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CATEGORIESOFPEOPLEPages 1 30CausesofDeathsinChildrenYoungerthan5YearsinChinain2008
TheGreatIndianDivide
LebanonIlliteracyReportShowsAlarmingUrbanRuralDivide
RuralLifeinCrisisasYoungPeopleForcedOut
PopulationofIndia
60%ofHIVPositivePeopleinIndiaLiveinRuralAreas
AnAnalysisoftheRuralPovertyfromPeoplesPerspectivesCULTURALADVANTAGES.Pages 31 199
DifferencesinUrbanandRuralBritain
RuralandSmallTownCanadaAnalysisBulletin,Vol.3,No.3
AReviewofUrbanandRuralAreaDefinitions,ProjectReport
CURRENTPOLICIES.Pages 200 214ReinventingRuralPolicy
FarmProgramPays$1.3BilliontoPeopleWhoDontFarmECONOMICADVANTAGES.Pages 215 239
RuralDisadvantage
RuralRealities:HomegrownResponsestoEconomicUncertaintyinRuralAmerica
AgricultureHoldsKeytoFutureGrowth,Employment,andPoverty:President
EDUCATIONALADVANTAGES.Pages 240 263
100VillagePrimarySchoolMusicClassroomsProgram
AustralianRuralStudentsFaceSevereDisadvantage
ItTakesaVillage:CommunitybasedEducationinRuralCambodia
ImprovingQualityinRuralSchools
WorldBankHelpsImproveRuralEducationinRomaniaSchoolImprovementPrograms
LowEducationLevelsChallengeMuchofRuralAmerica
EmergentIssuesforRuralEducation
StudentEngagementandAchievementINDIGENOUSPEOPLE...Pages 264 281
IndigenousPeopleandClimateChangeTheKimberlyDeclarationSustainableDevelopmentandIndigenousPeoplesGoodUrbanGovernanceandInclusiveCitiesIndigenousPeoplesUrbanIndigenousPeoplesandMigration:ChallengesandOpportunities
PARTICULARCOUNTRIESPages 282 365ChinasRuralMillionLeftBehind
FranceFearsDeathofVillageLifeasCafsCallLastOrders
ThreattoRuralLifeasMoreYoungPeopleQuittheCountryside
RuralLifeinCrisisasYoungPeopleForcedOut
AmishCommunitiesFacingHealthCrisis
Without'BarefootDoctors,'China'sRuralFamiliesSuffer
TECHNOLOGICALADVANTAGES.Pages 366 395
TheRoleandValueofLocalKnowledgeinJamaicanAgriculture
Motion:ThisHouseBelievesifthePromiseofTechnologyistoSimplifyourLives,ithasFailed
VerticalFarming
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CATEGORIESOFPEOPLE
Articles
CausesofDeathsinChildrenYoungerthan5YearsinChinain2008 Page1
TheGreatIndianDivide Page9
LebanonIlliteracyReportShowsAlarmingUrbanRuralDivide Page15
RuralLifeinCrisisasYoungPeopleForcedOut Page18
Populationof
India
Page
20
60%ofHIVPositivePeopleinIndiaLiveinRuralAreas Page24
AnAnalysisoftheRuralPovertyfromPeoplesPerspectives Page25
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Title: Causesofdeathsinchildrenyoungerthan5yearsinChinain2008
Published: March27,2010
TheLancet,Volume375,Number9720,pp10831089By: IgorRudan*,KitYeeChan*, JianSFZhang,EvropiTheodoratou,Xing LinFeng, JoshuaA
Salomon,JoyELawn,SimonCousens,RobertEBlack,YanGuo,HarryCampbell,onbehalf
ofWHO/UNICEFs
Child
Health
Epidemiology
Reference
Group
(CHERG)
Source: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS01406736(10)600608/fulltext
Summary
Therearesignificantdiscrepancies inchildhealthacrossdifferentregionsofChina.Accordingtothisarticle,
[c]hildrenborninpoorruralareaswerethreetosixtimesmorelikelytodiebeforetheirfifthbirthdaythan
werethoseborninurbanorbetteroffruralareas.Therearedifferencesinothermeasuresofhealthaswell.
Peopleinurbanareasspendthreetimesasmuchaspeopleinruralareasonhealthcare.Inurbanareasthere
arealso
significantly
more
healthcare
workers
and
hospital
beds
per
person.
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Lancet 2010; 375: 108389
See Commentpage 1055
and 1058
*Joint first authors. Joint
corresponding authors.
Centre for Population Health
Sciences, University of
Edinburgh Medical School,
Edinburgh, UK
(Prof I Rudan MD,
E Theodoratou PhD,
Prof H Campbell MD); Croatian
Centre for Global Health,
University of Split Medical
School, Split, Croatia
(Prof I Rudan); Nossal Institute
for Global Health, University of
Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC,
Australia (K Y Chan PhD,
J S F Zhang MSc); School of
Public Health, Peking
University, Beijing, China
(K Y Chan, X L Feng PhD,
Prof Y Guo PhD); Harvard School
of Public Health, Boston, MA,
USA (J A Salomon PhD); Saving
Newborn Lives/Save the
Children, Cape Town, South
Africa (J E Lawn PhD); London
School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine, London, UK
(Prof S Cousens MA); and Johns
Hopkins Bloomberg School of
Public Health, Baltimore, MD,
USA (Prof R E Black MD)
Correspondence to:
Prof Harry Campbell, Centre for
Population Health Sciences,
University of Edinburgh Medical
School, Teviot Place,Edinburgh EH8 9AG, UK
Prof Yan Guo, School of Public
Health, Institute of Global
Health, Peking University Health
Science Centre, 38 Xueyuan
Road, Hai Dian District, Beijing
100083, China
Causes of deaths in children younger than 5 years in Chinain 2008
Igor Rudan*, Kit Yee Chan*, Jian S F Zhang, Evropi Theodoratou, Xing Lin Feng, Joshua A Salomon, Joy E Lawn, Simon Cousens, Robert E Black,
Yan Guo, Harry Campbell, on behalf of WHO/UNICEFs Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group (CHERG)
SummaryBackground Previous estimates of the global burden of disease for children have not included much information fromChina, leading to a large gap in data. We identified the main causes of deaths in neonates (
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children (
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number of deaths in children (
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the report; or decision to submit the paper for publication.The corresponding authors had full access to all the datain the study and had final responsibility for the decisionto submit for publication.
ResultsIn China, during 19902008, mortality rates in neonates,
postneonatal infants, and children (
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fewer than five in Shanghai (ie, better than in manywestern countries) to more than 38 in Sichuan andGuizhoueight times higher. Although congenitalabnormalities are now the leading cause of child deathsin the six wealthiest provinces (Shanghai, Tianjin,Beijing, Jilin, Jiangsu, and Guangdong), the poorestprovinces still have a large burden of deaths frompneumonia, birth asphyxia, and accidents.
DiscussionIn China, during 2008, the most frequent causes of
deaths in children (
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Although the association between Chinas one childfamily policy, and its implications for reporting andabortion practices1921 is worth investigation, we do notbelieve that it has a direct relevance to the estimates of
livebirths that are presented in this report because of theway in which we derived them. The reported rate ofprogress in reduction of child mortality rate is likely to bereal. It becomes particularly relevant when comparedwith many other countries that have similar overallmortality rates and gross domestic products, and muchsmaller population sizes, but where the progress has notbeen nearly as impressive as that in China.2
Diarrhoea was not a common cause of child deaths inChina (only 3% in 2008), which might be partly attributedto the common cultural practice of boiling water (eg, fortea and food preparation) and other hygiene practices.2224Additionally, our findings strongly suggest that accidentsare a major cause of mortality in children older than
11 months. Accidents as a cause of child deaths globallymerit and require more attention, and have beenneglected.25 Preterm birth complications will become the
most frequent cause of death in the short term becauseincreasing numbers of people are gaining access toprimary health care, and the number of deaths causedby pneumonia therefore is steadily decreasing. However,
in the long term, the numbers of people who will startgaining access to secondary health care will also increase.Birth asphyxia will then decrease in importance as acause of death and will be replaced with congenitalabnormalities. Accidents and sudden infant deathsyndrome will probably continue to increase inimportance (figure 5).
Our findings have provided new and potentially importantinsights that might be relevant to the international childhealth community outside China. Publically availableChinese databases contain much important informationthat is relevant to international health policy, and thereforeshould not be overlooked in the future. Although CHERGhas been working for many years with the experts from
WHO and UNICEF, trying to obtain useful informationfrom low-income and middle-income countries to produceepidemiological estimates that are relevant to children
Figure : Proportional contribution of most common causes of child deaths in 31 provinces in China to total number of deaths recorded in each province in
2008
Provinces are ranked according to mortality rates in children (
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worldwide, the high quantity and quality of methods usedin the studies from within China were impressive. Nowthat academic information in China is available to thepublic through searchable databases, there can be nofurther justification for omitting Chinese studies fromglobal estimates of any disease burden, especially with thepopulation size of China. We learned through this exercisethat China has larger size and higher quality of the studiesthan many of those that were done in other low-incomeand middle-income countries.
Although the focus of the international healthcommunity with respect to child survival is on provisionof vaccines, case management, and nutritional and other
novel health interventions, substantial reductionsoccurred in child mortality rates in western countries inthe first three decades of the 20th century without theavailability of any of those interventions.26 Social andeconomic determinants of health are therefore veryimportant for improvement of child survival, but they arenot well understood. The progress achieved in Chinaduring the past two decades in reduction of the childmortality rate with data for many useful indicatorsgathered at the province level, such as those related to theemergence of infrastructure, development of healthsystems, progress in education of the population,increased personal and household wealth, introductionof the one-child policy, and increased intervention
coverage will enable us to study the role of thosedeterminants in parallel with vaccination and theintroduction of other health interventions. Chinaprovides a model with potential for future studies ofsocial, economic, demographic policy, and determinantsof child survival related to health systems, and forcomparison of their importance during a period ofprogress in reduction of its child mortality rate.
