.R%6c%-06(;</2%.#$% ;6;b$M#)(/.,7$% *,/.% 6c% -06(;</% *$)7$/%6Q$;%.#$%Q6//,S,*,.R%c60%.#$%&(06Q$);%T6(0.%6c%3(4);%+,-#./%G&T.3+H%.6%_,;<%.#).%)%P64bS,;).,6;%6c%-06(;</%P6;/.,.(.$/%);6.#$0%Q06b.$P.$<%/.).(/D%"#,/%#)/%S$$;%.#$%)QQ06)P#%6c%.#$%a(Q0$4$%T6(0.%6c%T);)<)%,;%,;.$0Q0$.,;-%Y0.,P*$%18%6c%.#$%T#)0.$0%6c%+,-#./%);<%90$$b<64/% G.#$% T);)<,);% T#)0.$0H2% O#,P#% )*/6%,;P*(<$/%)%;6;b$M#)(/.,7$%*,/.%6c%-06(;</D70%%V.%#)/%#$*<% .#).%);% ,;.$0/$P.,6;%6c%-06(;</%P);%S$%P6;/,<$0$<%)/%);)*6-6(/%.62%60%)%/R;b.#$/,/% 6c% .#$% *,/.$<% -06(;</D71% % "#$% 6QQ60b.(;,.R%.6%)QQ*R%);%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%);)*R/,/%,;%.#,/%O)R%#)/%;6.%R$.%S$$;%$MQ*6,.$<%SR% .#$%a.0)/S6(0-% P6(0.D72% % &7$;% #)<% ,.% <6;$% /62%.#$0$%O6(*<%0$4),;%<6(S./%)/%.6%.#$%)S,*,.R%6c% *$-,/*).,6;% O#,P#% Q06.$P./% $;(4$0).$<%);<%);)*6-6(/%-06(;</%.6%)<<0$//%)**%6c%.#$%P64Q*$M,.,$/%6c%.#$%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%$MQ$0,$;P$D%B;*,d$%.#$%X0646.,6;%6c%&'()*b,.R%YP.2%;$,.#$0%.#$%&T3+%;60%.#$%T);)<,);%T#)0.$0%/Q$P,cR%#6O%c(0.#$0%-06(;</%/#6(*<%S$% ,<$;.,_,$<D% "#,/% #)/% *$<% .#$% &T.3+% .6%P6;_,;$% ,./$*c% *)0-$*R2% .#6(-#% ;6.% $;.,0$*R2%.6% .#$% ,<$;.,_,P).,6;% 6c% -06(;</% O#,P#% )0$%);)*6-6(/% .6% .#$% *,/.$<% -06(;</2% );<% .#(/%oQ$0/6;)*%P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/pD73% %\);R%-06(;</%O#,P#%4,-#.%S$%P6;/,<$0$<%,4Q60.);.%.6%);%,;<,7,<()*^/%/$;/$%6c%,<$;.,.R%O,**%.#(/%-),;%.#$%Q06.$P.,6;%6c%.#$%&T3+2%)/%4);R%6c%.#$/$%P6(*<%S$%<$/P0,S$<%)/%,;.,4).$%P#)0)P.$0,/b.,P/D% "#,/% )QQ06)P#% ,/2% .#6(-#2% (;<$;,)S*R%*$//% _*(,<% .#);% .#$% a6(.#%Yc0,P);% )QQ06)P#%);<% ,/% *$//% *,d$*R2% ,;%Q0)P.,P$2% .6%S$% _*$M,S*$%$;6(-#%.6%0$P6-;,/$%-06(;</%O#,P#%)0$%.66%c)0%0$467$<%c064%.#$%*,/.$<%-06(;</%60%.66%4(*.,bc)P$.$<%c60%.#$%P64c60.%6c%.#$%j(<-$/D%9(0.#$02%;6%)PP6(;.%O,**%S$%.)d$;%6c%O#$.#$0%.#$%Q6/,.$<%-06(;<%,/%);%,;<,P).60%6c%<,/)<b7);.)-$D% a,4,*)0*R2% .#$%4)j60,.R%<$P,/,6;%6c%.#$% T);)<,);% a(Q0$4$% T6(0.% ,;%Corbiére v Canada% );)*R/$<% .#$% $;(4$0).$<% -06(;</%6c%/$P.,6;%18G1H%);<%P6;P*(<$<%.#).N


