multifunctionality of smallholder farming: a way … · 2015-06-09 · multifunctionality of...

2012

Hailu Araya Tedla (PhD)

Email – [email protected]

Institute for Sustainable Development

12/31/2012

MULTIFUNCTIONALITY OF SMALLHOLDER FARMING: A WAY TOWARDS SUSTAINING FOOD SECURITY AND CARBON

NEUTRAL

MULTIFUNCTIONALITY OF SMALLHOLDER FARMING: A WAY TOWARDS SUSTAINING FOOD SECURITY AND CARBON NEUTRAL

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Published by:

Institute for Sustainable Development

P.O. Box: 171 code 1110, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel: +251-(0)116-186774 Fax: +251-(0)116-186769

e-mail: [email protected] Web-Page: www.isd.org.et

© Institute for Sustainable Development

Financial support for the study and printing by The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation Book Design: Binyam Woldu Editing: Sue Edwards


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Table of content

1 INTRODUCTION 7

1.1 Smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia 7

1.2 The effect of Climate Change 8

1.3 Adapting strategy of smallholder farmers to Climate Change 8

2 THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY USED 10

2.1 Study area 10

2.2 Methods of data collection and analysis 11

3 THE EXISTING REALITIES OF SMALLHOLDER FARMING 12

3.1 The existing situation of the smallholder farming practices in Ethiopia 12

3.2 The existing policies relevant to the smallholder farming 13

4 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE UNDER SMALLHOLDER FARMING

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4.1 The climate change 14

4.2 Local level realities of climate change under smaller landholding 14

4.3 The effect of climate change 16

4.3.1 Extreme weather conditions 16

4.3.2 Yield reduction 16

4.3.3 Reduction or shrink of agrobiodiversity 16

4.3.4 Exposure to pro-rich technologies 16

4.3.5 Migration and unstable socio-politics 17

5 EXISTING CARBON NEUTRAL PRACTICES UNDER SMALLHOLDER FARMING

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5.1 Traditional adaptive practices 18

5.1.1 Crop diversification 18

5.1.2 Agrobiodiversity and seed saving 19


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5.1.3 Local knowledge, practice and innovation 20

5.2 Strategic input utilization 21

5.2.1 Reduce the application of Chemical Fertilizer 21

5.2.2 Maximizing the use of low external inputs 23

5.2.3 Improving agronomic practices 24

5.2.4 Avoid land degradation and bare soil 25

5.3 Improving Food Security 26

5.3.1 Increasing agricultural production 26

5.3.2 Increase the socio-economy of smallholder farmers 27

5.4 Enhance sustainability 28

5.4.1 Enriching soil carbon 28

5.4.2 Sustaining yield 29

5.5 Agroforestry 30

5.6 Improving livestock and manure management 31

5.7 Local production and consumption 31

5.8 Other options 31

6 CONCLUSION 33

7 Reference 35

8 Annex 38


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Table, figures and Annex

Table 1 Population size by wereda 12 Table 2 Population density per cultivated land 12

Table 3 Proportion of land rested by wereda and year 13

Table 4 Amount of GHG emission by land use type (2004) 14

Table 5 Chronology of El Niño and Drought/Famine in Ethiopia 15 Table 6 Sources of some selected communities for the year 2003 harvest

(summary) 20

Table 7 Amount of chemical fertilizer purchased and applied to cultivated fields in kg by wereda and year

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Table 8 Amount of composted produced and applied to cultivated field in Quintal by wereda and year

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Table 9 Amount of animal manure produced and applied to cultivated field in Quintal by wereda and year

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Table 10 Agricultural production by wereda for the years between 2006 and 2010

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Table 11 Grain and straw yield (kg.ha-1) by crop and treatment in Tahtai Maichew district

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Table 12 Teff grain and straw yield (kg.ha-1) by treatment in Tahtai Maichew district

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Table 13 The price of chemical fertilizer (Birr/100 kg) by type of fertilizer and year in Tahtai Maichew District

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Table 14 Over all socio-economic and GHG emission indicators in the Ethiopian agriculture

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Figures Figure 1 Ethiopia with a special focus in Tigray (study area) 10

Figure 2 The soil making process by farmer Araya in Tahtai Maichew 21 Figure 3 Ideal integrated family-level nutrient flow model to sustain smallholder

agriculture 29

Figure 4 Cumulative productivity index of grain and straw production for teff, barley and faba bean crops (percent)

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Annex

Annex 1 GHG emission of Ethiopia by sector (Mt CO2e) 38


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Abstract The aim of the study is to assess the food security, adapting/mitigation opportunities to climate change and policy situation and draw policy recommendations. The study was conducted in some selected districts of Tigray Region, Ethiopia based on some exemplary interventions such as communities, ISD, BPA and PROLINNOVA-Ethiopia. Agriculture in tropical Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular refers to smallholder farming. It is the main economic activity of Ethiopia. It is dominated by smallholder farming. Traditional farming systems that have emerged over centuries of cultural and biological evolution, based on locally available resources and practices. But today this type of agriculture is highly affected by natural and human activities especially the climate change. Even though the GHG emission contribution of Ethiopia is insignificant the effect of climate change is very wide. Consequently, it is creating food insecure society. However, the smallholder farming practice in Ethiopia has multifunctional dimension: high agrobiodiversity, inventive, self-reliance, experiential knowledge and locally available resources; indigenous farmers have often developed farming systems with sustained yields under low levels of technology and with limited environmental impact.

The existing situation of the smallholder farming practices in Ethiopia indicated high population density, small land holding and almost no land fallowing practices. However, agricultural production and input utilization is increasing over time. In moisture stress areas of Ethiopia production with ecological means is higher than the conventional way. In addition to the socio-economic benefits policies, rules, regulations and the present CRGE plan of the Ethiopian government indicate in favor of smallholder farming. On the other hand many governments and projects are strategizing to increase food production through their respective advisers back up by donors such as Asian Green Revolution, Sasakawa Global 2000, Millennium Village, AGRA etc with projects "that fit all". However, they are unsustainable i.e. shows higher production only at the beginning with a dramatic reduction in crop production. This has created a wrong debate among project owners, donors and like minded people that transnational backed projects are dominated the localized farming system. Therefore, this requires recognizing and then supporting with the academic, extension, research and agricultural development of the country.

Key words: agriculture, adaptation, carbon, food security, policy, CRGE, ecological agriculture


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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia Agriculture in tropical Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular refers to smallholder farming. It is the main economic activity of Ethiopia. It is dominated by smallholder farming (MoFED, 2002; CSA, 1998). The contribution of smallholder peasant agriculture to the country is about 45% of the GDP, 85% of the exports and 80% of the total employment (FDRE, 1997). Over 85 percent of the total population of Ethiopia are rural and they dependent on mixed farming (CSA, 2008).

Traditional farming systems that have emerged over centuries of cultural and biological evolution, based on locally available resources and the cultivation of a diversity of crops and varieties in time and space, have allowed traditional farmers to maximize harvest security and the multiple use of the landscape with limited environmental impact (Altieri, 2000). There are several examples of grass-roots rural development programs in Latin America aimed at the maintenance and/or enhancement of biodiversity in traditional agro-ecosystems that represent a strategy which ensures diverse diets and income sources, stable production, minimum risk, efficient use of land resources, and enhanced ecological integrity (Altieri 2000; Pretty 1995). This legacy of traditional agriculture demonstrates that the combination of stable and diverse production, internally generated and maintainable inputs, favorable energy input/output ratios, and articulation with both subsistence and market needs, comprises an effective approach to achieve food security, income generation, and environmental conservation. Traditional approaches represent multiple use strategies that enhance the multifunctional nature of agriculture, an important feature for the health of rural regions in the future.

Therefore, the smallholder farming practice in Ethiopia has multifunctional dimension: high agrobiodiversity (Altieri, 2000); inventive, self-reliance, experiential knowledge and locally available resources; indigenous farmers have often developed farming systems with sustained yields (Altieri 2000; Harwood 1979; Reinjtes et al. 1992). These agroecosystems, based on the cultivation of a diversity of crops and varieties in time and space, have allowed traditional farmers to maximize harvest security under low levels of technology and with limited environmental impact (Clawson, 1985). Ethiopia is a country of small-holder farmers characterized by fragmented plots and dependence on rain-fed agriculture (World Bank, 2007; Aseffa, 2005). In the history of Ethiopian civilization, agricultural development in the northern highlands of Ethiopia has undergone a series of revolutionary developments in crop and livestock production. Tigray at large is identified as a high erosion and moisture deficiency part of the country (Virgo and Munro, 1977; Tegene, 1996) and World Bank (2007) as a drought-prone area with inadequate and unreliable rainfall. As a reflection of the negative effect of climate change the history of drought in Ethiopia especially in the northern parts is familiar and expected every year. During droughts many farmers suffer to feed their animals than feeding themselves.