Contributors
IR, KYC, YG, and HC designed the study and wrote the report. JSFZ andXLF led the systematic review of the literature and data extraction fromChinese databases. ET and SC designed the models and did the statisticalanalyses. JEL and REB provided important intellectual input at differentstages of the work and commented on the drafts of the report. JAS
contributed to interpretation of data and critical revision of the report.Conflicts of interests
We declare that we have no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grants from the Bill & Melinda GatesFoundation to the US Fund for UNICEF (number 50140, strengtheningthe evidence for maternal and child health, REB principal investigator),and to the University of Edinburgh (number 51285, modelling theimpact of emerging interventions against pneumonia, IR and HCprincipal investigators). We sincerely thank Bickhar Yeung (BallieuLibrary, University of Melbourne) whose help was invaluable to ourunderstanding of the Chinese databases.
References1 UN. The Millennium Development Goals report 2009. New York:
United Nations, 2009.
2 Countdown to 2015 for maternal, newborn, and child survival: the2008 report on tracking coverage of interventions. CountdownCoverage Writing Group, on behalf of the Countdown to 2015 CoreGroup. Lancet2008; 371: 124758.
3 Ministry of Health of the Peoples Republic of China. China HealthStatistics Yearbook 2008. Beijing: Ministry of Health of the PeoplesRepublic of China, 2009.
4 Rudan I, Lawn J, Cousens S, et al. Gaps in policy-relevantinformation on burden of disease in children: a systematic review.Lancet2005; 365: 203140.
5 Fung ICH. Chinese journals: a guide for epidemiologists.Emerg Themes Epidemiol2008; 5: 20.
6 Xia J, Wright J, Adams CE. Five large Chinese biomedicalbibliographic databases: accessibility and coverage.
Health Info Libr J2008; 25: 5561.7 Fung ICH. Seek, and ye shall find: accessing the global
epidemiological literature in different languages.Emerg Themes Epidemiol2008; 5: 21.
8 China National Knowledge Infrastructure. http://www.global.cnki.net (accessed Oct 1, 2009).
9 Wanfang Data. http://www.wanfangdata.com (accessed Oct 1, 2009).
10 Chinese Medical Current Content. http://www.cmcc.org.cn(accessed Oct 1, 2009).
11 Institute of Medical Information/Medical Library, CAMS andPUMC. http://www.imicams.ac.cn (accessed Oct 1, 2009) (inChinese).
12 Wei Pu database. http://www.cqvip.com (accessed Oct 1, 2009)(in Chinese).
13 iLibrary. http://scholar.ilib.cn (accessed Oct 1, 2009) (in Chinese).
14 Ministry of Health. http://www.moh.gov.cn/publicfiles (accessedOct 1, 2009).
15 National Bureau of Statistics China. http://www.stats.gov.cn(accessed Oct 1, 2009) (in Chinese).
16 Gapminder. http://www.gapminder.org (accessed Oct 1, 2009).
17 Lanata F, Rudan I, Boschi-Pinto C, et al. Methodological and qualityissues in epidemiological studies of acute lower respiratoryinfections in children in developing countries. Int J Epidemiol2004;33: 136272.
18 China Institute for Reform and Development. China HumanDevelopment Report 2007/08. Access for al l: basic public servicesfor 13 billion people. Beijing: China Translation and PublishingCorporation, 2008: 1221.
19 Goodkind DM. Chinas missing children: the 2000 censusunderreporting surprise. Popul Stud (Camb) 2004; 58: 28195.
20 Miller BD. Female-selective abortion in Asia: patterns, policies, anddebates. Am Anthropol2001; 103: 108395.
21 Hesketh T, Zhu WX. The one child family policy: the good, the bad,and the ugly. BMJ1997; 314: 168587.
22 Shang Q, Zhou H. Survey on the current status of drinking watersupply, latrines and the health knowledge of residents in the remoterural areas of several provinces of China. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu 1999;28: 33940 (in Chinese).
23 Zhang DQ. An analysis of the contradictions between Chinasdrinking water quality assessment and actual drinking habits.Ground Water2003; 25: 7182.
24 Liu Z. Boiled water saved Chinese people. Hebei Farm Machinery2008; 6: 35.
25 Ameratunga SN, Peden M. World report on child injury prevention:a wake-up call. Injury2009; 40: 46970.
26 Mulholland K. Childhood pneumonia mortalitya permanent globalemergency. Lancet2007; 370: 28589.
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Title: ThegreatIndiandividePublished: July316,2004
Frontline,IndiasNationalMagazineVolume21,Issue14
By: PrabhatDattaSource: http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2114/stories/20040716002009000.htm
SummaryNearlythreequartersofIndiaspopulationliveinruralareas.Relativetoruralareas,inurbanareasadultsaremorelikelytobeabletoreadandkidsaremorelikelytobeenrolledinschool.Accesstoamenitiesalsodiffersquiteabit.70%ofurbandwellersbutonly19%ofruraldwellershaveaccesstopipedwater.64%ofurbanhouseholdsbutonly 9%of ruralhouseholdshave toilets.76%ofurbanhouseholdsbutonly31%of ruralhouseholdshaveelectricity.Thereisasignificantlyhigherlifeexpectancyinurbanareas.Peopleinruralareasarepoorer thanpeople inurbanareas,and lately this trendhasbeenexacerbatedbyweakgrowth in theagriculturalsector.
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Title: Lebanonilliteracyreportshowsalarmingurbanruraldivide:
Developmentstudyshows10percenthigherreadingrateinBeirutthanBekaa
Published: Saturday,July4,2009,DailyStar
By: PatrickGaley
Source:
http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=1&article_id=103810#axzz
0tmKfs1ng
Summary
AccordingtotheLebaneseNationalHumanDevelopmentReport,adultliteracyratesaresignificantlylowerinruralthanurbanareas.Twopossiblecausesaresuggested.First,accesstoservices is limited inruralareas.Second,poorfamiliesaremorelikelytopullkidsfromschool,decreasingeducationalattainmentinpoorruralareas.Recenteffortstoimproveliteracyhavealsobeencomplicatedbysecurityconcerns.
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hp://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/Rural-life-in-crisis-as.6122641.jp
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Title: PopulationofIndia,IndiaPopulationStudiesandResearchonIndiasPopulation
Source: www.indianchild.com
ThepopulationinIndiaasat0:00hourson1stMarch2001stoodat1,027,015,247persons.Withthis,IndiabecameonlythesecondcountryintheworldafterChinatocrosstheonebillionmark.(Indiaisthe2ndmost
populatedcountryintheworld)
India'sestimatedpopulationtobe1,129,866,154,inJuly2007.India'spopulationroseby21.34%between1991 2001.Thesexratio(i.e.,numberoffemalesperthousand
males)ofpopulationwas933,risingfrom927asatthe1991Census.TotalliteracyrateinIndiawasreturned
as65.38%.
Persons 1,027,015,247
Males 531,277,078
Females 495,738,169
Source:ProvisionalPopulationTotals:India.CensusofIndia2001,Paper1of2001StructureandDynamicsPopulationofIndia.AlthoughIndiaoccupiesonly2.4%oftheworld'slandarea,itsupportsover15%oftheworld'spopulation.OnlyChinahasa largerpopulation.Almost40%ofIndiansareyoungerthan15yearsof
age.About70%ofthepeopleliveinmorethan550,000villages,andtheremainderinmorethan200towns
andcities.Over thousandsofyearsof itshistory, Indiahasbeen invaded from the Iranianplateau,Central
Asia,
Arabia,
Afghanistan,
and
the
West;
Indian
people
and
culture
have
absorbed
and
changed
these
influencestoproducearemarkableracialandculturalsynthesis.
Religion,caste,and languagearemajordeterminantsofsocialandpoliticalorganization in Indiatoday.The
governmenthasrecognized18languagesasofficial;Hindiisthemostwidelyspoken.
Although83%ofthepeopleareHindu,Indiaalsoisthehomeofmorethan120millionMuslimsoneofthe
world'slargestMuslimpopulations.ThepopulationalsoincludesChristians,Sikhs,Jains,Buddhists,andParsis.
ThecastesystemreflectsIndianoccupationalandreligiouslydefinedhierarchies.Traditionally,therearefour
broadcategoriesofcastes(varnas),includingacategoryofoutcastes,earliercalled"untouchables"butnow
commonlyreferred
to
as
"dalits."
Within thesebroad categories thereare thousandsof castesand subcastes ,whose relative status varies
fromregiontoregion.
Despite economicmodernization and laws countering discrimination against the lower end of the class
structure,thecastesystemremainsanimportantsourceofsocialidentificationformost
Hindusandapotentfactorinthepoliticallifeofthecountry.
India Population : The 1991 final census count gave India a total population of 846,302,688. However,
estimatesof
India's
population
vary
widely.
According
to
the
Population
Division
of
the
United
Nations
Departmentof InternationalEconomicandSocialAffairs,thepopulationhadalreadyreached866million in
1991.ThePopulationDivisionoftheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific
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(ESCAP)projected896.5millionbymid1993witha1.9percentannualgrowthrate.TheUnitedStatesBureau
oftheCensus,assuminganannualpopulationgrowthrateof1.8percent,putIndia'spopulationinJuly1995
at936,545,814.ThesehigherprojectionsmeritattentioninlightofthefactthatthePlanningCommissionhad
estimated a figure of 844 million for 1991 while preparing the Eighth FiveYear Plan (FY 199296; see
PopulationProjections,thisch.).