39

% oV.% /$$4/% .6% (/% .#).% O#).% .#$/$%-06(;</% #)7$% ,;% P6446;% ,/% .#$% c)P.% .#).%.#$R%6c.$;%/$07$%)/%.#$%S)/,/%c60%/.$0$6.RQ,bP)*%<$P,/,6;/%4)<$%;6.%6;%.#$%S)/,/%6c%4$0,.%S(.%6;%.#$%S)/,/%6c%)%Q$0/6;)*%P#)0)P.$0,/.,P%.#).%,/%,44(.)S*$%60%P#);-$)S*$%6;*R%).%(;b)PP$Q.)S*$%P6/.%.6%Q$0/6;)*%,<$;.,.RDp74

];% .#,/% S)/,/% .#$% 4)j60,.R% #$*<% .#).% .#$%*$7$*%6c%-06(Q%<,/)<7);.)-$%,/%);%,;)QQ06bQ0,).$%P6;/,<$0).,6;%,;%.#$%,<$;.,_,P).,6;%6c%;$O%-06(;</D%:̂3$(0$(M%W(S{%ZD2%O0,.,;-%)%<,//$;.,;-%j(<-$4$;.%6;%S$#)*c%6c%V)P6S(PbP,2%56;.#,$0%);<%A,;;,$%ZZ2%)-0$$<%.#).%ov)w;%);)*6-6(/% -06(;<% 4)R% S$% /#6O;% SR% .#$%c(;<)4$;.)*% ;).(0$% 6c% .#$% P#)0)P.$0,/.,PN%O#$.#$0%c064%.#$%Q$0/Q$P.,7$%6c%)%0$)/6;b)S*$%Q$0/6;%,;%.#$%Q6/,.,6;%6c%.#$%P*),4);.2%,.% ,/% ,4Q60.);.% .6% .#$,0% ,<$;.,.R2% Q$0/6;b#66<2% 60% S$*6;-,;-p2% S(.% /.0$//$<% .#).% );%)*.$0;).,7$%S)/,/% c60%<$.$04,;,;-%O#$.#$0%)% -06(;<% ,/%Q06.$P.$<%SR% /D% 18% ,/%O#$.#$0%o.#6/$% <$_,;$<% SR% .#$% P#)0)P.$0,/.,P% )0$%*)Pd,;-% ,;% Q6*,.,P)*% Q6O$02% <,/)<7);.)-$<2%60% 7(*;$0)S*$% .6% S$P64,;-% <,/)<7);.)-$<%60% #)7,;-% .#$,0% ,;.$0$/./% 67$0*66d$<pD75% V.%O6(*<% /$$4% .#).% :̂3$(0$(M% W(S{% ZD% O)/%)<76P).,;-% );% );)*R/,/% /,4,*)0% .6% .#).% <$b4);<$<%SR%.#$%X0646.,6;%6c%&'()*,.R%YP.2%P64Q0,/,;-%S6.#%)%<,-;,.R%);<%)%<,/)<7);b.)-$%);)*R/,/2%O#$0$)/%.#$%460$%P6;/$07)b.,7$%)QQ06)P#%6c%.#$%&T.3+%);<%.#$%4)j60b,.R%,;%Corbiére%#)/%S$$;%*,4,.$<%.6%.#$%_,0/.%6c%/(P#%P6;/,<$0).,6;/D%

"#$% 4)j60,.R% ,;% Corbiére% )QQ$)0$<% .6% S$%P6;P$0;$<% .#).% .#$% )QQ06)P#% )<6Q.$<% SR%:̂3$(0$(M%W(S{%ZD%,;76*7$<%)%P,0P(*)0%);)*Rb/,/2% O#,P#% 0$'(,0$<% )% _,;<,;-% 6c% <,/P0,4,b;).,6;% ,;% 60<$0% .6% ,<$;.,cR% )% ;$O% -06(;<D%"#,/%,/%.0($%6;*R%,;%.#$%/$;/$%.#).%)%_,;<,;-%6c% #,/.60,P% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% ,;<,P).$/% .#).%)%-06(;<%/#6(*<%S$%Q06.$P.$<2%;6.2% )/%O)/%/(--$/.$<276% % % /6%)/% .6% P6;_*).$% .#$% _,;<,;-%6c%)%;$O%-06(;<%O,.#%)%_,;<,;-%.#).%.#$%)P.%