In the 1995, a revised version of the Green Revolution, called the Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG-2000) program (Hailu and Sue, 2006) was started by the Ministry of Agriculture to boost food crop production through a focused campaign to get smallholder farmers to use chemical fertilizer along with, when possible, high yielding varieties (HYVs) and pesticides. It mostly promoted the adoption of fertilizer through credit schemes and subsidized prices. From 1998, the subsidy on chemical fertilizer (Urea and DAP) was withdrawn but the price had more than doubled by 2007. Access to credit for purchasing fertilizer has continued to made


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available to farmers up to the present (2007). But many farmers were heavily in debt and withdrew from the fertilizer schemes. Many parts of the country were also hit by a much reduced rainy season with the rains stopping early, or by drought. The result was that yields declined. However, the low external agriculture has improved crop production and fertility of soils (Hailu, 2010).

1.2 The effect of Climate Change The cause of the climate change is due to high green house gas (GHG) emission by human activities especially from most developed countries. Although vary from country to country climate change has influenced countries globally. The contribution of GHG to the atmosphere varies from country to country and the global level in general. For example, at global level the highest GHG emission is energy supply and industry while in Ethiopia the two highest GHG emission sources are agriculture and forestry (EPA, 2011). They are related with nature not with technology and services. Generally the GHG emission of Ethiopia in relation to the global emission is very insignificant. The effect of climate change is heavy globally and country wise. Farmers are trying to adapt to the effect of climate change.

1.3 Adapting strategy of smallholder farmers to Climate Change The effects of the multiple scenarios in this plant are land degradation and decline of crop yield. Many governments are strategizing to increase food production through their respective advisers back up by donors such as Asian Green Revolution, Sasakawa Global 2000, Millennium Village, AGRA etc. However, the production indicated higher production only at the beginning with a dramatic reduction in crop production (Hailu, 2010). For example, the study held in Kabete, Kenya, showed that treatments with only mineral fertilizers initially out-yielded the no-input and FYM treatments but later tend to decline rapidly (Nandwa and Bekunda, 1998). Another similar result was reported that lack of sustainability under high input agriculture that rice yield has stagnated and declined during the Asian Green Revolution. Another result also revealed that wheat supplemented with FYM show high and stable yield unlike the inorganic NPK treatments, which showed significant yield decline over 14 years (Bhandari et al., 2002). By 1995, a revised version of the Green Revolution, called the Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG-2000) program (Hailu and Sue, 2006) was started by the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture to boost food crop production through a focused campaign to get smallholder farmers to use chemical fertilizer along with high yielding varieties (HYVs) and pesticides. However, poor farmers could not buy after the government has stopped subsidizing the price. The newly promoted AGRA is also supported by transnational companies to increase crop production through providing farmers improved seed, chemical fertilizer, tools, etc. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to assess the multi-functionality of smallholder farming in relation to food security, adapting to climate change and carbon neutral by bringing lessons others can learn from real ground practiced by smallholder farmers. It will also address additional policy changes to promote the practice and development of smallholder practices. The paper is divided into five sections. These are: Section One is Introduction, which is generalities about Ethiopia and the world at large.


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Section Two is Study area and Methods, which refers the location of the study area, why it is selected and how the study was conducted. Section Three is Existing realities around the smallholder farming. It refers about the general situation of the smallholder farming. It includes demography, land, policy etc.

Section Four refers about Causes and effects of climate change under smallholder farming. It discusses on the main causes and effects of the climate change in the Ethiopian context.

Section Five refers about the Existing opportunities practices by smallholder farmers. It discusses on the main lessons others including policy makers can learn from the successful practices. Section Six refers on the concluding remarks, which introduces an approach to implement these policy changes in the national context.


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CHAPTER TWO THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY USED

2.1Study area The study was conducted in some selected weredas in Central Zone of Tigray Region. These weredas are Abergele, Mereb Lekhe, Tahtai Maichew, Laelai Maichew and Adwa. Due to the access for more information a special focus is being given to Tahtai Maichew District. The reason why this part of the country is given priority for the study is because it is an intervention area of the Institute for Sustainable Development (ISD) and PROLINNOVA-Ethiopia. All has been working more here. Moreover, Best Practice Association is also following and practicing with a focus on the best achievements.

Figure 1 - Ethiopia with a special focus in Tigray (study area)

Tigray region is one of the Administrative regions of the country. It is found in the most northern part of the Northern Highlands of Ethiopia, stretching from 12015’to 14057’N and 36027’ to 39059’E (Aseffa, 2005). The region is bordered in the north by Eritrea, in the west by Sudan, in the south by Amhara Regional state, and in the east by Afar Regional state. As part of the northern highlands of Ethiopia, the study district is found in the Nile Basin. As part of the Northern highlands, the relief of Tigray is rugged and dissected by valleys and gullies (Hunting, 1976). The altitude ranges from <500 m above sea level (asl) in the eastern lowlands, to about 4,000 m in the southern highlands (Aseffa, 2005). Tahtai Maichew District is found in the altitude of 1500-2500 m asl as Weina Dogua (Mid-altitude) climatic region. Average annual rainfall of the Tigray Region varies from 200 mm in the eastern lowlands to over 1800 mm in the western highlands (Aseffa, 2005). Rainfall is erratic and variable. The central Tigray plateau comprises of semi-arid highlands with mean annual


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rainfall of about 500 to 700 mm (Tegene, 1996). In most parts of Tigray Region 46-73 percent of the rainfall is confined into only July and August months (Tegene, 1996; TBPED, 1998). June to August months account for 77-90 percent of the annual rainfall (Hailu, 2010). Nyssen et al. (2008) reported their evidence in Hagere Selam (2650 m) part of Tigray rainfall seems sufficient for agriculture from March but it is uncertain till June.

2.2Methods of data collection and analysis As the field of research is wide and complex it involves different approaches for data collection, especially primary and secondary data. Some of them are: field observation, group discussions and interviews, administering questionnaires and field sketches supported by photographs.

The primary data collected are population size, land size, crop production, input utilization, price of inputs and farm products, etc by year and wereda. Moreover, different types of innovations related to this were also assessed by observation and focus group discussions with farmers and experts. While different secondary data were assessed from different documents. Socioeconomic data was collected from smallholder farmers using field observation, interview, discussion and photos. All the data were analyzed by different statistical software (Excel, SPSS, etc).


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CHAPTER THREE THE EXISTING REALITIES RELATED TO SMALLHOLDER

FARMING

3.1 The existing situation of the smallholder farming practices The average population growth between 2006 and 2010 in these study weredas ranges between 2.1 and 2.5 percent annually. This data is similar with the Census and Housing data, where Tigray Region is 2.5, which is lower than the national average i.e. 2.6 (table 1; CSA, 2008). The CSA data shows about 84 percent of the Ethiopian population lives in the rural areas.

Table 1- Population size by wereda

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Annual growth

Abergele NA 92,844 95,165 97,544 99,983 2.5

Mereb Lekhe 106,997 109,670 112,556 115,442 118,328 2.5-2.6

Tahtai Maichew 111,638 111,638 111,638 111,638 111,638 -

Adwa 99,693 99,893 102,014 104,178 106,390 2.1

Kolla Tembien 130,978 134,336 137,694 141,137 144,665 2.5

The average population pressure per unit of cultivated land in all the study weredas ranges between 5.0 and 5.5 per hectare of farm land (table 2). But it varies from one wereda to another. The lowest population pressure is in Abergele and Merebe Lekhe weredas. This indicated one family with an average population size of 5 owns more than one hectare. These weredas are low land areas where there is less population pressure while Adwa is the densest followed by Tahtai Maichew wereda. Adwa indicates one hectare of cultivated land accommodates more than one family.

Table 2 - Population density per cultivated land 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abergele NA 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.6 Mereb Lekhe 3.8 3.9 3.9 4 4.0 TM 6.8 6.3 6.2 6.3 6.2 Adwa 7.4 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.8 KT 4.3 4.5 4.7 5.0 4.8 Average 5.5 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.3

However, this does not mean that in one or another, farmers do not rest their fields. The average annual plough in all the study weredas is not 100 percent. It ranges from 95.8 to 97.7 percent. According to the following table farmers from Adwa plough 98.8 by 2006 to 100 percent by 2009 of their fields while the lowest is in TM where the plough ranges from 88.7 by 2006 to 96.9 percent in 2008 (table 3). The fallow does not mean there is nothing in the field i.e., they saw with flux, as a protection from being grazed, and they do not weed the field as a build up of organic matter.


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Table 3 - Proportion of land rested by wereda and year Wereda 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Abergele 96.8 97.8 96.3 96.3 95.0 Mereb Lekhe 97.1 96.0 98.5 98.4 99.7 TM 88.7 95.3 96.9 95.7 96.6 Adwa 98.8 99.6 99.1 100.0 99.4 KT 97.4 96.4 95.5 90.9 97.6 Average 95.8 97.0 97.3 96.3 97.7

Under private holdings, there were 35.4 million cattle in 2000/1 which gives Ethiopia the biggest population of cattle in Africa. Sheep, goats, poultry, and beehives are estimated at 11.4 million, 9.6 million, 37.8 million and 3.3 million respectively (CSA, 2001b). This is a clear model of the mixed farming in the continent where crop cultivation is highly supported by domestic animals, which is a way of recycling of organic matter.