Indiaaccountsforsome2.4percentoftheworld's landmassbut ishometoabout16percentoftheglobal
population.The
magnitude
of
the
annual
increase
in
population
can
be
seen
in
the
fact
that
India
adds
almost
thetotalpopulationofAustraliaorSriLankaeveryyear.A1992studyof India'spopulationnotesthat India
hasmorepeoplethanallofAfricaandalsomorethanNorthAmericaandSouthAmericatogether.Between
1947and1991,India'spopulationmorethandoubled.
Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,Indiahasbeeninthemidstofademographictransition.Atthebeginning
ofthecentury,endemicdisease,periodicepidemics,andfamineskeptthedeathratehighenoughtobalance
outthehighbirthrate.Between1911and1920,thebirthanddeathrateswerevirtuallyequalaboutforty
eightbirthsand fortyeightdeathsper1,000population.The increasing impactof curativeandpreventive
medicine (especiallymass inoculations)broughta steadydecline in thedeath rate.By themid1990s, the
estimatedbirthratehadfallentotwentyeightper1,000,andtheestimateddeathratehadfallentotenper
1,000.Clearly,
the
future
configuration
of
India's
population
(indeed
the
future
of
India
itself)
depends
on
whathappenstothebirthrate(seefig.8).Eventhemostoptimisticprojectionsdonotsuggestthatthebirth
rate coulddropbelow twentyper1,000before theyear2000. India'spopulation is likely toexceed the1
billionmarkbeforethe2001census.
Theupwardpopulation inIndiaspiralbegan inthe1920sand isreflected in intercensalgrowth increments.
SouthAsia'spopulationincreasedroughly5percentbetween1901and1911andactuallydeclinedslightlyin
thenextdecade.Populationincreasedsome10percentintheperiodfrom1921to1931and13to14percent
inthe1930sand1940s.Between1951and1961,thepopulationrose21.5percent.Between1961and1971,
the country's population increased by 24.8 percent. Thereafter a slight slowing of the increase was
experienced:from1971to1981,thepopulation increasedby24.7percent,andfrom1981to1991,by23.9
percent(see
table
3,
Appendix).
Population in Indiadensityhas risenconcomitantlywith themassive increases inpopulation. In1901 India
counted some seventyseven persons per square kilometer; in 1981 therewere 216 persons per square
kilometer; by 1991 there were 267 persons per square kilometerup almost 25 percent from the 1981
populationdensity(seetable4,Appendix).India'saveragepopulationdensityishigherthanthatofanyother
nationofcomparablesize.Thehighestdensitiesarenotonly inheavilyurbanizedregionsbutalso inareas
thataremostlyagricultural.
PopulationofIndiagrowthintheyearsbetween1950and1970centeredonareasofnewirrigationprojects,
areas subject to refugee resettlement, and regions of urban expansion. Areaswhere population did not
increaseat
arate
approaching
the
national
average
were
those
facing
the
most
severe
economic
hardships,
overpopulatedruralareas,andregionswithlowlevelsofurbanization.
The 1991 census, which was carried out under the direction of the Registrar General and Census
CommissionerofIndia(partoftheMinistryofHomeAffairs),inkeepingwiththeprevioustwocensuses,used
thetermurbanagglomerations.Anurbanagglomerationformsacontinuousurbanspreadandconsistsofacityortownand itsurbanoutgrowthoutsidethestatutory limits.Or,anurbanagglomeratemaybetwoor
moreadjoining citiesor townsand theiroutgrowths.Auniversity campusormilitarybase locatedon the
outskirtsofacityortown,whichoftenincreasestheactualurbanareaofthatcityortown,isanexampleof
anurbanagglomeration. In Indiaurbanagglomerationswithapopulationof1millionormoretherewere
twentyfourin1991arereferredtoasmetropolitanareas.Placeswithapopulationof100,000ormoreare
termed"cities"
as
compared
with
"towns,"
which
have
apopulation
of
less
than
100,000.
Including
the
metropolitanareas,therewere299urbanagglomerationswithmorethan100,000populationin1991.These
largeurban agglomerations are designated as Class I urban units. Therewere five other classesofurban
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agglomerations,towns,andvillagesbasedonthesizeoftheirpopulations:ClassII(50,000to99,999),ClassIII
(20,000 to49,999),Class IV (10,000 to19,999),ClassV (5,000 to9,999),andClassVI (villagesof less than
5,000;seetable5,Appendix).
Theresultsofthe1991censusrevealedthataround221million,or26.1percent,ofIndian'spopulationlived
inurbanareas.Ofthistotal,about138millionpeople,or16percent,livedinthe299urbanagglomerations.
In1991thetwentyfourmetropolitancitiesaccountedfor51percentofIndia'stotalpopulationlivinginClass
Iurban
centers,
with
Bombay
and
Calcutta
the
largest
at
12.6
million
and
10.9
million,
respectively
(see
table
6,Appendix).
Intheearly1990s,growthwasthemostdramatic inthecitiesofcentralandsouthern India.About twenty
cities in those two regionsexperiencedagrowth rateofmore than100percentbetween1981and1991.
Areas subject to an influx of refugees also experienced noticeable demographic changes. Refugees from
Bangladesh,Burma,andSriLankacontributedsubstantiallytopopulationgrowthintheregionsinwhichthey
settled. Less dramatic population increases occurred in areas where Tibetan refugee settlements were
foundedaftertheChineseannexationofTibetinthe1950s.
Themajorityofdistrictshadurbanpopulationsrangingonaveragefrom15to40percentin1991.According
tothe
1991
census,
urban
clusters
predominated
in
the
upper
part
of
the
Indo
Gangetic
Plain;
in
the
Punjab
and Haryana plains, and in part ofwestern Uttar Pradesh. The lower part of the IndoGangetic Plain in
southeastern Bihar, southernWest Bengal, and northern Orissa also experienced increased urbanization.
SimilarincreasesoccurredinthewesterncoastalstateofGujaratandtheunionterritoryofDamanandDiu.In
theCentralHighlands inMadhyaPradeshandMaharashtra,urbanizationwasmostnoticeable in the river
basinsandadjacentplateauregionsoftheMahanadi,Narmada,andTaptirivers.Thecoastalplainsandriver
deltasoftheeastandwestcoastsalsoshowedincreasedlevelsofurbanization.
Thehilly, inaccessible regionsof thePeninsularPlateau, thenortheast,and theHimalayas remain sparsely
settled.Asageneralrule,thelowerthepopulationdensityandthemoreremotetheregion,themorelikelyit
is to count a substantial portion of tribal (seeGlossary) people among its population (see Tribes, ch. 4).
Urbanizationin
some
sparsely
settled
regions
is
more
developed
than
would
seem
warranted
at
first
glance
at
theirlimitednaturalresources.AreasofwesternIndiathatwereformerlyprincelystates(inGujaratandthe
desertregionsofRajasthan)havesubstantialurbancentersthatoriginatedaspoliticaladministrativecenters
andsinceindependencehavecontinuedtoexercisehegemonyovertheirhinterlands.
ThevastmajorityofIndians,nearly625million,or73.9percent,in1991livedinwhatarecalledvillagesofless
than5,000peopleorinscatteredhamletsandotherruralsettlements(seeTheVillageCommunity,ch.5).The
stateswithproportionatelythegreatestruralpopulations in1991werethestatesofAssam (88.9percent),
Sikkim(90.9percent)andHimachalPradesh(91.3percent),andthetinyunionterritoryofDadraandNagar
Haveli (91.5percent).Thosewith thesmallest ruralpopulationsproportionatelywere thestatesofGujarat
(65.5percent),Maharashtra (61.3percent),Goa (58.9percent),andMizoram (53.9percent).Mostof the
otherstates
and
the
union
territory
of
the
Andaman
and
Nicobar
Islands
were
near
the
national
average.
Two other categories of India's population that are closely scrutinized by the national census are the
Scheduled Castes (see Glossary) and Scheduled Tribes (see Glossary). The greatest concentrations of
ScheduledCastemembersin1991livedinthestatesofAndhraPradesh(10.5million,ornearly16percentof
the state'spopulation),TamilNadu (10.7million,or19percent),Bihar (12.5million,or14percent),West
Bengal(16million,or24percent),andUttarPradesh(29.3million,or21percent).Together,theseandother
Scheduled Caste members comprised about 139 million people, or more than 16 percent of the total
populationofIndia.ScheduledTribemembersrepresentedonly8percentofthetotalpopulation(about68
million).Theywere found in1991 in thegreatestnumbers inOrissa (7million,or23percentofthestate's
population),Maharashtra (7.3million,or9percent),andMadhyaPradesh (15.3million,or23percent). In
proportion,however,
the
populations
of
states
in
the
northeast
had
the
greatest
concentrations
of
Scheduled
Tribemembers.Forexample,31percentofthepopulationofTripura,34percentofManipur,64percentof
Arunachal Pradesh, 86 percent ofMeghalaya, 88 percent ofNagaland, and 95 percent ofMizoramwere
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Title: 60%ofHIVPositivePeopleinIndiaLiveInRuralAreas,WHOReportSays
Source: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles
Viewedon25/03/2010
About60%oftheapproximately5.2millionadultslivingwithHIV/AIDSinIndialiveinruralareas,accordingtoareportrecentlyreleasedbytheWorldHealthOrganization,PTI/FinancialExpressreports.Accordingtothereport,HIVprevalenceamongadults isabout1% in fiveof India's35statesand territories.HIVprevalenceamonginjectiondrugusersinthecountryhasincreasedfrom7%in2002to23%in2005,thereportsaid.Inaddition, the report found thatHIV prevalence among commercial sexworkers inMumbai has remainedbetween40%and50%duringthepastfiveyears.Thereportalsofoundthatin18of30districtsintheIndianstateMaharashtra,HIV prevalence amongwomen visiting government prenatal clinicswas 1% or higher.Similarfigureswererecordedin16of25districtsinKarnatakastate,accordingtothereport.ThereportalsofoundthatHIVprevalenceamongmenwhohavesexwithmenisbetween1%and40%across18areasthathavetargetedpreventionprograms.Accordingtothereport,86%ofreportedAIDScasesinthecountryweretransmittedthroughsexualcontact,PTI/FinancialExpressreports(PTI/FinancialExpress,4/26).