P64Q*),;$<% 6c% ,/% <,/P0,4,;).60RD% =#$0$% )%-06(Q%P);%S$%/$$;%.6%S$%#,/.60,P)**R%<,/)<b7);.)-$<2% .#$%P600$*).,6;%S$.O$$;%Q6//$/b/,6;%6c%.#$%-06(Q^/%P6446;%)..0,S(.$/%);<%<,/)<7);.)-$%/#6(*<%S$%/$$;%)/%$7,<$;P$%6c%)%<,/P0,4,;).60R%/R/.$4D%Vc%.#$%/R/.$4%O$0$%c0$$%c064%S,)/2%/(P#%Q)..$0;/%O6(*<%;6.%$Mb,/.D% V;% .#,/%O)R2%4)0d$0/% 6c% <,/P0,4,;).,6;%P);% S$% ,<$;.,_,$<% )/% -06(;</% (Q6;% O#,P#%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%4(/.% #)7$% 6PP(00$<% ,;% .#$%Q)/.%);<%/#6(*<%S$%Q06.$P.$<%)-),;/.%,;%.#$%c(.(0$D%"#,/%,/%/6%O#$.#$0%60%;6.%.#$%/#)0$<%)..0,S(.$%,/%);%,4Q60.);.%Q)0.%6c%.#$%-06(Q^/%/$;/$% 6c% ,<$;.,.RD% "#$0$% ,/% P*$)0% $7,<$;P$%.#).% Q$6Q*$% $MQ$0,$;P$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% 6;%.#$%S)/,/%6c%o/.).(/$/p%O#,P#%)0$%4)0d$0/%6c%<,/)<7);.)-$2%S(.%)0$%(;*,d$*R%.6%c604%);%$*b$4$;.%6c%.#$,0%,<$;.,.R2%)/%/$*cb<$_,;$<D%"#$%_,;)*% 0$Q60.% 6c% .#$% T);)<,);%3(4);%+,-#.%YP./%+$7,$O%X);$*%/.).$<N

% o](0%0$/$)0P#%Q)Q$0/%);<%.#$%/(Sb4,//,6;/%O$%0$P$,7$<%Q067,<$<%(/%O,.#%)4bQ*$% $7,<$;P$%6c%O,<$/Q0$)<%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%S)/$<% 6;% P#)0)P.$0,/.,P/% 0$*).$<% .6% /6P,)*%P6;<,.,6;/2%/(P#%)/%Q67$0.R2% *6O%$<(P).,6;2%#64$*$//;$//%);<%,**,.$0)PRDp77%

T*$)0*R% o<,/)<7);.)-$p% );<% oQ67$0.Rp% )0$%0$*).,7$% P6;P$Q./% );<% .#$,0% Q06.$P.,6;% )/%Q06.$P.$<%-06(;</%O,**%#)7$% /$0,6(/% ,4Q*,bP).,6;/% c60% *$-)*% P$0.),;.RD% "#$% P6(0./% O,**%4,;,4,/$% .#,/% ,4Q)P.2% .#6(-#2% O#$0$% .#$R%0$c$0% .6% 6Sj$P.,7$%4)0d$0/% 6c% <,/)<7);.)-$%,;% 60<$0% .6% ,<$;.,cR% )% ;$O% -06(;<2% 0).#$0%.#);% <,/)<7);.)-$% ,./$*cD% "#$% T6(0.% 6c% YQbQ$)*% c60% ];.)0,6% #)/2% c60% $M)4Q*$2% c6(;<%.#$%0$P$,Q.%6c%/6P,)*%)//,/.);P$%.6%S$%/(P#%)%4)0d$0D78% %];*R%/6P,)**R% ,<$;.,_,)S*$%-06(Q/%/#6(*<%-),;%.#$%S$;$_,.%6c%*$-,/*).,6;D%

V;% .#$% P6;.$M.% 6c% .#,/% )0.,P*$2% .#$% /.06;-$/.%)0-(4$;.% ,;% c)76(0% 6c% )% <,/)<7);.)-$% )QbQ06)P#%.6%.#$%,<$;.,_,P).,6;%6c%;$O%-06(;</%,/% .#).% 6;*R% /(P#% );% );)*R/,/%O,**% S$% /$;/,b


