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This project has been funded with support from the European Commission under theLifelong Learning Programme.

This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot beheld responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Mobile Training Methodology

for E-business

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The Mobile Training Methodology for E-businessver. 1.0 has been prepared as part of the

E-business Mobile Training - use of mobile Performance Support System for acquiring e-

business management skills project, co-financed by the Leonardo da Vinci Lifelong

Learning Programme. It is based on mobile Performance Support System for Vocational

Education and Training project, and results developed during its implementation.

This consortium implementing this project consists of:

Nowoczesna Firma S.A. (NF)

Plovdiv University (PU)

Management Observatory Fundation (FOZ)

National Distance Education University (UNED)

Authors:

Piotr Maczuga (NF)

Micha Plewczyski (NF)

Nevena Mileva (PU)

Dimitar Tokmakov (PU)

Agnieszka witecka (FOZ)

Krzysztof Zieliski (FOZ)

Elio San Cristbal Ruiz (UNED)

Manuel Castro (UNED)

ISBN: 978-83-936582-0-6

Warsaw 2012

E-business Mobile Training - use of mobile Performance Support System for acquiring e-

business management skills

www.mtraining.eu

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. THE MOBILE WORLD. WORKFORCE MOBILITY AND THE RISE OF MOBILE

DEVICES

Mobile computing is one of the fastest growing areas within the technology industry worldwide.

According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2011), there are 5.9 billion mobile-

cellular subscriptions. Global penetration reaches 87% and 79% in the developing world (ITU,2011). Mobile-broadband subscriptions have grown 45% annually over the last four years and

today there are twice as many mobile-broadband as fixed broadband subscriptions (ITU, 2011).

This information reveals that mobile devices are a very accessible and spread tool that do notrequire important equipment investments, and that penetration to all economic layers is possible

thank to them (Martin, et al., 2010).

In general, mobile devices are reaching all levels of our society, being used not just forcommunication any more. New commerce, advertising, social networking, media, and obviously

corporate training and formal education are having mobile devices as a fundamental platform for

future development.

Smartphones and tablets have enabled workers to be more flexible than ever before because theydo not have to be rooted to their desks in an office to do their job. According to the report published

by Cube Labs (Cube Labs, 2012) the number of mobile workers in 2012 is of 397.1 millions usingmostly smartphones (91%) and tablets (44%). The profile of mobile employee goes from

consultants, financial services professionals, banking executives, delivery drivers, and retail sales

employees, to field service employees, executive assistants, supervisor and general manager.

According to this study, younger employees prefer Apple and Android devices, while olderemployees prefer Blackberry. The differences between these devices are that Blackberry devices

focuses on productivity apps, Android devices on information apps and Apple devices focuses on

task-oriented apps (Cube Labs, 2012).

1.2. LEARNING WITH MOBILE DEVICES EVE RYDAY CONTEXTS AND USE

PATTERNS

According to (Cube Labs, 2012), the most common apps used by mobile employees are related to

email (86%), Web browsing (80%), contacts (80%), calendar (75%), instant messaging (73%),office apps (71%), task and project management (63%), line of business apps (59%), and CRM

(51%). However, thanks to the new lifelong learning initiatives educational apps will become asusual as any other kind of apps. Also, some devices are particularly focused on content

consumption, such as tablets. According to (MeeFeedia, 2010) iPad users consume 3X as many

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videos as web users, spend 4X as long watching videos as web users, and consume 5X as many

videos as iPhone users. That fact makes these devices great vehicles to be used to deliver

educational resources. However, not only video-based resources can be used to foster education on

these devices.

Current mobile learning projects range from informal learning (e.g. museums, flights) aimed to

provide additional information and services in informal environments; to outside-the-classroomexperiences based on geo-location where learners can collaborate and participate in real

environments; or performance support systems, aimed to improve learning performance byscaffolding the learning process through immediate feedback in adaptive scenarios (Martin, et al.,

2010). These systems are not just an extension of the traditional Learning Management Systems(LMS), since they allow students learn in any place and any moment, taking advantage of, for

example, the boredom moments in the bus.