Page 24
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CULTURALADVANTAGES
Articles
DifferencesinUrbanandRuralBritain Page31
RuralandSmallTownCanadaAnalysisBulletin,Vol.3,No.3 Page43
AReviewofUrbanandRuralAreaDefinitions,ProjectReport Page60
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O f f i c e f o r N a t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c s 23
9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8 P o p u l a t i o n T r e n d s9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8 P o p u l a t i o n T r e n d s
Chris Denham and Ian White
Census Division
ONS
Differences in urban and
rural Britain
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Statistics for urban areas have been prepared and published from
the last four censuses of population for two reasons. First, because
of the publics interest in places that are more readily recognisable
as traditional towns and cities than are administrative areas, such as
local authorities, most of which comprise a mixture of both urban
and rural land; the identification of such urban areas are also useful
in setting local planning policies. Second, they provide information
on the characteristics of urban populations as a whole compared
with the population living outside urban areas termed rural in
this article.
THE CONCEPTS OF TOWNS AND URBAN AREAS
In reports on urban areas from the 1991 Census1-6
the definition ofa town put forward is the traditional concept of a free-standing
built-up area with a service core and with a sufficient number and
variety of shops and services, including perhaps a market, to make
it recognisably urban in character. It would have administrative,
commercial, educational, entertainment and other social and civic
functions and, in many cases, evidence of being historically well
established. A local network of roads and other means of transport
would focus on the area, and it would be a place drawing people
for services and employment from surrounding areas.
Urban areas in Britain are, however, more complex, On one hand,
historically free-standing towns have, over the years, grown and
coalesced into continuously built-up areas, while subsidiary central
places have developed as suburbs and satellite towns. This was
recognised in the definition of conurbations in the 1951 Census.7
On the other hand, some historic towns have stagnated and have
lost central place functions.
Almost 90 per cent of people in Britain live in
urban areas and just over half the population
are resident in 66 urban areas with populations
of 100,000 or more. These and a wide range of
key results from the 1991 Census have been
published for all urban areas in Great Britain,
updating information that was prepared for the
first time after the 1981 Census.
This article summarises the socio-demographic
characteristics and distributions of urban and
rural populations in Great Britain and
describes how the distribution of urban
population has changed in the decade 1981-91.
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O f f i c e f o r N a t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c s24
P o p u l a t i o n T r e n d s 9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8
DEFINITIONS OF TOWNS AND URBAN AREAS
There are several ways to define the concept of a town. It could be
defined:
(a) in terms of its administrative boundary, that is, the area
administered by a city, borough or town council. This is the method
that had been followed in censuses in Great Britain up to and
including 1971, but which, since local government re-organisation
in the mid-1970s, became almost entirely unsuited for the
definition of urban areas because many districts had been
deliberately drawn up to bring together towns and the surrounding
rural countryside into single administrative units;
(b) in terms of the built-up area (the bricks and mortarapproach);
(c) in terms of the areas for which it provides services and facilities -
the functional area, which may embrace not only the built-up
area but also free-standing settlements outside the urban area
together with tracts of surrounding countryside if the population
in these surrounding areas depend on the urban centre for servicesand employment;
(d) using density (either of population or of buildings) as an indicator
of urbanisation.
However, implementation of any of these approaches involves
some arbitrary decisions in drawing up boundaries because, in
practice, towns tend to merge physically and functionally with
neighbouring towns and their hinterlands.
Details of these possible approaches and their advantages and
disadvantages are described more fully in the published 1991
Census reports on urban and rural areas.
In England and Wales, two methods were considered: the first
based on a combination of population density and land use; and the
second on the extent of urban development indicated on Ordnance
Survey (OS) maps. The latter was selected as it met the needs of
both the then Office of Population Censuses and Survey (OPCS)
and Department of the Environment (DOE) and enabled
internationally comparable statistics to be produced for Eurostat
and the United Nations. Basically, the same criteria were adopted
for defining urban areas in the 1991 Census. In Scotland, the
method used was a mix of the bricks and mortar approach and the
population density methods. (See Box A for a summary definition
of urban areas identified in the 1991 Census.)
S U M M A R Y F I N D I N G S
U r b a n a r e a s b y s i z e o f r e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n
The table below shows the number of main urban areas (that is, not
including sub divisions of areas) in England and Wales and in
Scotland by size of resident population. The size categories have
been chosen to meet the requirements of Eurostat and other
international organisations.
Overall, nine out of ten people in Great Britain live in urban areas.
Over half of the population (53.4 per cent) live in areas with
populations of 100,000 or more, and almost half of these (24.9 per
cent of all people in Great Britain) live in the four urban
agglomerations in England with a population of over a million,
namely the Urban Areas of Greater London (7.6 million), WestMidlands (2.3 million), Greater Manchester (2.3 million) and West
Yorkshire (1.4 million). Although the table would appear to show
that there is no urban area in Scotland with a population of more
than a million (Glasgow, with 663 thousand population being the
largest single locality), the population of the largest continuously
urban area in Strathclyde7 (defined on a similar basis to such areas
in England and Wales see Box A) of which Glasgow is a part, is a
little over 1.3 million. On the basis of this definition some 14.0
million people (27.4 per cent of the total population of Great
Britain) were resident in these larger urban agglomerations in 1991.
Though the total number of urban areas has increased from 2,231
in 1981 to 2,307 in 1991, the proportion of the population living in
urban Britain has remained at much the same level, declining only
slightly from 89.8 per cent to 89.6 per cent (see Table 2). A small
decline in the number of urban areas in the population range 50-
200 thousand residents from 103 in 1981 to 98 in 1991, chiefly in
the more metropolitan parts of the country, has been more than
matched by increases in the numbers of smaller urban areas in the
shire counties, particularly in the population range of 5-10
thousand (379 to 407) and under 2,000 (409 to 460).
Table 1
Size of area Great Britain England and Wales Scotland(residents)
Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage
of areas* of total of areas* of total of areas of total
population population population
All urban areas 2,307 89.6 1,859 89.7 448 88.9
1,000,000 and over 4 24.9 4 27.4 - -500,000 - 999,999 6 7.6 5 7.0 1 13.3200,000 - 499,999 23 12.8 22 13.2 1 8.0100,000 - 199,999 33 8.1 31 8.2 2 7.0
50,000 - 99,999 65 8.4 61 8.7 4 5.0
20,000 - 49,999 167 9.5 141 8.7 26 17.710,000 - 19,999 264 6.8 213 6.0 51 14.5
5,000 - 9,999 407 5.2 323 4.6 84 11.62,000 - 4,999 878 5.0 756 4.8 122 7.5Under 2,000 460 1.3 303 1.0 157 4.4
* Does not include sub divisions of urban areas in England and Wales
Number of urban areas by size of resident population, 1991 Census
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9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8 P o p u l a t i o n T r e n d s
The 60 most populous urban areas are listed in Table 3 along with
their 1981 Census ranking. Population in the Greater London
Urban Area increased by 85 thousand during the intercensal decade
but declined in each of the other three main urban agglomerations
in England (by over 106 thousand in total). Many of the apparent
increases in the urban area population illustrated in the table reflect
the merger of one or more separate 1981 areas to form larger
aggregates. For example, Liverpool UA now includes as one of its
sub divisions, the former urban area of St Helens which had a 1981
population of almost 172 thousand residents. Similarly, the 1991
urban areas of Reading/Wokingham and Dearne Valley were both
formed from the mergers of substantially populated 1981 urban
areas.
Size of area 1981 1991
Number Cumulative population Number Cumulative population
of areas (thousands) (per cent) of areas (thousands) (per cent)
1,000,000 and over 4 13,692 25.6 4 13,671 24.9500,000 - 999,999 6 17,717 33.1 6 17,827 32.5200,000 - 499,999 22 24,302 45.4 23 24,835 45.2100,000 - 199,999 28 28,112 52.5 33 29,299 53.4
50,000 - 99,999 75 33,312 62.2 65 33,886 61.7
20,000 - 49,999 167 38,473 71.8 167 39,118 71.310,000 - 19,999 260 42,076 78.6 264 42,858 78.1
5,000 - 9,999 379 44,716 83.5 407 45,716 83.32,000 - 4,999 881 47,447 88.6 878 48,461 88.3
Under 2,000 409 48,086 89.8 460 49,190 89.6Total areas 2,231 2,307
Urban areas and cumulative resident population, by size of area, Great Britain, 1981 and 1991 CensusesTable 2
Box AThe 1991 Census definition of urban
areas
The starting point in the definition of urban areas in
England and Wales is the identification of areas with
land use which is irreversibly urban in character. Such
urban land use comprises:
(a) permanent structures and the land on which they
are situated (built-up site);
(b) transportation corridors (such as roads, railways,
rivers and canals) which have built-up sites on one
or both sides, or which link up built-up sites which
are less than 50 metres apart;
(c) transportation features such as airport and
operational airfields, railway yards, motorway
service areas and car parks;
(d) mine buildings (but mineral workings and quarriesare excluded); and
(e) any area completely surrounded by built-up sites.