40

.,7$% $;6(-#% .6% Q$6Q*$^/% *,7$<% $MQ$0,$;P$/%

.6%)<<0$//% .#$% /(S.*$% );<% P64Q*$M% 0$)/6;/%c60%O#,P#%Q$6Q*$%$MQ$0,$;P$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%V.% O,**% )[%60<% Q06.$P.,6;% .6% .#6/$% O#6% )0$%O,.#6(.% <6(S.% <,/P0,4,;).$<% )-),;/.2% /(P#%)/%.#6/$%6c%*6O%/6P,)*%P*)//2%S(.%O#6%)0$%(;b)S*$%.6%-),;%.#$%Q06.$P.,6;%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%*)O% -),;$<% 6;% .#$% ;)006O% P).$-60,$/% P(0b0$;.*R% Q06.$P.$<D% "#,/% O,**% S$% Q)0.,P(*)0*R%,4Q60.);.%,;%.#$%Q06.$P.,6;%6c%,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2%/,;P$%6;$%P);%,4)-,;$%/,.()b.,6;/%,;%O#,P#%/6P,)*%P*)//%4,-#.%S$%.#$%.0,-b-$0%c)P.60%.#).%*$)</%.6%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%,;%0$b*).,6;%.6%6.#$0%-06(;</D%=#,*$%)%4,<<*$%P*)//%R6(;-lS*)Pdl<,/)S*$<l.0);/-$;<$0% Q$0/6;%4,-#.%;6.%S$%/(Sj$P.$<%.6%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2%)%R6(;-lS*)Pdl<,/)S*$<l.0);/-$;<$0% Q$0/6;%6c%*6O$0%P*)//%4,-#.%O$**%S$D%

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Duties

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Mainstreaming

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41

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Data Gathering

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42

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Consultation

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% o\);R% 0$*).,6;/% S$.O$$;% .#$% /.).$%);<% 4,;60,.R% P644(;,.,$/% )0$% 4$<,).$<%.#06(-#%(;$*$P.$<%/$*c%)QQ6,;.$<%P644(;,.R%*$)<$0/2%O#6% )0$%4$;2% (/()**R% c064% /6P,)**R%P6;/$07).,7$% S)Pd-06(;</% O,.#% *,..*$% 60% ;6%,;.$0$/.% ,;% O64$;^/% 0,-#./% 60% /6P,)*% j(/.,P$D%\6/.% )0$% c064% 0$*,-,6(/% S)Pd-06(;</% );<%.#$,0%,;.$0$/./%*,$%,;%Q0$/$07,;-%.#$%c)4,*R%);<%0$*,-,6(/%);<%P(*.(0)*%7)*($/Dp90%

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43

<,//$;.,;-%76,P$/%.#06(-#%.#$,0%P#6,P$%6c%Q)0b.,P,Q);./2%,c%/(P#%Q6*,P,$/%)0$%.6%)<<0$//%4(*b.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D91%%