Reviewing the mobile and ubiquitous learning literature, there are several classifications of m-

learning (mobile learning) applications. Naismith (2004) uses as indicators the technical features ofthe devices used for information, communication or educational purposes. According to the

information and communication technologies (ICT) approach, the systems are classified by the typeof mobile device (Notebooks, TabletPCs, PDAs, cell phones or smart phones) and the type of

wireless communication technologies (GSM, WiFi, Bluetooth, etc.) that they support (Martin, et al.,2010).

Other authors focus more on the ability to support on-line or off-line access to learning materials(Attwell, 2005), or on the type of information used in the educational process: learning or

administrative (Chang, 2003).

These classifications do not cover the complexity of the current mobile learning applications

(Martin, et al., 2010). This is why authors like Georgieva provide two types of classification

[Georgieva, 2005] (Figure 1):

Information and Communication Technologies, as in Naismith [Naismith, 2004];Educational technologies. The proposed classification is based on the following main

indicators:

Support of synchronous and/or asynchronous communication. Support of e-learning standards. Currently most m-learning systems do not support

e-learning specifications such as SCORM.

Availability of a permanent Internet connection between the mobile learning systemand users: on-line, off-line and mixed-work.

Users location: on-campus, off-campus or both. Access to learning materials and/or administrative services. This means that the

student receives course content such as tests or administrative information such as

schedules and exam marks.

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Figure 1. A general classification of m-learning systems [Georgieva, 2005].

1.3. THE WHY AND HOW OF LEARNING/WORKING WITH MOBILE DEV ICES

In the context of mobile learning it is worth to analyze Bob Mosher and Conrad Gottfredsons(Mosher & Gottfredson, 2011) Five Moments of Need. It is a framework that posits that there are

five primary moments of need employees face in the learning and performance life cycle. The five

moments occur:

1. When learning for the first time

2. When wanting to learn more

3. When trying to remember and/or apply

4. When things change

5. When something goes wrong

The authors identified the best training delivery methods to meets each of the Moments of Need.

The first and second moment are related to acquisition of knowledge and more traditional models

of teaching. The other three deal with application of knowledge and are directly aligned with

performance support.

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Five Moments of Need, source: Mosher & Gottfredson, 2011

Due to its specific character, m-learning works best in some specific areas or situations of providing

information1. Mobile learning is most suitable when it comes to the number 2, 3, 4 and 5.

When wanting to learn more mobile technology can be used as supportive tool for

learning. They allow quick access to additional information (like corporative data bases,

documents and procedures) in the exact moment and place where it is needed.When remembering and/or applying whats been learned it can provide knowledge

refreshers, job aids or performance support any moment it is needed, especially in the need

of applying previously gained knowledge and skills in real context, during performance of

given action.

When things go wrong it can be very helpful in situations of crisis, when quick access to

critical information is needed. Therefore it allows react instantly and effectively to

overcome difficulties or correct errors.

When things change - especially in business environment, we live in the era of continuous

change and information overflow. Employees need to adapt swiftly to changing rapidly

conditions, and constantly update their knowledge and skills and continue learning informal and informal ways. They also need to deal with infobesity, i.e., difficulties of

understanding and decision making caused by the presence of too much information.Mobile learning can help them in finding relevant data delivered just in time and always up-

to-date.

After we have known situation when mobile learning do its job, it is good to know its basic toolbox:

1Compare: 1. Mobile Learning: All Talk? What is the reality of mobile learning in corporate learning? December

2011, Copyright Elearnity; 2. http://learningcircuits.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-different-about-mobile-

learning.html; 3. Dr. Conrad Gottfredson, head of the Performance Support Lab & Seminar at the Masie Center

http://www.xyleme.com/podcasts/archives/7

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Mobile Refreshers the content provided via mobile devices could be really helpful after

attending regular training. It could be distributed as supportive material, and designed to

simplify the process of repetition. A review of short part of material, focused on most

important things, could support learning and prevent forgetfulness.Mobile Just in Time Performance Support mobile learning model gives alsoopportunity to provide accessibility to learning materials on demand when it is the most

necessary. The information is delivered exactly in the same time when one needs it. Thiscould be done by delivering an access to the content that was specified earlier or by

collaborative work. In the second case somebody can get an answer or a tip from a personwho is experienced in that specific field.