Areas such as playing fields and golf courses are
excluded unless they are completely surrounded by
built-up sites as in (e).
The prerequisite for the recognition of an urban area is
that the area of urban land should extend for 20
hectares or more. Separate areas of urban land are
linked if less than 50 metres apart. The critical factor in
the recognition of an urban area is that it should have a
minimum population of approximately 1,000 persons.
However, as there was no prior information on the
1991 populations of areas of urban land, a proxy
threshold was applied by excluding areas with less than
four 1991 Census enumeration districts (EDs). This
resulted in the exclusion of some areas of urban land
with more than 1,000 population, but very few above
2,000. In a very few cases more than 1,000 people may
have been living in free-standing blocks of land of less
than 20 hectares.
In Scotland the method used to define urban areas
(often referred to as localities) was a mix ofbuilt-up
area and density approaches. In essence each area was
defined as a set of urban postcodes classified as such if
they had a population density of at least 5 residents/
hectare, and/or had been identified as in an locality in
the 1981 Census, and then groups of adjoining urban
postcodes were then identified and denoted as a locality
if the number of residents in all the postcodes in the
group was 500 or more.
Although the methods of identifying urban areas in
England and Wales and localities in Scotland are not
identical, the essential concept of urban land and the
use of built-up areas in definition is very similar. In
summary, the total urban (and thus, rural) population in
Scotland is defined by a specific area size threshold; this
is not strictly comparable with the basis of definition in
England and Wales, where an urban area contains four
or more EDs. However, the picture of urban and rural
populations north and south of the border is not
seriously affected by this difference in comparability
since urban areas in the 1,000 to 2,000 population range
account for a relatively small proportion of the total
urban population. Thus individual urban areas andlocalities may be compared and contrasted throughout
Great Britain.
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P o p u l a t i o n T r e n d s 9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8
On the other hand the notable increase in the population of Milton
Keynes Urban Area reflects more the urbanisation of the
surrounding rural land particularly to the north west around Stony
Stratford and to the north east linking with Newport Pagnell.
Not all urban areas identified in the 1981 Census retained their
urban status in 1991. Villages such as Orsett (in Essex), Haxey
(Humberside) and Woodhall Spa (Lincolnshire) all had urban
populations over 2,000 in 1981 but failed to meet the criteria to be
defined as urban in 1991. In contrast, there were some 133 areas inEngland and Wales, newly classified as urban in 1991. Many of the
larger of these, such as Bentley Health (5,984 population in 1991,
south of Solihull), Ingleby (4,325, in Teesside), and Martlesham
Heath (3,113, east of Ipswich) are sub divisions of larger urban
areas (in these cases the Urban Areas of West Midlands, Teesside
and Ipswich respectively). But others have become significantly
large separate urban areas, such as North Darent (3,292 population,
south of Dartford) and Pannal (2,778, south of Harrogate). Figure 1
shows the distribution of all urban areas throughout Great Britain,
separately identifying the 60 with the largest resident populations
listed in Table 3.
T he c ha ng i ng f a c e o f u r b a n a nd r ur a l B r i t a i n
Some 21 of the counties in England and Wales and the former
Scottish Regions and Islands Areas have more than double the
national proportion of rural population (10.4 per cent) (see Table 4
and Figure 2). Of these, 11 counties are in England, 4 in Wales and
6 in Scotland (including each of the three Islands Areas). In total
these counties contain 2.5 million of a total of 5.7 million people in
rural areas (43.3 per cent). Ten have proportions of rural population
at least three times the national average, and all are remote from
the main urban agglomerations (five being in Scotland and a
further three in Wales). The highest proportions with a rural
population are found in the three Scottish Islands Areas (Western
Isles 66.9 per cent, Shetland 62.7 per cent and Orkney 57.4 per
cent) followed by the Welsh counties of Powys (57.1 per cent) and
Dyfed (43.1 per cent). Cornwall (with 36.1 per cent) and Somerset(31.4 per cent) are the English counties with the highest
proportions of people in rural areas, ranking seventh and tenth
respectively.
All but one of these counties/Scottish Regions (Devon) were in the
top 21 most rural parts of the country in 1981. Oxfordshire
(previously ranked 20th) dropped to 23rd in the 1991 rankings.
While, overall, the national proportion of the population resident in
rural areas has remained at just about the same level since the 1981
Census (10.38 per cent compared with 10.44 per cent), the
population in some of these more rural parts of the country has
become more concentrated in urban settlements. This was
particularly so in Scotland, where the proportions of urbanpopulations in each of the three Island Areas, Highland, Dumfries
and Galloway, and Borders all increased, as did the proportions in
East Anglia, much of the West Midlands region, and in the counties
bordering between the South East and South West regions.
1 Greater London UA 7,651.6 7,566.6 (1)
2 West Midlands UA 2,296.2 2,338.8 (2)3 Greater Manchester UA 2,277.3 2,319.6 (3)4 West Yorkshire UA 1,446.0 1,467.4 (4)5 Tyneside 886.0 776.4 (5)6 Liverpool UA+ 838.0 747.8 (7)7 Glasgow* 663.0 754.6 (6)8 Sheffield UA 633.4 634.6 (8)9 Nottingham UA 613.7 593.8 (9)
10 Bristol UA 522.8 517.4 (10)
11 Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton 437.6 423.1 (11)12 Leicester UA 416.6 404.4 (14)13 Portsmouth UA 409.3 406.8 (13)14 Edinburgh* 401.9 408.8 (12)15 Teesside UA 369.6 381.5 (15)16 The Potteries 368.0 373.7 (16)17 Bournemouth UA 358.3 319.1 (18)
18 Reading/Wokingham 335.8 194.1 (33)19 Coventry/Bedworth 331.2 347.9 (17)20 Kingston upon Hull UA 310.6 322.1 (19)
21 Cardiff UA 308.4 279.8 (21)22 Southampton UA 276.8 269.9 (23)23 Swansea UA 273.1 279.2 (22)24 Birkenhead UA 270.2 280.6 (20)25 Southend UA 266.7 262.3 (24)26 Blackpool UA 261.4 258.9 (25)27 Preston UA 256.4 244.6 (26)28 Plymouth UA 245.3 238.6 (27)29 Aldershot UA 231.2 219.7 (28)30 Derby UA 223.8 218.0 (30)
Urban area (UA) Resident population (000s)
1991 Census 1981 Census
(and ranking)
+ The 1991 area includes St Helens, formerly a separate urban area in 1981
* On the basis of the definition of an urban area in England and Wales, the Greater Glasgow UA (see text) had a 1991 Census population of 1,323,089 and would have been ranked 5th. Edinburgh UA
(comprising the urban localities of Edinburgh and Musselburgh) had a 1991 Census population of 422,540 and would have been ranked 12th.
The 1981 figure refers to the former Reading UA. In 1981 Wokingham was a separate urban area.
The 1981 figure refers to the former Barnsley UA. In 1981 Dearne Valley was a separate urban area.
** The 1981 figures relates to the aggregate of the three former separate urban areas of Telford Dawley (28,645), Telford North (53012) and Telford South (23,318).
The 1981 figure relates to the aggregate of the two former separate urban areas of Southport (88,596) and Formby (26,852).
Table 3 Urban areas with populations of 100,000 or more in 1991
Urban area (UA) Resident population (000s)
1991 Census 1981 Census
(and ranking)
31 The Medway Towns 222.4 215.0 (29)
32 Luton/Dunstable 221.3 211.6 (31)33 Dearne Valley UA 211.4 127.2 (47)34 Aberdeen 189.7 186.8 (34)35 Sunderland UA 189.3 201.0 (32)36 Norwich UA 185.4 180.5 (35)37 Northampton UA 183.1 154.2 (39)38 Wigan UA 174.4 178.4 (36)39 Dundee 159.0 172.3 (37)40 Milton Keynes UA 155.5 93.3 (-)
41 Mansfield UA 155.0 154.5 (38)42 Warrington UA 152.5 129.1 (45)43 Burnley/Nelson 149.9 153.3 (40)44 Swindon 145.2 127.3 (46)45 Grimsby/Cleethorpes 136.5 136.6 (42)46 Blackburn/Darwen 135.9 140.4 (41)47 Peterborough UA 134.8 113.4 (53)
48 Ipswich UA 133.3 129.7 (44)49 Doncaster UA 128.9 131.6 (43)50 Slough UA 126.7 122.2 (49)
51 Gloucester UA 126.1 106.5 (57)52 York UA 124.6 123.1 (48)53 Hastings/Bexhill 120.0 109.6 (55)54 Telford** 119.3 105.9 (59)55 Oxford UA 118.8 113.8 (52)56 Thanet UA 116.7 111.4 (54)57 High Wycombe UA 116.4 107.2 (56)58 Southport/Formby 116.3 115.4 (51)58 Crawley UA 115.6 106.2 (58)60 Newport (Gwent) UA 115.5 115.9 (50)
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The 60 Urban Areas with the largestresident populations, listed in Table 3.