Reasonable Adjustments

"#$%Q06#,S,.,6;%6c% ,;<,0$P.%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%,/%);% $//$;.,)*% $*$4$;.% 6c% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% *$-b,/*).,6;2% 0$'(,0,;-% S)00,$0/% .6% S$% 0$467$<%O#$0$% .#$R% Q*)P$% )% P$0.),;% -06(Q% ).% )% Q)0b.,P(*)0%<,/)<7);.)-$D%a(P#%S)00,$0/%O,**%S$%0$b467$<2%.#6(-#2%SR%0$c$0$;P$%.6%.#$%;$$</%6c%.#$%<64,;);.%4$4S$0/%6c%.#$%-06(QD%Y%<(.R%.6%4)d$%0$)/6;)S*$%)<j(/.4$;./%G)*/6%0$c$00$<%.6% )/% 0$)/6;)S*$% )PP6446<).,6;H% )//$//$/%S)00,$0/%O#,P#%);%,;<,7,<()*%c)P$/%.#06(-#%)%P6;.$M.()*%);)*R/,/D%"#,/%P6;.$M.()*%);)*R/,/%6;%)%P)/$%SR%P)/$%S)/,/%,/%,4Q60.);.%S$P)(/$%6c%.#$%6S/$07).,6;/%O$%#)7$%4)<$%)S6(.%.#$%,;<,7,<()*,.R% 6c% ,<$;.,.RD% X$6Q*$% <6% ;6.% ;$Pb$//)0,*R%)..)P#%$'()*%O$,-#.%.6%.#$%,<$;.,.,$/%.#).%.#$R%#6*<%);<%Q$6Q*$%4)R%$4Q#)/,/$%6;$%)/Q$P.% 6c% .#$,0% ,<$;.,.R% ,;% 6;$% P6;.$M.% );<%);6.#$0% )/Q$P.% ,;% );6.#$0% P6;.$M.D92% % "#(/%Q6*,P,$/%),4$<%).% .)Pd*,;-%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,b;).,6;% ;$P$//)0,*R% 0$'(,0$% /64$% $*$4$;.% 6c%,;<,7,<()*,/).,6;% );<% _*(,<,.RD% +$)/6;)S*$%)<j(/.4$;./%)<<0$//%.#$%/Q$P,_,P%;$$</%6c%.#$%,;<,7,<()*%,;%.#$%/Q$P,_,P%P6;.$M.%.#).%.#$R%)0$%4)<$%);<%/6%P);%.)d$%,;.6%)PP6(;.%.#$%,4Q*,bP).,6;/%6c%)%Q$0/6;^/%,<$;.,.R%c60%.#).%Q$0/6;D%W,/P0,4,;).60R%S)00,$0/%c)P$<%SR%,;<,7,<()*/%O,**% S$% ,<$;.,_,$<%SR% 0$c$0$;P$% .6% .#$,0% ,;<,b7,<()*% $MQ$0,$;P$/% 6c% ,<$;.,.R2% 0).#$0% .#);%.#06(-#%)//(4Q.,6;/%S)/$<%6;%/.$0$6.RQ$/D93%"#$% ,4Q60.);P$% 6c% 0$)/6;)S*$% )<j(/.4$;./%,;% )<<0$//,;-% 4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% #)/%S$$;% )Pd;6O*$<-$<% SR% .#$% ];.)0,6% 3(4);%+,-#./% T644,//,6;94% % );<%460$% 0$P$;.*R% ).%)%06(;<b.)S*$%6c%.#$%;).,6;)*%$'()*,.R%S6<,$/%,;%.#$%&BD95%%:$-,/*).60/%/#6(*<%.#(/%P6;/,<$0%O#$.#$0% $'()*,.R% *$-,/*).,6;% /#6(*<% Q067,<$%c60%)%S06)<%<(.R%.6%4)d$%0$)/6;)S*$%)<j(/.b4$;./%,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%)**%-06(;</2%60%)%P64S,;)b.,6;%6c%.#$4D%

Positive Action

"#$% Q6.$;.,)*% 6c% 4),;/.0$)4,;-% <(.,$/% .6%S0,;-%)S6(.%O,<$/Q0$)<%P#);-$%O,**%S$%-0$).*R%,;P0$)/$<%,c%.#$R%)0$%P64S,;$<%O,.#%.#$%Q6/b/,S,*,.R% 6c% .)d,;-% Q6/,.,7$% )P.,6;% .6% Q0646.$%/(S/.);.,7$% $'()*,.RD% "#$% *,4,.$<% <).)% )7),*b)S*$%,;<,P).$/%.#).%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%,/%*,;d$<%O,.#%<$$Q$0%<,/)<7);.)-$%,;%/6P,$.RD%V.%,/%7,P.,4/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%.#).%;$$<2% .#$;2% .6% S$% .#$% .)0-$.% 6c% Q6/,.,7$% )Pb.,6;2% );<% *$-,/*).,6;% /#6(*<%S$%<$/,-;$<% .6%)**6O% .#,/D% ")d,;-% ,;.6% )PP6(;.% ,;.$0/$Pb.,6;)*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%,;%<$7$*6Q,;-%Q6/,.,7$%)P.,6;%4$)/(0$/%O,**%)<<0$//%.#$%P6;P$0;%6c%/64$96%.#).%Q6/,.,7$%)P.,6;%,/%6;*R%6c%S$;$_,.%.6% .#$%46/.%)<7);.)-$<%O,.#,;%)%<,/)<7);b.)-$<%-06(Q2%O#,*$%.#6/$%O#6%)0$%*$//%<64,b;);.%O,.#,;%.#$%-06(Q%S$P64$%,;P0$)/,;-*R%4)0-,;)*,/$<D97%%