3.2 The existing policies relevant to the smallholder farming The existing policies, regulations and strategies issued in Ethiopia support the smallholder farming. For example, many articles in the constitution give ample rights to farmers. The Environmental policy of Ethiopia stated that farmers are free to use their own input and seed (FDRE, 1997). Again the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy of the Ethiopian government indicated that the government is pro-poor. The extension service also support farmers for a better agricultural yield through facilitating service and delivering different technologies (Kristin et al, 2010). Moreover, the Ethiopian Parliament has endorsed Ethiopian organic production legislation.

Global agreements and policies also encourage the implementation of local initiatives. In September 2011, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) began planning with other UN agencies, including UNEP, for the establishment of a Global Soil Partnership to support and facilitate joint efforts towards sustainable management of soil resources for food security and for climate change adaptation and mitigation (FAO, 2012). National and local regulations and incentives can also be used to promote improved soil carbon management for multiple benefits, with respect to existing land uses as well as restoration of degraded soils. Related to this recently the Ethiopian government has declared its CRGE green economy strategy to be carbon neutral middle income status before 2025 (EPA, 2011).

However, there are minor problems during the implementation of policies, rules and regulations, and strategies such as insisting farmers to use fertilizers and improved seeds. For example, many governments are strategizing to increase food production through a campaign to get smallholder farmers to use chemical fertilizer along with, when possible, high yielding varieties (HYVs) and pesticides aligned with credit schemes and subsidized prices. These are supported by different global initiatives such as Asian Green Revolution, Sasakawa Global 2000, Millennium Village, AGRA, etc back up by international donors known for the excess use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides by the name of improved technologies, the expansion of irrigation, mechanization, specialization, etc (Menale and Zikhali, 2009).


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CHAPTER FOUR CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE UNDER

SMALLHOLDER FARMING

4.1 The climate change The cause of the climate change is due to high green house gas (GHG) emission by human activities especially by most developed countries. Carbon dioxide (77 percent), nitrous oxide (8 percent), and methane (14 percent) are the three main green house gases that trap infrared radiation and contribute to climate change. Of the total annual human induced GHG emissions in 2004 (49 billion tons of CO2 e) roughly 31 percent (15 billion tons) was from land uses (Sara and Sajal, 2009). Deforestation for agriculture or livestock, soil fertilization and gases from food digestion in cattle account the highest GHG emission (Table 4).

Table 4 - Amount of GHG emission by land use type (2004)

R.N. Land Use Annual Emissions (million tons CO2 e)

GHG emitted

1

Agriculture 6,500 Soil fertilization (inorganic fertilizers

and applied manure) 2,100 Nitrous oxide

Gases from food digestion in cattle (enteric fermentation in rumens)

1,800 Methane

Biomass burning 700 Methane, Nitrous oxide

Paddy (flooded) rice production (anaerobic decomposition)

600 Methane

Livestock manure 400 Methane, Nitrous oxide

Others (e.g., delivery of irrigation water)

900 Carbon dioxide, Nitrous oxide

2 Deforestation 8,500 For agriculture or livestock 5,900 Carbon dioxide

Total 15,000 Source: Sara J. Scherr and Sajal Sthapit (2009) The GHG emission of Ethiopia in relation to the global emission is very insignificant. The source of the highest GHG emission globally is energy supply for 25.9 percent followed by industry for 19.4 percent. While in Ethiopia the two highest GHG emission sources are agriculture (50 percent) and forestry (37 percent) (EPA, 2011).

4.2 Local level realities of climate change under smaller landholding Ethiopian smallholder farming, dependent in mixed farming i.e., land and livestock, is vulnerable to the climate variability and change because they are with limited alternative resources (Oxfam America, 2010). The worst is the high rainfall variability and then high risk of flooding, crop failure, drought and hunger. Generally it can spell disaster to their most


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important assets i.e., livestock (Oxfam America, 2010). The historical problems in the country are mentioned in the following table 4.In the farming system farmers are the one who observes the change in the climate in general and the weather in particular through time. Farmers perceive the climate change in many ways, which correspond with the climate data obtained (Oxfam America, 2010). However, according to farmers one cause of the climate change is "God's punishment for our sin for the wrong acts." There is no body convince especially farmers who come up against this idea. I accept this with the word "for the wrong act" because the misusing of nature by human through deforestation and industrialization and then high GHG emissions are mentioned here.

Table 5 - Chronology of El Niño and Drought/Famine in Ethiopia

El Niño Years Drought/Famine Regions 1539-41 1543-1562 Hararghe 1618-19 1618 Northern Ethiopia 1828 1828-29 Shewa 1864 1864-66 Tigray and Gondar 1874 1876-78 Tigray and Afar 1880 1880 Tigray and Gondar 1887-89 1888-1892* Ethiopia 1899-1900 1899-1900 Ethiopia 1911-1912 1913-1914 Northern Ethiopia 1918-19 1920-22 Ethiopia 1930-32 1932-1934 Ethiopia 1953 1953 Tigray and Wollo 1957-1958 1957-1958 Tigray and Wollo 1965 1964-66 Tigray and Wollo 1972-1973 1973-1974 Tigray and Wollo 1982-1983 1983-1984 Ethiopia 1986-87** 1987-1988** Ethiopia 1991-92 1990-92 Ethiopia 1993 1993-94 Tigray, Wollo, Addis

Source: Tsegay (1997)

However, people have developed ways to respond successfully to these challenges. The effect is perceived slowly and then they respond at different times of their life. Smallholder farmers in Ethiopia in general and Tigray in particular try to cope or adapt the challenge of climate change individually or communally. Some of the coping strategies observed so far are generalized as cropping techniques, crop diversification, improving family income, improving access to water, improving local innovations, etc. These are used to minimize risk and increase family's resilience i.e., being able to bounce back from a shock of climate change.


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4.3 Effects of climate change The effect of climate change vary globally and country wise. Recent years especially 2011 are the years of extreme events globally including ocean life. For example, the crisis in the Horn of Africa is only one of the events in 2011 that exemplify the challenges to be met in the face of an increasingly variable and changing climate worldwide. Many regions need innovative strategies to address pressures on land and water resources and on agricultural productivity – from building resilience in small-scale farming communities to global commitments to mitigate climate change (UNEP, 2012). The following are some generalized effects of climate change:

4.3.1 Extreme weather conditions Farmers are experienced with the repeated extreme weather occurrences (very high and/or low weather conditions, droughts and destructive flooding) over time (UNEP, 2012). The unreliability of rainfall is also one problem retarded farmers from planning to their normal farming practices. Aregay Se'are from Tahtai Maichew said that "nowadays temperature has increased. We feel warmer in the early morning than before." This is supported by the report of the Oxfam America (2010) that between 1960 and 2006 the mean annual temperature increased by 1.3 degree Celsius. Rainfall becomes short and unreliable. Abadi explained that "even if the seasonal rainfall starts in good time it is destined to flooding and erosion."

4.3.2 Yield reduction Rainfall fluctuation and unreliability are destined to crop failure. For example, Aregay said we could not say surely what will happen because these days rainfall fluctuated very much. Another farmer, Abadi Redehey, added his observation that "the onset of the main rain comes late and stops earlier than before." He continued his narration that "even if the seasonal rainfall starts in good time it is destined to flooding and erosion." Every year nobody is sure on the onset and offset of the rainfall i.e. either the rain is to start in May/June or to continue until September. Therefore, we feel frustrated every year about our crops." Teklu Berhe from Adi Guara in Tigray said "now rainfall has become short in time and not enough for crops to mature." This affected the farmers in changing seed against their plan.

4.3.3 Reduction or shrink of agrobiodiversity Seed security at a household or community level is important for food security, cultural and ecological diversity, and economic and community stability through the farmer-to-farmer seed exchange network which has been the usual source of seed for generations. This type of seed supply arrangement is socio-economically, culturally and politically stabile (Hailu, 2003). But today such securities are being threatened by some of the global trends in industrial agriculture and climate change. Farmers are faced with the unplanned shift from one type of seed into another, which affected their seed saving modalities. The shift of crops from long-seasoned into short-seasoned crops is another new shift.

4.3.4 Exposure to pro-rich technologies The smallholder farming is known for its tolerance level including the climate change. But today many transnational companies are reaching policy makers through their links experts and researchers. Policy makers use the shortest way to decide on the life of the public. This is


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because they only know their academic link than the locals. Therefore, the policy makers request these researchers and experts without understanding the capacity, knowledge and practice at local level. Finally farmers are being forced to be recipient of the international projects derived by rich international companies such as the participation of Monsanto with the adaptation of Roundup and 2.4.D.