Workflow Support this is a combination of all previous elements in the context of thebusiness. A mobile access to information gives possibility to review important information

in the moment of need. For example, it could be very useful in business environment,before important meeting outside the company. An access to relevant information in

anytime and anyplace could be very beneficial.

1.4. HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND MOBILE LEARNING MODELS

1.4.1. MOBILE DEVICES

A mobile device, which is also referred to as a handheld, handheld device or handheld computer, is

a small-size computing device. The most popular mobile devices used for learning are:

Mobile phones (also known as cellular phones, cell phones and a hand phones) are used to

make and receive phone calls and SMS text messages by connecting through radio signals tobase stations that are linked in a cellular network. Most of todays mobile phones have a

number of additional features like MP3 player, short-range wireless communications

(Bluetooth, infrared), e-mail and Internet access, or camera. They are sometimes called

feature phones and lie halfway between low-end, simple mobile phones and smartphones.

Personal digital assistants (PDAs) (also known as a palmtop computers or personal data

assistants) are small personal information managers with office software and multimedia

display capability. Most of these capabilities are now present in various smartphones, which

are quickly replacing PDAs in the marketplace (Woodill, 2011).

Smartphones: While there is no standard official definition of the term smartphone (and

its sometimes hard to distinguish it from feature phone), we assume that a smartphone is adevice that combines the functionalities of mobile phone, personal digital assistant and

computer. It is based on an advanced operating system that allows to install and run various

applications and offers access to the internet via mobile browser. As Woodill states,

[c]urrent smartphones have taken on some of the functionality of laptop computers,

allowing access to e-mail, documents, and office productivity software. Smartphones usually

have a miniature QWERTY keyboard, or a virtual keyboard on a touch screen. Smartphonesare currently seen as being one of the most suitable platforms for mobile learning purposes

(Woodill, 2011).

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eBook readers (also called an e-book devices or e-readers) are devices designed

primarily for the purpose of reading digital e-books and periodicals. They use electronic

paper technology for better readability of their screens especially in bright sunlight. The

disadvantages of electronic paper are that currently it can display content only in black andwhite and has no ability of displaying video content. Thus, its application for mobilelearning is limited to mainly textual information.

Notebook and netbook computers: Not everybody consider laptop/notebook and

netbook computers a part of the mobile ecosystem. But as they become smaller, thinner andeasier to carry around they can be used as mobile learning devices that are generally more

powerful than smartphones and equipped with full features of PC computers. On the otherhand, they allow full-feature, traditional e-learning without design restrictions typical for

mobile content.

Tablets: half-way between smartphone and laptop computer, they take advantage of both

kinds of devices. Having screen big enough for browsing traditional e-learning content,they present some limitations (for example, many of them do not support Flash or other

formats popular for Web) but also some advantages (like GPS or gyroscope) over regularcomputers. Their market share is still limited, but their popularity is growing very quickly

and they are likely to substitute in some extent e-book readers and netbooks.

Portable media players (such as iPods and MP3 players): are used for storing and playingdigital media such as audio, images, video, documents, etc. Their clear advantage is the

small size and light weight, but they have to compete in the market with mobile phones andsmartphones, as well as other more specialized devices such as portable DVD players.

For purpose of our methodology we shall concentrate on smartphones and tablets, as they are the

two prevalent platforms for business use.

1.4.2. THE CAPABILITIES OF MOBILE DEVICES

Horton (Horton, 2012) provides a detailed list of the capabilities of mobile devices and thepossibilities of their use for learning.

Capability Description

(what the user can do)Screen display Display text, graphics, and video.

Audio playback Play voice, music, and sounds.

Video playback Play video segments.

Clock Display time, measure time, and schedule events.

Calendar Schedule activities and display reminders.

Contact list Catalog the name, address, e-mail, phone number, and other

contact information for participants.

GPS Detect latitude and longitude coordinates.

Map display Show streets, roads, buildings, and terrain. Can pinpoint the

learners location with GPS capability.

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Navigation Get instructions on how to get from one place to another.

Bluetooth Connect to another Bluetooth-enabled device.