V.%,/%O$**%$/.)S*,/#$<%.#).%60-);,/).,6;/%)0$%#$/,.);.% )S6(.% .)d,;-% Q6/,.,7$% )P.,6;% c60%c$)0%6c%(;O,..,;-*R%S$P64,;-% *,)S*$% c60%(;b*)Oc(*%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%)-),;/.%.#6/$%.#).%<,<%;6.% S$;$_,.% c064% Q6/,.,7$%4$)/(0$/D% "#$/$%P6;P$0;/%)0$% *,d$*R% .6%S$%#$,-#.$;$<% ,;% 0$b/Q$P.%6c%4$)/(0$/%.)0-$.,;-%)%/(S/$.%O,.#,;%)% -06(Q% O#,P#% ,/% (/()**R% P6;/,<$0$<% )/% )%S$;$_,P,)0R%6c%Q6/,.,7$%)P.,6;%S$P)(/$%6c%,./%#,/.60,P)**R%<,/)<7);.)-$<%/.).(/D%"#(/%,c%);%60-);,/).,6;% .)d$/% Q6/,.,7$% )P.,6;% ,;% 0$*)b.,6;%.6%\(/*,4%O64$;2%,.%O,**%S$%P6;P$0;$<%.#).%,.%O,**%#)7$%<,/P0,4,;).$<%)-),;/.%\(/b*,4% 4$;D% "#,/% Q06S*$4% P);% S$% )<<0$//$<%#6O$7$02%SR% *$-,/*).,6;%60%)//6P,).$<%-(,<b);P$%4)d,;-% ,.% P*$)0% .#).%)P.,6;%/(QQ60.$<%SR% 06S(/.% $7,<$;P$%O,**% ;6.% S$% P6;/,<$0$<%(;*)Oc(*D%

Remedies

Y/%#)/%S$$;%<,/P(//$<%)S67$2%$MQ$0,$;P$/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%P);%0$/(*.%,;%#$,-#.b$;$<%<,/)<7);.)-$D%];%.#,/%S)/,/2%/64$


44

/(--$/.% .#).% $'()*,.R% *$-,/*).,6;% /#6(*<% )*b*6O%)PP6(;.%.6%S$%.)d$;%6c%.#$%4(*.,b-06(;<%<,4$;/,6;%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%,;%.#$%<$.$04,;).,6;%6c% /);P.,6;/2%4)d,;-% ,.% Q6/b/,S*$% .6% )O)0<% )--0)7).$<% <)4)-$/D% "#$%0$)/6;,;-%6c%:̂3$(0$(MbW(S{%ZD%,;%0$*).,6;%.6%<,/P0,4,;).60R%*$-,/*).,6;%4,-#.%S$%)QQ*,$<%.6%,;<,7,<()*%)P./%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;N

% o@6% 6;$% O6(*<% <,/Q(.$% .#).% .O6%,<$;.,P)*% Q06j$P.,*$/2% .#06O;% ).% .#$% /)4$%/Q$$<2%4)R%;6;$.#$*$//%*$)7$%)%<,[%$0$;.%/P)0%6;%.O6%<,[%$0$;.%.RQ$/%6c%/(0c)P$/D%a,4,*)0*R2%-06(Q/%.#).%)0$%460$%/6P,)**R%7(*;$0)S*$%O,**%$MQ$0,$;P$% .#$% )<7$0/$% $[%$P./% 6c% )% *$-,/*)b.,7$%<,/.,;P.,6;%460$%7,7,<*R%.#);%,c%.#$%/)4$%<,/.,;P.,6;%O$0$%<,0$P.$<%).%)%-06(Q%O#,P#%,/%;6.%/,4,*)0*R%/6P,)**R%7(*;$0)S*$Dp98%