KEY
Figure 1 Urban areas in Great Britain, 1991 Census
27Office for National Statistics
9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8 P o p u l a t i o n Tr e n d s
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P o p u l a t i o n T r e n d s 9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8
Figure 2 Proportion of the resident population in rural areas, counties and Scottish regions, 1991 Census
Under 5.2
5.3 - 10.4
10.5 - 20.8
20.9 - 31.2
31.3 and over
Cornwall
Devon
Somerset
Dorset
Wiltshire
Hampshire
Isle of Wight
WestSussex
EastSussex
KentSurrey
GreaterLondon
Essex
Notts
Suffolk
Norfolk
Cambs
Berks
OxonHerts
Beds
Avon
GlosGwent
S Glam.
M Glam.
W Glam.
Dyfed
Powys
GwyneddClwyd
Shropshire
Hereford &Worcester
Warws
WestMidlands
Staffs
Leics
LincolnCheshire
GreaterManchester South
YorkshireMerseyside
LancashireWest
Yorkshire
Humberside
North Yorkshire
ClevelandDurham
Tyne & Wear
Cumbria
Northumberland
Borders
Dumfries &Galloway
Strathclyde
Lothian
Central
Fife
Tayside
GrampianHighland
Western IslesShetland
Orkney
Buck
s
North
ants
Derby
shire
Percentage of resident
population in rural areas
National percentage = 10.4
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9 1 | S p r i n g 1 9 9 8 P o p u l a t i o n T r e n d s
In much of the North of England, in the extreme South West and in
West and Central Wales, however, there was a move towards an
increasing proportion of the population living in rural areas.
In many of the home counties and in those counties in a band from
Severn to the Humber there was very little change in the urban and
rural split in the population. In parts of Central Scotland this was
also the case.
Greater London, not surprisingly, has the highest proportion of
population in urban areas (99.9 per cent), and the six of the next
seven most urban parts of Britain are the English metropolitan
counties. South Glamorgan (ranking sixth overall) is the most
urban county in Wales (96.8 per cent). Strathclyde Region, even
though it stretches over a large part of western Scotland, is
dominated by the Greater Glasgow area and ranks as the eleventh
most urban county/Region in Britain with 95.2 per cent of its
population concentrated in localities.
U r b a n a n d r u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s
Some census characteristics vary by size of urban area, and there
are also many differences between the characteristics of rural and
urban areas in general. However, the grouping of urban and rural
areas as aggregates often generalises many regional and local
variations. The following paragraphs in this article describe a
number of socio-demographic characteristics measured by the
1991 Census within urban and rural areas at either the national or
county/Scottish Region area level.
D e n s i t y o f p o p u l a t i o n
There is a marked difference between population density in urban
and rural areas as a whole. Urban areas occupy just 6.0 per cent ofthe total land area in Great Britain (8.3 per cent in England, 3.1 per
cent in Wales and 2.8 per cent in Scotland). Average density of the
urban population in Great Britain is 36.0 persons per hectare (39.1
persons/hectare in England, 36.9 in Wales and 20.6 in Scotland)
compared with a density of just 0.26 persons/hectare in rural
Britain. In England there tends to be a direct relationship between
population size and density of urban areas (see Table 5), such that
the highest densities overall occur in the main urban
agglomerations (almost 44 persons/hectare), while the urban areas
of under 2,000 residents have an average density of 27 persons/
hectare. A similar pattern is found in Scotland (though the level of
density is consistently lower than in England), but in Wales the
differential in density is far less marked, with the highest average
densities found among the medium-sized urban areas in the
population ranges 50-100 thousand and 10-20 thousand.
1 Western Isles 66.9 68.5 (2)2 Shetland 62.7 68.6 (1)3 Orkney 57.4 58.5 (3)4 Powys 57.1 55.7 (4)5 Dyfed 43.1 42.1 (6)
6 Gwynedd 41.1 43.9 (5)7 Cornwall 36.1 35.4 (9)8 Highland 35.7 39.5 (7)9 Dumfries and Galloway 34.8 36.4 (8)
10 Somerset 31.4 34.9 (10)
11 Borders 30.3 31.5 (11)12 Lincolnshire 30.2 29.5 (13)13 Norfolk 29.7 30.7 (12)14 Cumbria 29.1 27.7 (17)15 Suffolk 29.0 29.4 (14)
16 North Yorkshire 28.8 27.9 (16)
17 Shropshire 26.8 28.7 (15)18 Hereford and Worcester 26.2 27.4 (18)19 Clwyd 22.6 20.8 (21)20 Devon 22.1 20.4 (25)
21 Wiltshire 21.6 24.2 (19)22 Northumberland 20.8 20.3 (26)23 Oxfordshire 20.6 22.3 (20)24 Gloucestershire 20.4 20.5 (24)25 Grampian 20.0 20.6 (23)
26 Northamptonshire 17.6 17.8 (28)27 Isle of Wight 17.0 15.8 (29)28 Warwickshire 17.0 19.0 (27)29 Cambridgeshire 16.7 20.8 (22)30 Tayside 15.3 15.5 (30)
31 Durham 13.8 12.7 (35)32 Buckinghamshire 13.7 13.9 (32)33 Dorset 13.0 14.5 (31)34 Kent 13.0 13.3 (33)35 East Sussex 12.3 12.3 (37)
36 West Sussex 12.1 12.6 (36)37 Leicestershire 11.8 11.2 (40)38 Humberside 11.7 11.5 (38)39 Bedfordshire 11.5 12.9 (34)40 Gwent 10.9 9.9 (44)
41 Derbyshire 10.8 11.1 (41)42 Staffordshire 10.6 11.0 (42)43 Essex 10.5 10.8 (43)44 Cheshire 10.5 11.4 (39)45 Central 9.4 8.8 (47)
46 Hampshire 8.9 9.4 (46)47 Surrey 8.5 8.6 (49)48 Fife 8.4 9.4 (45)49 Lancashire 8.3 8.7 (48)50 Mid Glamorgan 8.0 6.6 (53)
51 Berkshire 7.8 7.5 (50)
52 West Glamorgan 7.4 6.1 (55)53 Nottinghamshire 7.0 7.3 (52)54 Avon 6.8 7.2 (51)55 Hertfordshire 6.4 6.6 (54)
56 Strathclyde 4.8 4.6 (56)57 Lothian 4.1 4.0 (57)58 Cleveland 3.9 3.0 60)59 West Yorkshire 3.9 3.4 (58)60 South Yorkshire 3.2 2.9 (61)
61 South Glamorgan 3.2 3.4 (59)62 Tyne and Wear 1.0 1.1 (62)63 Merseyside 0.9 0.6 (64)64 Greater Manchester 0.7 1.0 (63)65 West Midlands 0.4 0.4 (65)66 Greater London 0.1 0.1 (66)
County/Scottish Region Percentage of population resident in rural areas
1991 1981 and rank
Table 4 The most rural counties and Scottish Regions
County/Scottish Region Percentage of population resident in rural areas
1991 1981 and rank
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A g e s t r uc t ur e
The percentage distribution of population by broad age group
showed some clear differences between urban and rural
populations overall (see Table 6). In particular, the proportion of
very young children (aged 0-4) were higher in urban areas in both
England and Wales (6.8 per cent) than in rural areas (5.6 per cent
and 5.8 per cent respectively). A similar but less marked pattern
was exhibited in Scotland (6.4 per cent and 6.2 per cent
respectively).
Young adults (aged 18-29) also comprised a higher proportion of
the total population in urban areas than in rural parts of the country.
In urban areas in England, for example, 18.7 per cent of the
population were in this age group compared with 14.6 per cent inrural areas, but the percentage difference was again less marked in
Scotland (18.5 per cent and 15.5 per cent) and even less in Wales
(17.4 per cent and 14.8 per cent). In contrast, the proportion of the
population who were aged 45-pensionable age was greater in rural
areas (22.9 per cent in England) than in urban areas (18.8 per cent),
reflecting the tendency for people to move to more rural parts of
the country in their later working ages. Again this difference was
less marked in Scotland and Wales.
It was generally the case that proportionately more elderly men
(aged 75 and over) lived in rural areas than in urban parts of the
country (2.7 per cent in English urban areas for example, compared
with 2.4 per cent), but that the reverse was true for elderly women.
L i m i t i n g l o n g - t e r m i l l n e s s
Rural areas, generally, had lower proportions of residents in
households with a limiting long-term illness recorded in the 1991
Census. This was the case among all age groups, and particularly
so in Scotland where only 9.5 per cent of residents in households in
rural areas reported having a long-term illness compared with 13.3
per cent in localities (see Table 7). In Wales, where incidence of
long-term illness was generally higher than elsewhere in Great
Britain, the rural/urban difference was nevertheless still evident
(13.7 per cent compared with 17.0 per cent).
E t h n i c g r o u p
The higher proportions of the population in non-White ethnic
groups recorded in urban areas generally results from the
concentration of ethnic minority groups in the metropolitan areas,
particularly in Greater London (20.2 per cent) and West Midlands
(14.7 per cent) where there is very little rural land. Urban areas inLeicestershire and Bedfordshire also have particularly high
proportions of ethnic minority groups (12.4 per cent and 11.0 per
cent respectively. Generally it is the case that the larger the urban
area the higher is the proportion of non-White ethnic groups in the
population (see Table 8).
Among the main ethnic minority groups themselves there are
distinct differences in the patterns of settlement. Whereas there is
no significant difference overall between the proportions of the
ethnic minority groups in urban and rural areas in England and
Wales who are Black (30.0 per cent and 29.0 per cent respectively),
the proportion who are Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis in
urban areas (49.3 per cent) is almost double that in rural areas (25.0per cent). And for Chinese the situation is reversed, with just 4.9
per cent of the total ethnic minority population in urban areas
belonging to this group compared with 7.8 per cent of the
population in rural parts of the country.