4.3.5 Migration and Unstable socio-politics Climate change creates socio-political unstability with in a community and a country at large. The 1984/5 drought in Ethiopia was the cause of the hundreds of Thousands from northern Ethiopia migrated to Sudan for food-aid while the military government was forcing citizens for resettlement programs to the south-west part of the country. This was attached with a heavy socio-political unstability in the whole country. The migration was not only human but also animal, seed, socio-cultural in general.


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CHAPTER FIVE EXISTING CARBON NEUTRAL PRACTICES UNDER

SMALLHOLDER FARMING Introduction According to the IPCC the annual GHG emitted globally by the agricultural sector is 10 to 12 percent where conventional agriculture is a major contributor (IFOAM, 2009). On the other hand studies show the contribution of agriculture in Ethiopia account about 50 percent of the total GHG emission, which is attributed to livestock and crops (EPA, 2011). According to the GTP of the Ethiopian government agricultural production will be doubled by 2015 (EPA, 2011). Based on this pace the total GHG emission in the country and the agriculture sector are predicted to grow from 160 to 405 and from 80 to 185 Mt CO2e from 2010 to 2030 respectively (EPA, 2011). Even by 2030 still agriculture is the highest. It brings 3.1 ton per capita, this emission is similar with the emerging economies and middle income countries (China, India and Mexico) (EPA, 2011).

In Ethiopia, crops are mostly contributing to the concentration of greenhouse gases by requiring the use of fertilizer (synthetic, manure and crops residues reintroduced into the ground). However, the CRGE initiative follows a sectoral approach and has so far identified and prioritized more than 60 initiatives, which could help the country achieve its development goals while limiting 2030 GHG emissions to around 250 Mt CO2e less than estimated under a conventional development path. Improving crop and livestock production practices for higher food security and farmer income while reducing emissions is one of the four pillars of the green economy plan (EPA, 2011). Under FAO farm system category smallholder rainfed dry/cold can sequester carbon 0.26 ±0.035 ton C/ha/year through sustainable agriculture practices (Menale Kassie and Precious Zikhali, 2009).

Therefore, it is necessary to strategize a high carbon sequestration and low GHG emissions. The Green Resilient Economy plan of Ethiopia GHG emission is basic opportunity in Ethiopia. One option is also the ecological agriculture, which includes enhancing soil biological processes, soil fertility and structure, creating organic matter in forms that are more effective at producing soil carbon, integrating crop and livestock systems, increasing the proportion of vegetation cover which promotes the soil’s micro-organisms that stabilize soil carbon and through encouraging and facilitating local production and consumption (IFOAM, 2009). Even though land is a quarter of Earth’s surface its soil and plants hold three times as much as the atmosphere. Therefore, successful global climate change mitigation is reducing emission from agriculture, forestry and other land uses (Sara and Sajal, 2009). The following are some of the selected practices under smallholder farming.

5.1 Traditional adaptive practices

5.1.1 Crop diversification Ethiopia is a country of diverse agro-ecology, with a diverse ecosystem and consequently a diverse adaptation to diverse problems (Hailu, 2011). Smallholder farming is known for its localized practice and it has local solutions (Hans Herren, Presented on 31/07/2012). It is also a multifunctional nature, where it is dependent in local knowledge, practices, and resources. Most farmers are inclined to their traditional practices, on both types of inputs and


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technologies, and especially rely on local inputs because they are cheap, affordable and easy to understand. For example, the informal seed sector is the most adaptable to the growing area. Such cultivars are generally more tolerant to drought, pests and diseases.

Many places in the Tigray Region are succeptible to drought especially those with shallow soils. Crops planted with mineral fertilizer wilt faster than the crops planted with compost or animal manure (Hailu & Edwards, 2006; SSNC, 2008). Using compost improved the problems due to the early cessation of rain. They also adjust differenttyeps of crops to the unreliable season. Crop diversification is one coping strategy. It is the diversification to cope in case there is failure in the rainy season. It includes agroforestry, intercropping, mixed cropping and mixed farming. Agroforestry is the best way of diversifying crops with fruits, vegetables, spices, field crops, etc. This covers availability of food, generating income, better nutrition, ground-cover, etc. Woods are used as animal feed or human food, shade, construction, farming tools, soil conservation, etc. The deliberate planting of Hanfets/Karka'eta (a mixture of barley and durum wheat) in Eastern Tigray is deliberately grown to minimize risk of crop failure. Some farmers are shifting into vegetables or orchard (Qes Malede) with irrigation and/or potato that grows fast with less rain for food and income generation (Hailu, 2012).

Farmers also become innovative in trying out new crops and crop combinations. For example, many farmers in Tahtai maichew and La'elai Maichew weredas now regularly plants vegetables, particularly tomato as intercrop in tef is multiplied into other crops. These do not interfere with the crop, maturing after the grain is harvested and bringing the farmer additional income. Many other farmers have now adopted this and other innovative forms of inter-cropping.

Bee keeping is one of the important activities in the region. Even through bee keeping existed since long at this time many farmers are earning good income from bee keeping. But it faced many problems such as escaping of bee colonies due to: 1. low adaptation of bee colonies into new places; 2. the dry out of bee forage faster than before; 3. insufficient water supply. The most serious problem is bee colonies are not adapting to different micro-climates i.e. niche areas. They do not have an adaptation capacity to a wider space. Now farmers are bringing new ideas i.e., splitting bee colonies within the niche. This practice has convinced farmers by increasing the adaptation of the bee colony. Due to the high land degradation and related effect of the climate change bee forage is also scarce. Then there are months of the year where bee forage are almost none. Therefore, farmers are copping the problem by Planting multi-purpose trees and planting different bee forage to complete the gap.

5.1.2 Agrobiodiversity and seed saving The reality under climate change and globalization indicated crop diversification is on threat. However, farmers never give up. They have tried to cope the situation through the use of low external input such as compost or manure to rejuvenate the health of the soil, soil organisms and crop diversities. Once farmers appreciate the improved productivity of their fields treated with compost, they usually start to re-establish the diversity of crops, particularly cereals and pulses, familiar to them before their land became highly degraded. Maintaining or increasing agro-biodiversity; for example Zeban Sas was growing wheat and barley mixed together with a little teff, but now other crops like maize and faba bean are also grown (ISD report, 2004).


20

Moreover, the existing practice of seed saving and exchange at local level is very adaptive to the present climate change that over 90 percent use and exchange seeds from local sources (table, 6). Table 6 - Sources of some selected communities for the year 2003 harvest (summary) (58 total informants) Sources Teff Wheat Barley Karka'eta Maize Sorghum Millet Pulses Garden Total Personal 16

(43.24) 22

(53.66) 20

(52.63) 2

(13.33) 24

(50.00) 9

(64.29) 1

(5.260 22

(48.89) 9

(29.03) 125

(43.40) Neighbor 4

(10.81) 5

(12.20) 2

(5.26) 1

(6.67) 8

(16.67) 1

(7.14) 15

(79.95) 5

(11.11) 6

(19.36) 47

(16.32) Local Market

12 (32.43)

1 (2.44)

16 (42.11)

12 (80) 13 (27.08)

4 (28.57)

3 (15.79)

15 (33.33)

12 (38.11)

88 (30.56)

Improved Seed

5 (13.52)

13 (31.70)

- - 3 (6.25)

- - 3 (6.67)

4 (12.90)

28 (9.72)

Total 37 (12.85)

41 (14.24)

38 (13.19)

15 (5.21)

48 (16.67)

14 (4.86)

19 (6.60)

45 (15.63)

31 910.76)

288 (100.00)

Source: Questionnaire; Numbers within brackets are percentages

5.1.3 Local knowledge, practice and innovation As farming is an old (over 7,000 years) tradition in Ethiopia (Tewolde, 2006) farmers have different practices before the introduction of chemical fertilizer. These are crop rotation, intercropping, animal manure and recently plant or dung tea manure. Some innovative practices by farmers are:

Hawariya and Weldu are couples living in Mai Berazio area of Tahtai Maichew District in Tigray Region. They have stony and unfertile farms. One of their innovations to fertilize their soil for field crops is bringing fertile soil from silt collected areas and carrying fertile soils from tree canopies. According to Weldu the best fertile soil is found under aloe Vera plant. The other way of fertilizing is mulching of different plant materials in a pit to be used for planting fruit trees. Fertile soil also holds good moisture.

Araya W/Aregay lives in Mai Siye area of Tahtai Maichew District, where land degradation is the worst that most of the landscapes are rocky and scanty of vegetation. Like many parts of the region this district has many wide and deep gullies, rocky and de-vegetated landscape. Even though his farms are infertile he never rests his farms. Like many others unluckily he got sloppy and rocky plot during the land redistribution. One of his plots was small, sloppy and cut by big gullies. As he has no other options he crushes the softer rocks while makes terraces by the big and hard rocks. He built terraces taller than he i.e., in some of the terrace farms the created plot strip is narrower than the terrace built by this man.