"#(/% S$P)(/$% 6c% .#$% Q)0.,P(*)0% 7(*;$0)S,*b,.R% 6c% );% ,;<,7,<()*% /(Sj$P.$<% .6% 4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2% .#$% <)4)-$% .6% .#).% Q$0/6;%4)R% S$% 460$% Q06c6(;<% );<% .#,/% /#6(*<% S$%)Pd;6O*$<-$<%,;%)O)0</%6c%<)4)-$/%c60% ,;bj(0R% .6% c$$*,;-/D% "#,/% )QQ06)P#% ,/% $;<60/$<%SR%.#$%];.)0,6%3(4);%+,-#./%T644,//,6;D99%%9(0.#$02%.#$%Y(/.0,);%W,/)S,*,.R%&'()*,.R%YP.%P6;.),;/% )% Q067,/,6;% /.).,;-% .#).% 4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% 4)R% S$% .)d$;% )PP6(;.% 6c% ,;%.#$%)O)0<%6c%<)4)-$/D%"#$%+64);,);%&'()*%"0$).4$;.%YP.%GI??>H%)*/6%Q067,<$/%.#).%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;%6;%.O6%60%460$%-06(;</%P6;/.,b.(.$/%);%o)--0)7).,;-%P,0P(4/.);P$pD

Equality Bodies

Y%/,;-*$%$'()*,.R%S6<R2%0$/Q6;/,S*$%c60%$'()*b,.R%O60d%,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%)**%-06(;</2%O,**%S$/.%S$%)S*$% .6%Q0646.$%O60d% .6%$*,4,;).$%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D% Y% /,;-*$% ,;/.,.(.,6;% 0$<(P$/%P6;P$Q.()*% S)00,$0/% .6% )<<0$//,;-% 4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% );<% ,/% 6c% Q0)P.,P)*% ,4Q60b.);P$2%S$P)(/$%,.%4)d$/%,.%Q6//,S*$%c60%P6#$0b$;.2%67$0)0P#,;-%);<%P660<,;).$<%/.0).$-,$/%.6% S$% <$7$*6Q$<% )<<0$//,;-% .#$/$% ,//($/D100%%%

V;%0$/$)0P#%P6;<(P.$<%<,0$P.*R%O,.#%;).,6;)*%$'()*,.R% S6<,$/2% .#$R% #)7$% 0$c$00$<% .6% .#$%P#)**$;-$/% 6c% <$)*,;-% O,.#% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*%P)/$/%O#$;%/$Q)0).$%$'()*,.R%S6<,$/%$M,/.%,;%0$/Q$P.%6c%$)P#%-06(;<%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D101%%Y%/,;-*$%$'()*,.R%S6<R%O,**%S$%)S*$%.6%6[%$0%*,.b,-);./%P64Q0$#$;/,7$%)<7,P$%6;%)**%-06(;</2%0).#$0%.#);%c60P,;-%.#$4%.6%P#66/$%S$.O$$;%/,;-*$%-06(;<%,;/.,.(.,6;/%<$)*,;-%O,.#%6;*R%6;$%6c%.#$%4(*.,Q*$%-06(;</%S$#,;<%.#$%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;% $MQ$0,$;P$<D102% % "#$% 0$P$;.*R%Q(S*,/#$<% 0$Q60.% 6c% .#$% &(06Q$);% T644,/b/,6;%,/%$;.#(/,)/.,P%)S6(.%.#$%Q6.$;.,)*%6c%.#$%&'()*%&4Q*6R4$;.%]QQ60.(;,.R%T644,//,6;%,;%.#$%B;,.$<%a.).$/2%.#$%<6P(4$;./%6c%O#,P#%o/$$4%.6%,;<,P).$%)%.$;<$;PR%.6O)0</%4),;b/.0$)4,;-% .#$% ,;.$0/$P.,6;)*% )QQ06)P#p2% .6%oQ)7$% .#$%O)R% c60% )%S06)<$0%(;<$0/.);<,;-%);<%)PP$Q.);P$%6c%P)/$/%,;76*7,;-%460$%.#);%6;$%-06(;<%6c%<,/P0,4,;).,6;pD103%