Table 5
Population s iz e Density ( persons/hectare*)
(residents)
England Wales Scotland Great Britain
All urban areas 39.0 36.9 20.6 36.0
1,000,000 and over 43.9 - - 43.9500,000 - 999,999 42.1 - 33.1 40.4200,000 - 499,999 40.5 37.1 32.7 39.6100,000 - 199,999 38.1 37.2 29.3 37.250,000 - 99,999 37.6 44.9 28.6 37.320,000 - 49,999 36.6 36.2 25.9 34.210,000 - 19,999 34.5 37.3 24.2 32.0
5,000 - 9,999 33.4 36.6 16.3 27.72,000 - 4,999 30.5 36.2 11.8 25.3
Under 2,000 27.1 26.9 6.9 14.4
All rural areas 0.39 0.27 0.07 0.26
* For note on the hectare figures used to calculate density see Box B.
Population density by size of urban area, 1991 Census Table 6
Urban/rural area Percentage of resident population by age
04 1829 45pension- 75 and over
able age*
Males Females
England
Total 6.6 18.3 19.2 2.4 4.7Urban areas 6.8 18.7 18.8 2.4 4.7Rural areas 5.6 14.6 22.9 2.7 4.4
Wales
Total 6.6 16.9 19.7 2.5 4.8Urban areas 6.8 17.4 19.2 2.4 4.9Rural areas 5.8 14.8 21.9 2.6 4.5
Scotland
Total 6.4 18.1 19.5 2.1 4.4Localities 6.4 18.5 19.2 2.1 4.4Rural areas 6.2 15.5 21.4 2.4 4.1
Great Britain total 6.6 18.2 19.3 2.4 4.6
* 65 for men and 60 for women
Age structure, urban and rural areas, 1991 Census
Table 7
Urban/rural area Percentage of residents in households within each age group
with a long-term illness
All Under Pensionable 75 and
ages pensionable age* and over
age* over
England
Total 12.0 6.6 36.5 48.6Urban areas 12.2 6.8 37.1 49.1Rural areas 10.1 5.3 30.9 43.8
Wales
Total 16.4 10.0 42.5 52.8Urban areas 17.0 10.4 44.1 54.2Rural areas 13.7 8.2 35.9 46.9
Scotland
Total 12.9 8.0 36.1 47.3Localities 13.3 8.3 36.8 47.9Rural areas 9.5 5.5 29.6 41.8
Great Britain total 12.4 6.9 36.8 48.7
* 65 for men and 60 for women
Long-term illness, urban and rural areas, 1991 Census
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The profile of different urban ethnic minority settlement is also
distinctive when looking at the size of area. The proportions of the
non-White ethnic population who are in the Black groups are
greatest in those areas of over 500,000 population (around a third)
and in the smallest urban areas (30.6 per cent), and are at the
lowest levels in the medium-sized urban areas ranging from 50 to
500 thousand population (around one in five) (see Figure 3). In
contrast, the proportions of Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis
are greatest in these medium-sized areas and then tend to decrease
with decreasing size of area. The proportions who are Chinese are
greatest in the smaller towns with a population range 2-20
thousand.
T y pe o f ho us e ho l d a c c o m m o d a t i o n
There was a marked difference between urban and rural areas in
the types of accommodation occupied by households. In England, a
half of all households in rural areas lived in detached houses
three times the proportion in urban areas (16.7 per cent) (see Table
9). In Wales and Scotland the proportions in rural areas were even
greater (54.1 per cent and 58.1 per cent respectively). Areas with
the highest proportions of detached housing tend to occur in the
more remoter rural parts of the country. They were highest in each
of the three Scottish Islands Areas Orkney (82.8 per cent),
Western Isles (76.7 per cent) and Shetland (71.8 per cent). On
mainland Britain the highest proportions occurred in the Highland
and Grampian Regions (66.8 per cent and 64.9 per cent
respectively), with the rural parts of South Glamorgan, Powys and
Dyfed each having more than 60 per cent of households living in
such housing. In England this proportion was highest in the rural
parts of Lincolnshire (60.6 per cent), Nottinghamshire (59.0 per
cent) and Shropshire (58.8 per cent).
In contrast, rural parts of the country contained about half the
proportion of terraced accommodation that occurred in urban areas.
In both England and Wales, terraced housing was the most
Population size Percentage Percentage of residents within
(residents) of of resident non-white groups who are:
urban area population
in non-white Black Indian Chinese
groups Pakistani
Bangladeshi
1,000,000 and over 14.8 33.7 47.6 3.8500,000 - 999,999 3.6 33.8 39.7 8.8200,000 - 499,999 4.8 17.2 63.6 5.1100,000 - 199,999 4.6 20.5 58.1 5.750,000 - 99,999 2.7 19.0 54.8 8.3
20,000 - 49,999 1.6 22.8 38.7 11.810,000 - 19,999 1.0 23.4 30.3 16.1
5,000 - 9,999 0.9 26.6 24.7 17.02,000 - 4,999 0.8 24.6 27.8 13.5
Under 2,000 0.7 30.6 21.2 9.5
All urban areas 6.5 30.0 49.3 4.9All rural areas 0.7 29.0 25.0 7.8
England and Wales total 5.9 30.0 49.0 5.0
Table 8 Ethnic group by size of urban area in England and Wales,1991 Census
Urban/rural Percentage of household accommodation Tenure
area
Detached Terraced Purpose Not main Owner occupied Public ly
- built residence rented
flat Owned Buying
outright
England
Total 20.0 29.2 15.3 1.2 24.3 43.3 19.8Urban areas 16.7 31.0 16.6 1.0 23.5 43.5 20.8Rural areas 50.0 15.6 2.7 3.2 31.9 41.9 10.3
Wales
Total 24.0 33.3 8.9 2.3 31.0 39.7 19.0Urban areas 16.8 37.3 10.4 1.3 29.2 40.3 20.6Rural areas 54.1 16.5 2.6 6.3 39.1 37.2 11.9
ScotlandTotal 17.3 23.2 37.0 1.7 16.4 35.7 37.9Localities 12.2 24.4 41.2 1.0 14.9 36.2 40.0Rural areas 58.1 13.2 3.5 7.8 30.2 31.0 15.8
Great Britain 19.9 28.8 17.0 1.3 23.9 42.4 21.4
Table 9 Housing, urban and rural areas, 1991 Census
Figure 3 Percentage of resident population within non-white ethnic groups in urban areas in England and Wales, 1991 Census
1,000,000
and over
500,000
999,999
200,000
499,999
100,000
199,999
50,000
99,999
20,000
49,999
10,000
19,999
5,000
9,999
2,000
4,999
Under 2,0000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Percentage
Size of urban areas (resident population)
Black
Indian, Pakistaniand Bangladeshi
Chinese
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common type of accommodation in urban areas (31 per cent),
whereas in Scottish localities more households lived in purpose-
built flats (41.2 per cent).
Accommodation that were not being used as a main residence at
the time of the 1991 Census was three times more common in rural
areas in England (3.2 per cent) than they were in urban areas (1.0
per cent). Such accommodation (mainly holiday homes or second
residences) was even more common in Scottish and Welsh rural
areas (7.8 per cent and 6.3 per cent respectively) and particularly in
the Highland Region (14.4 per cent) and Gwynedd (13.8 per cent).
Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly also had more than one tenth of its
housing stock not used as a main residence.
The tenure profiles of households in urban and rural areas were
fairly consistent across Great Britain. Urban areas contained more
public sector housing than did rural areas in all parts of the country.
In both England and Wales one in five urban households lived in
publicly rented accommodation, but in urban Scotland this
proportion was doubled (see Table 9), reflecting generally the
higher levels of public housing in Scotland compared with the restof Great Britain.
In contrast, households owning their own homes outright were
generally more common in rural Britain than in urban areas,
reflecting the fact that many of these home owners were likely to
be older householders who had retired to the country. This pattern
was particularly evident in Scotland, where more than twice as
many outright owner-occupiers lived in rural areas (30.2 per cent)
than in urban areas (14.9 per cent). The pattern among households
still buying their homes, however, was a little different. Outside of
Greater London and the metropolitan counties urban areas tended
to have proportionately more such households than did rural areas,
though exceptions were found in half a dozen or more shire
counties in England and Wales, notably in Avon, Humberside,
Lancashire, Nottinghamshire, and Mid and South Glamorgan.
R o o m s a n d a m e n i t i e s
Incidence of overcrowding that is, where a household has more
than an average of 1.0 persons per room was twice as prevalent
in urban areas in England (2.2 per cent of all households) than in
rural areas (1.1 per cent), where, on average, households occupied
almost one room more than in urban areas (see Table 10). A similar
pattern was found in Scotland where 3.7 per cent of urban
households were overcrowded compared with 2.6 per cent of rural
households. There was a much less marked urban/rural differential
in Wales.
Proportionately more urban households in England lacked central
heating (18.8 per cent) than did rural households (16.3 per cent),
but the reverse was the case in Wales, where over a fifth (22.3 per
cent) of rural households lacked this amenity, and in Scotland,
where over a quarter (25.3 per cent) were lacking.
Households in rural areas have need of, and show, a much greater
degree of car availability. In England only 14.6 per cent of rural
households have no access to a car compared with almost a third
(32.4 per cent) of households in urban areas; and 42.2 per cent of
rural households have two or more cars available almost double
the proportion for urban households. A similar pattern exists in
Wales, but in Scotland the proportion of urban households without
access to a car was almost one in two (45.4 per cent).