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To improve the organic matter of the soil he put branches of trees and covers with soil as mulch. He said if he built water point his soil would give him a better yield because water will make mulching faster and easier. According to him if man create friendly relationship with nature land is always fertile i.e. we make it fertile. By 2011 he planted maize, tef, wheat and barley in the plot.

Gebreyesus Tesfay lives in Kewanit area of Tahtai Maichew District. He is one of the known people for producing tea manure from plants. According to him the softer leave plants are good for the production of best quality tea manure. He also adds urine and dung to this process. After three weeks he filters the liquid part from the solid material. He applies the liquid fertilizer diluted with water at a proportion of 1:10 (1 portion of liquid fertilizer to 10 portion of water). He applies to all types of field crops, vegetable and fruit trees. When he applies he sees a change in the vegetative part very easily. Vegetables become deep green, wide and fast growth when applied with tea manure. Now it is spread throughout his place and they started selling it at a price of 10 Ethiopian Birr per two liter.

5.2 Strategic input utilization 5.2.1 Reduce the application of Chemical Fertilizer Conventional agriculture relies on fossil fuel based chemicals, manufactured in energy intensive factories, require transportation, release both CO2 and N2O during their energy intensive manufacturing process and they inhibit the natural biological activity of the soil that drives the formation of compounds that encase and effectively store carbon. However, ecological farming of the smallholder farming especially the Organic Agriculture replaces or reduces highly soluble synthetic chemical nutrients with naturally occurring nutrients in manure, compost, and leguminous plants. Organic N is released more slowly than chemical N, thus minimizing N2O emissions (IFOAM, 2009). Organic crops tend to have deeper and denser roots and scavenge nitrogen and other nutrients more efficiently than non-organic crops. Soil fertility in Organic Agriculture systems is crucial as active and abundant micro-flora is required to mineralize organic fertilizers and inputs. This is where Organic Agriculture sequesters more CO2 than conventional systems and also incorporates significant amounts of organic matter (IFOAM, 2009).

I change it like

Figure 2: - The soil making process by farmer Araya in Tahtai Maichew


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The GHG emission of Ethiopia from fertilizer application increases from 4 by 2010 to 33 Mt CO2e by 2030 based on the business as usual (EPA, 2011) calculated on the estimated crop production based on the Growth and Transformation plan of the government. This trend leads the total emission of the country from 150 by 2010 Mt to 400 by 2030 (EPA, 2011). According to FAO (2003) globally agricultural N2O emissions are projected to increase by 35-60% up to 2030 due to increased nitrogen fertilizer use and increased animal manure production (cited in Smith et al, 2007). However, the CRGE will limit this emission into 250 Mt CO2e by the year 2030 (EPA, 2011). One of the bases of the plans of the green economy is improving crop and livestock production practices for higher food security and farmer income while reducing emission.

Table 7 - Amount of chemical fertilizer purchased and applied to cultivated fields in kg by wereda and year.

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abergele 856 (3)

1,763 (6)

1,220 (4)

1,776 (6)

8,821 (32)

Mereb Lekhe

921 (3)

918 (3)

1,219 (4)

1,920 (7)

6,163 (21)

TM 3,117

(19) 3,414

(19) 4,054

(22) 5,112

(29) 9,136

(51)

Adwa 5,735

(42) 6,785

(50) 6,266

(46) 8,067

(59) 10,459

(77)

KT 2,686

(9) 3,261

(11) 3,636

(12) 4,138

(15) 8,000

(26)

Average 2,663

(15) 3,228

(18) 3,279

(18) 4,203

(23) 8,516

(41)

Not only the CRGE but also many smallholder farmers are coming with new options such as avoiding or limiting the use of chemical fertilizer, mixing compost/manure with fertilizer and replacing by locally available inputs. The table above indicates that chemical fertilizer utilization is still very low. Even though the introduction of mineral fertilizers to Ethiopia are long back to the 1970s and the national recommended application rate for moisture deficit areas is 150kg/ha (100 kg DAP and 50 kg Urea) (Elias, 2002) the real average application in the study areas is 15kg to 41kg/ha (table 7). Similar reports by MOARD (2007), Elias (2002) and Pender et al., (1999) the fertilizer use in Ethiopia is between 7 and 10 kg/ha annually. Even if used most of the mineral fertilizer is used in irrigated fields (Aseffa, 2005). Many farmers are reluctant using chemical fertilizer due the limited capacity of the farmers to purchase and fear of debt (Elias, 2002), unreliable rainfall (World Bank, 2007), the ever increasing cost of mineral fertilizer (Hailu, 2010; Elias, 2002) and the sharp drop in the prices of harvested products (Müller-Sämann and Kotschi, 1994; Tegene, 1987). Moreover, there are evidences that application of 6.4 t/ha of compost can substitute 150 kg/ha of chemical fertilizer in terms of increased yields while organic carbon and organic matter are a plus over the chemical fertilizer (Hailu, 2010). This is in line with government strategy to create carbon neutral agriculture. This will be an addition to the CRGE plan of the government to reduce GHG emission through avoidance or reduction of chemical fertilizers.


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5.2.2 Maximizing the use of low external inputs Increasing agricultural yield in Ethiopia is dependent on application of inputs. As indicated above farmers are inclined more to the use of low external inputs. For example, the average amount of compost used in the study districts have dramatically increased from 2.4 to 19.2 quintals per hectare by 2006 and 2010 respectively (Table 8). This indicated that compost is becoming widely used not only in Ethiopia but also by many farmers in the Sub-Saharan Africa to improve soil fertility and crop production (Mugwe et al., 2007). By 1995 compost has been expanded into 11 percent in Southern Ethiopia (Elias, 2002) while by 2005 it has been using by about 25 percent farmers in Tigray (SSNC, 2008; Araya and Edwards, 2006). Compost production capacity of farmers vary and mainly dependent on the animal holding (Tulema et al., 2007; Drechsel and Reck, 1998) and biomass management (Hailu, 2010).

Table 8 - Amount of composted produced and applied to cultivated field in Quintal by wereda and year. District 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Abergele (low-land)

64,626 (2.3)

47,906 (1.7)

64,626 (2.3)

50,855 (1.8)

107,050 (3.8)

Mereb Lekhe (low-land)

11,342 (0.4)

14,812 (0.5)

14,049 (0.5)

8,358 (0.3)

82,795 (2.8)

TM (mid-land)

60,020 (3.6)

280,711 (15.8)

447,006 (24.8)

688,491 (38.6)

653,000 (36.3)

Adwa (mid-land)

28,125 (2.1)

112,500 (8.2)

567,334 (41.8)

277,758 (20.3)

500,439 (36.7)

KT (low land)

114,101 (3.8)

199,132 (6.7)

212,000 (7.2

228,132 (8.1)

493,576 (16.3)

Average 55,643

(2.4) 131,012

(6.6) 261,003

(15.3) 250,718

(13.8) 367,372

(19.2) Numbers in parenthesis are manure applied by quintal per hectare.

Many researchers and experts reported most farmers use animal manure for fuel. But the following table indicated that the average amount of animal manure per district ranges from 10.1 to 31.5 quintals per hectare by 2006 and 2010 respectively (table 9) varying by district and agroecology.

Table 9 - Amount of animal manure produced and applied to cultivated field in Quintal by wereda and year

District 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Abergele (low-land)

171,000 (6.0)

382,561 (13.3)

426,004 (15.0)

601,834 (21.2)

708,214 (25.3)

Mereb Lekhe (low-land)

665,234 (23.3)

803,370 (28.5)

876,131 (30.3)

674,257 (23.3)

767,744 (26.2)

TM (mid-land) 130,800

(7.9) 341,700

(19.3) 688,000

(38.1) 610,857

(34.3) 518,900

(28.9) Adwa (mid-land)

121,124 (8.9)

484,494 (35.5)

568,145 (41.8)

568,145 (41.4)

711,475 (52.2)

KT (low land) 132,320

(4.4) 260,403

(8.7) 228,126

(7.7) 239,466

(8.5) 747,586

(24.7)

Average 244,096

(10.1) 454,506

(21.0) 557,281

(26.6) 538,912

(25.8) 690,784

(31. 5) Numbers in parenthesis are manure applied by quintal per hectare.


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The average low external input application is 12.5 to 50.7 quintals of both compost and manure per hectare in 2006 and 2010 respectively. According to the study by Devi et al. (2007) the recyclable resources in Ethiopia are abundant (1.6x1011 (compost/ vermicomposting), 8.5x109 (poultry manure) and 1.8x1010 (FYM) ton per year). This is mainly because Ethiopia is the highest in livestock population in Africa (Zinash, 2001). However, the required amounts for the total agricultural land per year is 3.25x1010 (compost/ vermicomposting), 3.2x109 (poultry manure) and 9.7x107 (FYM) (Devi et al., 2007). From the study conducted by Hailu (2010) the different compost prepared by farmers' condition contain from 4.2 to 8.72 percent organic carbon to 7.24 to 15.03 percent organic matter. The application of different forms of compost, including composted manure, and the avoidance of chemical inputs contribute to the buildup of a healthy soil structure, then stimulates soil biological condition and soil microbial processes improve soil aggregate for soil carbon accumulation and the stabilization and protection of humus. It facilitates the sequestration of carbon and minimizes soil erosion and carbon loss. Compost, followed by farmyard manure and legumes has the most efficient conversion of carbon into soil carbon (IFOAM, 2009). A study in Australia has indicated that the addition of external carbon sources (such as compost) has the highest soil carbon sequestration potential (Johannes, 2011).