9. Conclusion

"#$% P64Q*$M% S)*);P$% ,;% $'()*,.R% *)O% S$b.O$$;% 0$/Q$P.% c60% ,;<,7,<()*% <,-;,.R% );<%O60.#%);<% .#$% ,4Q60.);P$%6c% /6P,)*% P6;.$M.%);<%-06(Q%)//6P,).,6;%Q*)R/%6(.% ,;% .#$%P6;b.$M.% 6c% 4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;D% "#$% $'()*b,.R%<$S).$2%O#,P#%#)/%/6%c)0%P6;P$;.0).$<%6;%/,;-*$b-06(;<%<,/P0,4,;).,6;2%#)/% .)(-#.%(/%.#).% 7)*($bj(<-$4$;./% /#6(*<% ;6.% S$%4)<$%)S6(.% );% ,;<,7,<()*% S)/$<% 6;% .#).% Q$0/6;^/%-06(Q%4$4S$0/#,QD%+).#$02%0$-)0<%/#6(*<%S$%#)<% .6% );% ,;<,7,<()*^/% 7)*($% ,;<$Q$;<$;.*R%6c%.#).%-06(QD%e$.%O$%#)7$%*$)0;.%.#).%-06(Q%4$4S$0/#,Q%,/%;6.%,00$*$7);.%.6%.#$%O)R%O$%/#6(*<%.0$).%)%Q$0/6;2%S$P)(/$%,.%<$.$04,;$/%6(0% o/.)0.,;-% Q6,;./p% ,;% *,c$% );<% S$P)(/$%-06(Q% 4$4S$0/#,Q% P);% S$% ,4Q60.);.% .6% )%Q$0/6;^/%/$;/$%6c%/$*c2%);<%.#(/%/#6(*<%S$%)PbP6446<).$<2% ,c%Q$6Q*$%)0$%;6.% .6%S$% c60P$<%.6% P6;c604% .6% .#$% <64,;);.% P(*.(0$D% V;% .#$%P6;.$M.% 6c% 4(*.,Q*$% <,/P0,4,;).,6;2% .#$;2%/(Sj$P.,;-%)%Q$0/6;%.6%<$.0,4$;.%6;%.#$%S)/,/%6c%.#$,0%4$4S$0/#,Q%6c%/$7$0)*%-06(Q/%,/%;6%


45

460$%j(/.,_,$<%.#);%<6;-%/6%6;%.#$%S)/,/%6c%)%/,;-*$%-06(;<2%S(.%4(*.,b-06(Q%4$4S$0/#,Q%/#6(*<%S$%0$P6-;,/$<%,c%Q$6Q*$%)0$%.6%S$%)S*$%.6%*,7$%)PP60<,;-%.6%.#$,0%.0($%,<$;.,.R%);<%,c%.#$% P6;/$'($;P$/% 6c% 4(*.,Q*$% -06(Q% 4$4bS$0/#,Q%)0$%.6%S$%)<<0$//$<D

=$% #)7$% /$$;2% *)0-$*R% SR% 0$c$0$;P$% .6% .#$%*$-,/*).,7$% c0)4$O60d% 6c% 50$).% A0,.),;2% .#).%$'()*,.R%*$-,/*).,6;%O#,P#%#)/%S$$;%<$/,-;$<%O,.#6(.%0$-)0<%.6%.#$%;$$<%.6%.)Pd*$%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;%P);%);<%<6$/%c),*%.6%Q067,<$%)%4$);/%6c%*$-)*%0$<0$//%.6%7,P.,4/%6c%/(P#%<,/bP0,4,;).,6;D%e$.%,.%,/%,;<,/Q(.)S*$%.#).%O#$0$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;% 6PP(0/% 6;% .#$% S)/,/% 6c%460$%.#);%6;$%-06(;<2%$)P#%6c%O#,P#%/6P,$.R%#)/%0$P6-;,/$<%)/%);%(;c),0%S)/,/%c60%.#$%P6;c$00)*%6c%)<7);.)-$%);<%<$.0,4$;.2%)%7,P.,4%/#6(*<%;6.%S$%$MP*(<$<%c064%.#$%Q06.$P.,6;%6c%$'()*b,.R%*$-,/*).,6;%S$P)(/$%6c%.#$%Q)0.,P(*)0%O)R%,;%O#,P#%.#$%-06(;</%P64S,;$<%.6%c604%.#$%S)/,/% 6c% .#).% <,/P0,4,;).,6;D% V.% ,/% .#$0$c60$%Q0$//,;-% .#).% <,/P0,4,;).,6;% *)O% /#6(*<% S$%<$/,-;$<%/6%)/% .6%/$P(0$%)%0$4$<R% c60% ,;<,b7,<()*%7,P.,4/%6c%4(*.,Q*$%<,/P0,4,;).,6;D%

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multiple discrimination: how law can re ect reality · the equal rights review, vol. one (2008) %%

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