The concentration of tenements and blocks of flats in urban areas
in Scotland is shown by the proportion of accommodation above
Urban/rural Rooms per Percentage of households with
area household
Over 1.0 No No car 2 or Not on
persons central more ground
per room heating cars floor*
England
Total 5.1 2.1 18.5 32.4 24.0 -Urban areas 5.0 2.2 18.8 34.3 22.0 -Rural areas 5.9 1.1 16.3 14.6 42.2 -
WalesTotal 5.4 1.6 18.5 32.3 22.1 -Urban areas 5.3 1.7 17.7 35.4 19.2 -Rural areas 5.8 1.5 22.3 18.2 34.9 -
Scotland
Total 4.5 3.6 22.3 42.6 16.2 26.7Localities 4.4 3.7 21.9 45.4 14.2 29.3Rural areas 5.4 2.6 25.3 18.4 33.2 3.7
Great Britain 5.0 2.2 18.9 33.4 23.1 -
* Question on floor level of accomodation only asked in Scotland.
Table 10 Rooms and amenities, urban and rural areas, 1991 Census
Box B
Hectare figures for urban and rural totals
Most of the larger urban areas and some smaller urbanareas straddle administrative boundaries, but users have
shown an interest in the population defined as living in
urban or rural areas, as a whole, within the
administrative units of counties and Scottish Regions.
Census enumeration districts (EDs) do not straddle
county boundaries however, so statistics for all EDs
forming those parts of urban areas within each county
have been aggregated to urban totals. These in turn were
aggregated to urban totals for England and Wales,
Scotland, and Great Britain respectively. The differences
between national, county and Scottish Region totals and
the respective urban totals were calculated and appear
as rural totals.
The hectare figures for urban and rural land for each of
the England and Wales counties and Scottish Regions at
the time of the 1991 Census were calculated from
digitised boundaries prepared by the Ordnance Survey
and GRO Scotland. These calculations are dependent on
the scale and edition of the map base used, and thus the
results could differ slightly from other calculations of
areas and densities. In fact, there is no recognised
definitive measure of land area to which hectare and
density calculations can be benchmarked, but the large
relative difference between urban and rural parts of
counties and Regions are unaffected by such differences
in method.
ground floor level. Some 29.3 per cent of households in localities
live in such accommodation compared with just 3.7 per cent in
rural parts of the country. This proportion increased with size of
urban area reaching almost a half of all households in the largest
areas (See Figure 4). (Comparable figures for the rest of Great
Britain are not available from the 1991 Census as the question on
lowest floor level of accommodation was not asked in England
and Wales.)
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S o c i a l c l a s s , o c c u p a t i o n a n d i n d u s t r y
The national profile of social class showed a general tendency for
greater proportions of heads of household in rural areas to be
recorded in Social Classes I (Professional, etc occupations) and II
(Managerial and technical occupations) than was the case in urban
areas, and correspondingly lower proportions in Classes III-V (see
Table 11). A significant difference to this overall profile was found
in Scotland where heads of household in Social Class IV (Partlyskilled occupations) many of whom were working in occupations
associated with agriculture, forestry and fishing were
proportionately more common in rural areas (11.3 per cent) than in
localities (8.6 per cent).
There must be, by definition, similarities in the urban/rural patterns
of occupation to those of social class described above. Rural areas
generally had proportionately more residents working in
management, administration, professional and technical
occupations than did urban areas, and occupations in the other
main groups tended to be more prevalent among urban residents
than in rural areas. The urban/rural profile seems to be fairly
consistent across different parts of the country with no main
occupation group predominating in any particular areas.
This is less true when analysing patterns of industry. Not
surprisingly, proportions of employees and self-employed workers
in agriculture, forestry and fishing were more common in rural
areas by a factor of 13 in England, 17 in Wales and almost 20 in
Scotland (see Table 12). But in some counties and Scottish Regions
the proportion of workers in this industry, even by rural standards,
was particularly high; in rural Dumfries and Galloway, the Orkney
Islands and Borders, for example, over a quarter of the workforce
were employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing, compared with
just under one in five for rural Scotland as a whole. In Wales, rural
Powys (22.0 per cent) and Dyfed (20.0 per cent) also had high
proportions of agricultural workers compared with 13.9 per cent inall rural areas. In England, the counties whose rural component had
the highest proportions working in the industry were Lincolnshire
(16.2 per cent), Shropshire (16.0 per cent) and Devon (15.5 per
cent).
Urban/rural Percentage of households with head in Social Class*
area
I II III(N) III(M) IV V
England
Total 4.2 19.3 8.5 16.4 8.3 2.8Urban areas 4.1 18.5 8.7 16.6 8.4 2.9Rural areas 5.3 27.0 6.1 14.5 8.0 2.1
Wales
Total 3.0 15.7 6.7 15.8 8.2 3.0Urban areas 2.9 14.0 7.0 16.2 8.4 3.1Rural areas 3.6 23.5 5.6 14.3 7.4 2.5
Scotland
Total 3.8 16.4 7.8 15.9 8.8 3.5Localities 3.8 15.4 8.1 16.0 8.6 3.5Rural areas 4.1 25.1 5.3 15.2 11.3 3.0
Great Britain 4.1 18.8 8.3 16.4 8.4 2.9
* I (Professional, etc occupations); II (Managerial and technical occupations)
III (Skilled occupations: (N) non-manual; (M) manual);
IV (Partly skilled occupations); V (Unskilled occupations).
Table 11 Social class (based on occupation), urban and rural areas,1991 Census
Figure 4 Percentage of households not on ground floor by sizeof urban area, Scotland, 1991 Census
Urban/rural Percentage of employees and self-employed residents working in:
area
Agriculture Manu - Distribution Transport
Forestry and facturing and
Fishing Catering
England
Total 1.7 18.0 20.7 6.4Urban areas 0.8 18.4 20.8 6.7
Rural areas 10.0 14.1 19.8 4.3
Wales
Total 3.4 17.1 20.2 5.1Urban areas 0.8 18.5 20.5 5.5Rural areas 13.9 11.6 19.1 3.8
Scotland
Total 2.9 16.4 19.1 6.1Localities 0.9 17.2 19.2 6.3Rural areas 18.0 10.5 18.2 5.1
Great Britain 2.0 17.8 20.5 6.4
Table 12 Industry, urban and rural areas, 1991 Census
500,000and over
200,000499,999
100,000199,999
50,00099,999
20,00049,999
10,00019,999
5,0009,999
2,0004,999
Under2,000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Percentage
Size of urban areas (resident population)
On the other hand, urban areas consistently contained greater
proportions of manufacturing workers, particularly in
Leicestershire, Warwickshire, Derbyshire, Borders and Mid
Glamorgan where over a quarter of the urban workforce were
employed in manufacturing industries (compared with 18 per cent
nationally). Transport was the only other main industry to show a
consistently clear urban/rural pattern, with proportions of workers
higher in urban areas for every mainland shire county and Scottish
Region except Humberside, Northumberland and Highland.
Tr a v e l t o w o r k
In England and Wales, more than three out of five urban workers(that is, employees and self-employed, resident in urban areas)
used their car to travel the major part of their journey to work by
car (60.3 per cent), and over two thirds (68.6 per cent) of workers
living in rural areas did so. A similar but slightly lower level of car
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R e f e r e n c e s a n d n o t e s
1 ONS/GRO(S). 1991 Census Key Statistics for Urban and
Rural Areas: Great Britain. The Stationery Office (1997).
ISBN 0 11 691679 6.
2 ONS. 1991 Census Key Statistics for Urban and Rural
Areas: The North. The Stationery Office (1998). ISBN 0 11
620904 6.
3 ONS. 1991 Census Key Statistics for Urban and Rural
Areas: The Midlands. The Stationery Office (1998). ISBN 0
11 620905 4.
4 ONS. 1991 Census Key Statistics for Urban and Rural
Areas: The South East. The Stationery Office (1998). ISBN 0
11 620906 2.
5 ONS. 1991 Census Key Statistics for Urban and Rural
Areas: The South West and Wales. The Stationery Office
(1998). ISBN 0 11 620907 0.
6 GRO(S). 1991 Census Key Statistics for Localities in
Scotland. HMSO (1995). ISBN 0 11 495736 3.
7 General Register Office. Census 1951: England and Wales:
Report on Greater London and five other conurbations.HMSO (1956).
8 The localities forming the largest continuously built-up area
in Strathclyde are: Airdrie, Bargeddie, Barrhead, Bearsden,
Bellshill, Bishopbriggs, Blantyre, Bothwell, Busby,
Calderbank, Carfin, Chapelhall, Clarkston, Clydebank,
Coatbridge, Duntocker and Hargate, Elderslie, Erskine,
Faifley, Giffnock, Glasgow, Hamilton, Holytown, Inchinnan,
Johnstone, Kilbarchan, Kirkintilloch, Lenzie, Linwood,
Milngravie, Milton, Motherwell, Neilston, New Stevenson,
Newarthill, Newmains, Newton Mearns, Old Kilpatrick,
Paisley, Renfrew, Stepps, Uddingston, Viewpark, and
Wishaw.
usage occurred in Scotland (see Table 13). Reflecting the generaldecline in rural public transport services, the train or bus was more
than three times as likely to be used for travelling to work in urban
areas than in rural parts of the country.
Particularly high usage of rail transport occurred in London, and of
the bus in the metropolitan counties and localities in Strathclyde.
The relative closer proximity of home to workplace in urban areas
results in there being greater proportions of residents in such areas
travelling to w