5.2.3 Improving agronomic practices Climate change poses a huge threat in this planet mainly in moisture deficit areas. Climate change causes prolonged droughts and erratic rainfall, which in turn will lead to, among other things, reduced water retention capacity of the soil, increasing erosion and biodiversity loss. This ultimately threatens food security and resilience of the inhabitants of the drylands. Therefore, the ecological agricultural practices in general and transplanting presently called SCI (System of Crop Intensification) in particular contribute to water efficiency and the building up of healthy soils, thereby increasing the resilience of the people and the environment. For example, low external input agriculture improves moisture retention capacity of soils (Hailu 2010; Edwards et al. 2010). Long-season crops are withdrawing and being replaced by short-season crops due to the unreliability of the onset of summer rain. This has ended to crop failure. Therefore, farmers are adapting by transplanting seedlings after preparing crop seedlings fitting to the rain and normal cropping season. SCI is increasing crop yield through improving water use efficiency and crops become tolerant to drought and water-logging (Edwards et al., 2010). This is because seed and input used reduces very much. Crops matured in time and helped the crop to escape the delay. It increases yield; for example, by 2004 Mama Yehanusus of Mai Berazio got 7.6 ton/ha from transplanted finger millet after raising the seedlings on a bed for 30 days as compared with 2.8 ton/ha for the broadcast. Again Teklu Berhe of Adi Guara by 2009 Teklu continued to raise seedling of finger millet and transplanted into his 0.25 ha and harvested 11 quintal. Many farmers continue producing higher yields especially finger millet using this technique.

Teklu Berhe of Adi Guara by 2005 he used to raise seedlings of sorghum one month before any crop was being sown. The seedlings were being transplanted into his field when the rain started. As usual rainfall was disturbed again that year. All crops especially sorghum and finger millet were failed in all fields but the sorghum transplanted by Teklu Berhe was matured in the whole village. Therefore, birds visited this field and almost finished. Many


25

farmers realized the strategy to escape the unreliable rainfall. Many farmers continue raising seedlings before the main rainfall and then transplant into another field. These crops are stronger stem, more tiller, longer spike and increase number of grains in a plant. It is not only stronger stem but also resistant to disease, etc. The other means of coping with moisture stress practicing water retention capacity. One farmer from Bete Sema'eti in the Tahtai Maichew district built a series of micro-basins in his farm-plot to hold moisture. His place was suffered by the late onset and early offset of rainfall. He could not grow maize in his homestead farm. It is a little bit sloppy to retain moisture for some time. In 2009 he realized that rainfall has retreated very early and all crops were to fail. Farmers were told by the extension to water their fields. It was tiresome but farmers tried. He realized watering his field was good but due to the slope the water could not stay longer in the field. Then he built some micro-basins in the field to retain the water. He saw that the water in these basins stayed longer while the other part dried faster. Then he built more micro-basins throughout the field. His maize field was deep-rooted, strong stems and bigger or more than one cobs. The district has chosen his practice as the best to adapt moisture stress.

Moreover, emissions per hectare can also be reduced by adopting cropping systems with reduced reliance on fertilizers, pesticides and other inputs (Paustian et al., 2004). An important example is the use of rotations with legume crops (West and Post, 2002), which reduce reliance on external N inputs although legume-derived N can also be a source of N2O (Rochette and Janzen, 2005). It is practiced by 100 percent of the Ethiopian famers (Hailu, 2010). Another group of agronomic practices are those that provide temporary vegetative cover between successive agricultural crops, or between rows of tree or vine crops.

5.2.4 Avoid land degradation and bare soil Soil carbon losses not only result in higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations but also in a general loss of soil functioning and soil biodiversity (UNEP, 2012), reduce soil nutrients (Malamoud et al. 2009), less cohesion between soil particles, degradation of soil structure reduces the soil volume for water storage and soil permeability for drainage, this can lead to greater volumes of overland flow, which exacerbates flooding and reduces groundwater recharge during rain events (UNEP, 2012; Malamoud et al. 2009).

Ensuring the soil is always covered with vegetation prevents the soil from being exposed to processes that accelerate GHG emissions from stored soil carbon (Sara and Sajal, 2009). Avoiding bare fallows through the inclusion of catch crops and green manures within organic farming systems retains nutrients for future utilization and avoids the emissions associated with additional nitrogen inputs. Cover vegetation is also important in providing a greater and more continuous supply of the root exudates that support the soil’s micro-organisms which build the soil carbon store. Sustainable agriculture promotes leaving crop residues on the field (Hailu and Sue, 2006) as a protective layer for the soil and avoids CH4 and N2O emissions caused by the burning of crop residues (IFOAM, 2009).

The SWC activities in watershed areas and farm lands combined with planting trees especially with multi-purpose trees are practicing extensively throughout the country. These are helping the ground cover and consequently the retention of soil and water. This is a duty given for all regions and weredas to accomplish every year.


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5.3 Improving Food Security

5.3.1 Increasing agricultural production Due to different reasons the overall crop production in Ethiopia/Tigray in general and the study area in particular is on increasing. Average production of the five weredas increased from 239,049 quintal by 2006 to 800,746 by 2010 (table 10). The increase is around 335 percent within the five years. The agricultural productivity has increased from 11 into 34 quintal per hectare by 2006 and 2010 respectively. The highest increase is in Adwa and Kolla Tembien weredas while Mereb Lekhe is the least. In all weredas input utilization of both external and internal has increased through time. Therefore, production is definitely based on the type and amount of inputs used (Hailu, 2010; Mitiku et al., 2003).

Table 10 - agricultural production by wereda for the years between 2006 and 2010

Wereda 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abergele 270,988

(9.5) 388,845

(13.5) 116,205

(4.1) 177,547

(6.3) 961,640

(34.4)

Mereb Lekhe 190,504

(6.7) 238,168

(8.5) 352,420

(12.2) 263,932

(9.1) 845,649

(28.9)

Tahtai Maichew 254,065

(15.4) 288,695

(16.3) 393,135

(21.8) 240,431

(13.5) 568,818

(31.6)

Adwa 203,176

(15.0) 301,498

(22.1) 283,559

(21.0) 206,282

(15.0) 519,252

(38.1)

Kolla Tembien 276,510

(9.2) 248,491

(8.3) 373,917

(12.6) 258,149

(9.2) 1,108,371

(36.6)

Average 239,049

(11.1) 293,139

(13.7) 303,847

(14.3) 229,268

(10.^) 800,746

(33.9) Numbers in parenthesis are agricultural productivity per hectare

Studies in many parts of Ethiopia show yield of crops without inputs is very low. Sue et al (2010) and Hailu (2010) indicated that yields of both chemical fertilizer and compost are significantly higher (p>99%) than in the fields where no input (check) was applied. However, farmers never give up, and instead they try to overcome the problem through different means such as manure, soil and water conservation (SWC), mineral fertilizer, compost, combination of two or more inputs, etc. For instance the study by Hailu (2010) indicates the average yields of teff and barley of 6.4 ton per ha of compost are more or less similar to those with the 150kg mineral fertilizer application and higher than the 3.2 ton per ha with compost application and the control plots (table 11). Table 11 - Grain and straw yield (kg.ha-1) by crop and treatment in Tahtai Maichew district

Treatment/crop type Teff Barley Faba bean Grain Straw Grain Straw Grain Straw

Control 872b 2812c 2173b 7092b 3334b 17065b

Mineral Fertilizer 1120a 3485a 3025a 9275a 3832ab 19728ab

3.2 t.ha-1.yr-1 compost 935b 3195b 2325b 8575a 3886ab 19822ab

6.4 t.ha-1.yr-1 compost 1113a 3428a 2950a 9225a 4230a 21039a

Same letter are not significantly different at P<0.05 confidence interval. The higher production of grain and straw is not always true of using chemical fertilizer. The teff experiment conducted in Tahtai Maichew indicated a combination of compost and chemical fertilizer yielded highest. The highest in grain production is 3.2t/ha of compost plus


27

10 percent of chemical fertilizer while straw yield is highest with 6.4t/ha plus 25 percent chemical fertilizer (table 12). This indicates combining use of inputs is not only compromising both sides but also synergizing the nutrient and production. Moreover, this is an indication of widening options for farmers to choose.

Table 12 - Teff grain and straw yield (kg.ha-1) by treatment in Tahtai Maichew district

No. Treatment Grain yield (kg/ha)

Straw yield (kg/ha)

1 Control 917 1,833 2 3.2t comp 1,000 1,500 3 3.2t comp + 10% MF 1,125 2,000 4 3.2t comp + 25% MF 1,000 2,833 5 3.2t comp + 50% MF 1,000 2,500 6 6.4t comp 1,000 2,000 7 6.4t comp + 10% MF 1,083 2,417 8 6.4t comp + 25% MF 917 3,167 9 6.4t comp + 50% MF 833 2,250

10 MF 833 2,167 Average 971 2,267

Source: Demonstration in Tahtai Maichew district (Hailu Legesse)

5.3.2 Increase the socio-economy of smallholder farmers The net benefit of farmers from their farmers varies based on their input utilization. The price of chemical fertilizer is becoming beyond their purchasing capacity (Hailu, 2010). The cost of 200 kg fertilizer (DAP and Urea) increased from 1,250 by 2008 to 2,110 by 2011 (table 13). The ever increasing prices of the chemical fertilizer are a sign of its global attachment and its unstable prices (Hailu, 2010). For that matter farmers who make and use compost are able to avoid the financial risk of taking chemical fertilizer on credit, and the compost is available when needed while chemical fertilizer is sometimes delivered too late for the farmers to use (Hailu, 2010). For example, farming families who have been able to abandon using chemical fertilizer are often seen to have healthier and better clothed children who go to school and better fed animals (Sue et al, 2010). Table 13 - The price of chemical fertilizer (Birr/100 kg) by type of fertilizer and year in Tahtai Maichew District

Type of chemical fertilizer 2008 2009 2010 2011* 2011** 2012 DAP 660.15 757.60 779.30 839.45 1,168.00 1,400.00 Urea 589.85 630.85 666.35 699.75 942.00 1,300.00 Total 1,250.00 1,388.45 1,445.65 1,539.20 2,110.00 2700.00

Source: Tahati Maichew district, Tigray (Abreha G/Selassie)

Furthermore, the increasing costs of production leads to a lower agricultural return and disturb food security by reducing family income (Ong'wen and Wright, 2007; Sanchez et al., 1997). This is because it creates unfavorable crop:fertilizer price ratios (Vlek, 2005). This problem may lead to an unbalanced situation in the net income (Araya and Edwards, 2006). Gruhn et al. (2000) reported the domestic prices of mineral fertilizer in Africa are such that one kg of nitrogenous fertilizer can cost between 6 and 11 kgs of grain. However, mineral


28

fertilizer can produce more but in the study area depends on the relibility of rainfall. That is why sometimes farmers complain that using mineral fertilzer is a waste of money (Harris, 1998). Consequently, they are reluctant to buy and use mineral fertilizer even with the opportunities of access to financial institutions. The study conducted by Devi et al. (2007) during 2005-2006 in Ethiopia reported that the production cost of organic farming were about 41 percent less than the production costs for inorganic farming. The high net income and marginal return especially from the faba bean is very important because farmers look for their socio-economic independence that they try to achieve higher returns without being trapped into debt from credit associations (Somda et al., 2002). Compost preparation improves interaction that group work is practiced in many parts of Ethiopia if not in Africa such as the practice of female farmers in Senegal (Diop, 1999). It is especially appreciated since farmers blieved that it increases their social interaction with their neighbours and participation within the family (Hailu, 2010). This is generally an indication of social sustainability and community empowerment with diverse and resilient communities with in which local population can access services and meet their needs at their own decision (Ong'wen and Wright, 2007).

5.4 Enhance sustainability

5.4.1 Enriching soil carbon Soil carbon plays a vital role in regulating climate, water supplies and biodiversity, and therefore in providing the ecosystem services that are essential to human well-being. Managing soils to obtain multiple economic, societal and environmental benefits requires integrated policies and incentives that maintain and enhance soil carbon. Decisive action needs to be taken to limit soil carbon loss due to erosion and emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere (UNEP, 2012). Soil is the third largest carbon pool on Earth’s surface (Sara and Sajal, 2009). Agricultural soils can be managed to reduce emissions by minimizing tillage, reducing use of nitrogen fertilizer and preventing erosion. Soils can capture soil carbon from the atmosphere and increase crop production. Adding biochar can further enhance carbon storage in soil. The 23 year experiment on organic farming by Rodale Institute have resulted to 15-28 percent carbon and 8-15 nitrogen increase over the conventional farming (Sara and Sajal, 2009). Recycling of organic materials is GHG emission reduction strategy and soil carbon build-up stimulated by the additional biomass return to the soil. As part and parcel of the mixed farming it is a system of removing biomass from one place to feed human and domestic animals in another place and recycle to the soil again. The break in this trend will break the natural cycle. The study by Hailu (2010) indicated improving biomass management at farming family level significantly increases the recycling capacity of smallholder farmers, compost/manure production in the farming system. A family can gain 2.5 t grain and 10.4 t straw annually (Hailu, 2010). Based on the quality compost under the study by Hailu (2010) the 7 t/ha compost application obtains 1,029 kg organic matter, 602 kg organic carbon, 77 kg total nitrogen, 2.7 kg phosphorous and 20.3 kg potassium. It is better in all soil nutrients except phosphorous than the 150 kg of mineral fertilizer application. Biological factors by biomass application significantly affects the proportion of carbon that is converted to stable soil carbon (humus) thus contributing to increased carbon sequestration in soils (IFOAM, 2009).


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Figure 3 - Ideal integrated family-level nutrient flow model to sustain smallholder agriculture

5.4.2 Sustaining yield The study conducted by Hailu (2010) revield that the Cumulative Productivity Index (CPI) of all the three field crops (teff, barley and faba bean) grown over the three years (2005-2007) clearly showed highest production from the application of 6.4 t.ha-1.yr-1 compost continuously than other application including chemical fertilizer and the control. Similarly Zvomuya et al. (2006) reported that the cumulative biomass yield of composted fields were significantly higher than the control, non-composted manure and mineral fertilizer yields. The study held in Kabete, Kenya, also showed that treatments with only mineral fertilizers initially out-yielded the no-input and FYM treatments but yields tended to decline rapidly (Nandwa and Bekunda, 1998). This may be because compost accumulates nutrient in the soil, improves soil structure and then moisture holding capacity.


30

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

2005 2006 2007

Year of harvest

Com

mul

ativ

e Pr

oduc

tivity

val

ue

(%)

Control MF 3.2 t/ha 6.4 t/ha

Figure 4 - Cumulative productivity index of grain and straw production for teff, barley and faba bean

crops (percent) However, the amount of mineral fertilizer used by farmers range between 15 - 41kg per hectare, which is still low similar with the rainfed areas of Sub-Saharan Africa 10 kg (Vlek, 2005; Nandwa and Bekunda, 1998); farmers in Ethiopia use 7 kg (MOARD, 2007; Elias, 2002); 8 kg (Stoorvogel et al., 1993; Oluoch-Kosura et al., 2001) while on the other hand the world average application rate is 96 kg.ha-1.yr-1 (Kimani and Lekasi, 2004; Oluoch-kosura et al., 2001). According to the farmers of the study area using mineral fertilizer requires reliable rainfall and good soil; otherwise it upsets farmers socially and economically if used in degraded and moisture stress areas. From this farmers realize the role of compost in sustaining yield and improving the soil (Ouedraogo et al., 2001).

Generally yield increase is definitely the result of inequity in poverty, health, nutrition and trade with many costs including, environmental unsustainability, soil loss and degradation, over-utilization of water, water pollution, habitat and biodiversity loss, global warming and climate change. While on the other hand ecological management techniques for successful climate change mitigation and adaptation; including legumes in crop rotations, supporting low external input agriculture, applying water-conserving practices, promoting agro-bio-diversity for increased resilience of agricultural systems and the diversification of agriculture (IFOAM, 2009).

5.5 Agroforestry Agroforestry is one typical activity of the sustainable (ecological) agriculture where most farmers are practicing. It is being practiced since long and introduced into FTCs and many farming families through out the country. Combining permanent and annual crop species enhances the eco-functionality, productivity of the farming system (IFOAM, 2009), crop diversification, risk reduction and adaptation to the negative effects of climate change (hailu,


31

2010). Perennial plants develop their roots and branches over many years to store carbon in the vegetation and soil while annual plants comparatively little soil carbon. According to Sara and Sajal (2009) perennial crops, grasses, trees etc constantly maintain and develop their root and woody biomass and associated carbon while providing vegetative cover for soils.

5.6 Improving livestock and manure management By 2010 livestock GHG emission in Ethiopia was estimated 65 Mt CO2e through methane emission arising from digestion process and nitrous oxide from excretion (EPA, 2011). It accounts more than 40 percent of the total emission in Ethiopia. Smallholder farming normally integrates crops and animals. This allows efficient feed and manure use and avoids manure oversupply, thus reducing CO2, N2O and CH4 emissions from over-fertilization, storage and dumping. Improved manure management including distribution systems, such as slurry injections into soils, covering manure and slurry storage sites reduces CH4 emissions (Sara and Sajal, 2009). In addition, CH4 can be captured and used as biogas, where the 14,000 biogas projects in Ethiopia started by effective composting process (NBPE, 2008). This project helped famers producing 20-30 tones of quality compost per family every year. In aerobic composting, assuring sufficient aeration will avoid CH4 and N2O emissions. Partial microbial digestion of farmyard manure such as through composting for example promotes its potential to be converted into securer forms of soil carbon (IFOAM, 2009). Moreover, the application of compost has improved the production of crops, vegetables, protect biodiversity, etc. It increases food availability for a growing human population10 (IFOAM, 2009).

5.7 Local production and consumption Smallholder farming in Ethiopia is a reflection of the local production and local consumption of both farm inputs and outputs. This maximizes efficiencies and synergies, reduces emissions from transportation and increase access to local food production and therefore enhances food security. All organic production, distribution and marketing systems should aim to minimize emissions regardless of where production and consumption occurs. Smallholder farming is less affected by the globalized world. This is because the main target of their production is to consume in the family or to sell at local market when ever necessary. International agricultural markets deliver economic benefits to exporting countries but it can also lead to long term negative effects on local food security due to reduced local food accessibility especially for poor people who are most vulnerable to price fluctuations. The promotion of local food production in food insecure regions is critical for increasing food accessibility and also reduces emissions (IFOAM, 2009). 5.8 Other options Under smallholder farming practice there are many other options. These are crop rotation, crop residue, green manuring, SWC, planting multi-purpose trees, tea manure, etc to accommodate the type of soil, crop and moisture. In Tahtai Maichew fermented juice of different leaves, stem and root plant are being used. The end product of the liquid juice is used for fruits and vegetables. Its application increases their vigourosity. Moreover, it improves pests and diseases of the plants, improve the nutrient supply and improves moisture supply. Crop residues include the above-ground biomass of plants remaining in the field after grains, tubers and other products have been collected. The crop residues are incorporated into


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the soil and /or left as mulch (Elias, 2002). It is used for soil protection, soil fertility improvement (Smith and Elliott, 1990) and moisture retension. Others immediately plough fields to protect roaming of animals due to the free range grazing practices (Araya and Edwards, 2006). All practices enhance the adaptation capacity of the poor to reduce the risk of being victim to the effect of climate change.

Seasonal selection of livestock is also practiced by farmers to fit the existing situation such as through selective care e.g. oxen are handled by with high care while donkey is very important any time because it is least affected by drought and/or famine. Diversification is not only practiced by crops it is also practiced for herd/animal composition to reduce risk of loss. This is by reducing herd size, developing a cut-and-carry feeding system, fodder conservation and feed source diversification.


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CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSSIONS

Agriculture is the main economic activity of Ethiopia dominated by smallholder farming. The aggravated land degradation and changing climate are the main problems of the agriculture sector. Moreover, the effect of climate change is an additional problem not only to Ethiopian farmers but also to human being globally. Consequently Ethiopian farmers are facing the negative effect in their agriculture in general. The findings and recommendations of this study are summarized as follows:

Ethiopia is a country of diverse agro-ecology it has a diverse adaptation to diverse problems. Smallholders cope with the negative effects of climate change and minimize their risk by a) seasonal selection of animals to fit the situation by requiring less feed; b) increasing animal composition or reducing herd size, c) developing a cut and carry system d) crop diversification; e) in-situ adaptation of bee colony; f) changing cropping techniques; g) improving farm innovation, h) income diversification, etc (Hailu, 2011). This indicates that varieties of farming innovations have improved family resilience to the negative effect of climate change. These measures are effective and acceptable by many farmers due to their being pro-poor and appropriate in solving local and global problems. Therefore, the importance of the smallholder farming should be recognized, promoted and scaled-up and/or scaled-out with a international cooperation. This is because good National Policies are good but they not enough to scale up climate actions (Sara and Sajal, 2009).

“Land use-based climate solution can create co-benefits that meet several of the important of the UN’s MDGs in developing countries. These goals include eradicating extreme poverty and hunger (Goal 1), promoting gender equality and empowering women (Goal 3), and ensuring environmental sustainability, including access to safe drinking water and conservation of biodiversity (Goal 7). Indeed, a key pillar for achieving the hunger eradication goal is to restore and protect natural resources, including soils and vegetative cover, upon which poor people rely for food production and gathering. Globally, land-based climate solutions can help the transformation of agricultural and forestry production systems and ecosystem services to a sustainable and climate friendly trajectory. They can also help finance land management that produces ecosystem services. Potential to co-benefits are extensive and diverse. Although climate leaders are sensitive to these ideals … they give much attention in the energy sector.” Sara and Sajal, 2009.

Based on the quality compost under the study by Hailu (2010) a farming family of 4-5 members with 4 cattle can obtain 1,029 kg organic matter, 602 kg organic carbon, 77 kg total nitrogen, 2.7 kg phosphorous and 20.3 kg potassium annually. This has good amounts of organic matter and nitrogen than and 150 kg of mineral fertilizer. Therefore, supporting farmers through trainings for proper biomass production and management and the production of quality compost should be the priority by GOs and NGOs. This indicates us that low external input are the technologies affordable for poor, economically and socially feasible and effective, which can achieve improvements in food productivity under their own choices.

Generally the agricultural production system of smallholders is all rounded that application of locally available inputs with less or no GHG emission. While chemical


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fertilizer is high emission from production process, consumption and beyond. Moreover, the first is free while the second is dependent on financial availability (table 14). The CRGE policy of Ethiopia is good indicator for the carbon neutral agriculture. It promotes different practices such as mulching, reduced or no tillage, rotations of cash crops with perennial pastures and the use of cover crops and green manures have the potential to increase biomass returned to the soil and can therefore increase soil carbon stocks. Site-specific agricultural management, integration of several crops in a field at the same time can increase organic material, soil biodiversity and soil health, and agroforestry. Therefore, participation of all for the implementation of this green economy should be a priority.

Table 14 - Over all socio-economic and GHG emission indicators in the Ethiopian agriculture Item Availabi

lity Opportunity of GHG emission Finance

required Dependency

Production CO2 CH4 N2O Petroleum based Transportation

Fertilizer Global Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Compost Local No No No No No* No No FYM Local No No No No No* No No

*As it is produced at local level its transportation is animal drawn.

Production for smallholder farming through ecological means is at least equal with the conventional type without upsetting the family economy. However, the evaluation of food supply varies from country to country from organization to organization. For example, when ever production is higher at field level calculating if this can feed the world. However, one technology can not apply or feed the diversified world. Instead synergizing all technologies can work and feed the world. Therefore, regardless of the push of different organizations or companies to one edge diversified technologies and practices should be promoted and practiced at policy level.

Given the empirical evidence on the potential benefits of sustainable agriculture, the main policy question is what changes in policies, institutions, research and development are required to encourage broader adoption of sustainable agricultural practices? In order to develop, sustainable agriculture practices need to benefit from an enabling policy environment at the national level. Promote sustainable agriculture practices from extension, connecting academia with research and extension and credit facilities for non-capital purchases. Policy support to scale up and raise awareness on best practices from sustainable agricultural practices. Stable and remunerative market prices through fair trade, provide important safety nets related to good agricultural practices for resource-poor farmers. Then this requires information, networking, create closer links between applied research and farmers on the ground, through improved extension systems or other channels, is still an area where much work is needed (Menale and Zikhali, 2009).


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Category 2010 2030 (BAU)

Remark 2030 (CGRE)

Remark

1 Agriculture (livestock)

65 125 Number of cattle increased from 50 to 90 million

90 It is around 35% of the total Domestic abatement potential. The introduction of lower-emitting techniques. Increase the efficiency of the cattle value chain via higher productivity of cattle and increased off-take rate.

Agriculture (soil)

12 60 Increased fertilizer use and increase land for agriculture

2 Forestry 25 Mt 45 Mt Land conversion from forest land into agricultural land

130 Forestry alone represents around 50% of the total domestic abatement potential (or 130 Mt CO2e). The single most important lever is to reduce demand for fuel wood through fuel wood efficient stoves, other advanced cooking and baking technologies, afforestation and forest management.

Forestry 25 Mt 45 Mt Firewood consumption and logging

3 Electric power

5 Mt 5 Mt Current diesel plants closed

20 Ethiopia will have capacity to export.

4 Transport 5 Mt 40 Mt Increase of freight and passenger transport

>13 Shift to lower-emitting fuel sources such as the construction of an electric rail network and introduction of fuel efficiency vehicles.

5 Industry (cement)

4 Mt (2.7)

71 Mt (65)

21 The upgrade to more energy efficient technologies and waste heat recovery and the like.

6 Buildings 5 Mt 10 Mt Increasing urban population

7 Transition to high efficiency light bulbs and an improved handling of solid and liquid waste.

Total 150 400 250 Per capita 1.8 3.1 2.0

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