E-mail Send and receive e-mail messages and attachments.

Web browser Access Web servers and all that they provide.Radio-frequencyidentification (RFID)

reader

Read a short message encoded in a RFID tag. Tags are tiny (4 cu.mm.) devices that transmit an identifying message triggered when

a PFID reader comes within a few centimeters.

Text messaging Send short text messages to another mobile device.

Audio recorder Record voice, music, and other sounds using the built-in

microphone or an external microphone.

Still camera Take photographs.

Video camera Record motion and audio.

Edit and format text Enter, organize, and format text.

Edit photographs Adjust photographs: crop, straighten, change brightness and

contrast, alter color, and apply special effects.Edit audio Shorten, combine, and adjust volume and tone of audio recordings.

Edit video Cut, sequence, overlay, and adjust video clips.

Keyboard (screen) Enter small amounts of text.

Keyboard (external) Enter large amounts of text.

Phone call Talk to other people.

Social networking Connect to social-networking sites and tools, such as, Twitter and

Facebook.

Wireless networking Connect to the Internet and local-area networks via WiFi, EDGE, 3G

or other wireless protocols.

Calculator Perform common calculations.

Spreadsheet with

charting

Perform math with rows and columns of numbers and display

charts of results.Voice control Activate and direct functions of the mobile device with voice

commands.

Text-to-voice synthesis Have the device speak aloud words stored as text.

Voice-to-text Convert spoken words to text.

External microphone Record sound through the microphone jack on the device.

Augmented reality View relevant data superimposed on the image recorded by the

video camera.

Data probes Measure physical data such as: temperature, air pressure, pH,

salinity, O2, CO2, acceleration, force, light, color, and sound level.

See Horton (Horton, 2012) for ideas of how to take advantage of every one of those capabilities and

the learning activities that can be involved.

1.4.3. MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEMS

Modern mobile operating systems combine the features of a PC operating system with others

typical for mobile devices, such as touchscreen, GPS navigation, camera, or cellular communication.

They allow to take best advantage of handhelds technical features and apps.

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The most common mobile operating systems are:

Android form Google (free and open source)

iOS form Apple (closed source, proprietary)

Blackberry OS from RIM (closed source, proprietary)Symbian form Nokia and Accenture (open public license)

Bada from Samsung (closed source, proprietary)

Windows Phone from Microsoft (closed source, proprietary)

Source: wikipedia

Below we compare the two most popular operating systems:

Content

capability

Strengths Weaknesses

iOS HTML, HTML5,apps. No Flash

content

Popular with end users andstrong installed base. High

performance and stable

operating system. High level of

standardization. Good quality

of software and technical

support.

Lack of enterprise security.Closed operating system;

requirements of using Apple

App Store to deliver apps

(complicated and long

process of approval).

Android HTML, HTML5

(depends on

browser), Flash,

Android apps

Popular with end users. Good

documentation. Open platform

based on Java, integrated with

Google apps. Wide choice of

different models at various

prices.

Customization by phone

manufacturers, many

different screen resolutions

and other differences.

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1.4.4. MOBILE BROWSERS

As in case of operating systems, mobile browsers differ greatly in terms of features. While the mostadvanced offer full support for most websites in addition to some native features, others have

limited functions and can only display mobile-optimized content. Smartphones and tablets, whoseimportant function is web browsing, generally implement advanced features, and allow users

install additional browsers if the native one does not suits them (for example, to play Flash contenton iOS devices).

Source: StatCounter

1.4.5. WEB APPS VS. NATIVE APPS

There are two main approaches for porting an educational environment to mobile devices: adapting

a web version to the constraints of mobile devices, and building a native implementation in eachsupported mobile phone.

Regarding native applications, most mobile devices provide development frameworks on top of

which third-party developers can build applications. The added value of this is clear: thefunctionality of the mobile device becomes flexible, since new applications can be built using the

capabilities of the mobile device (Ordua, et al., 2009).

However, the range of development frameworks has become wide. Applications available for

mobile operating systems are usually native applications developed in their own SDK, which is only

supported by each operating system (Ordua, et al., 2009).

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The advantage of using a native technology is that it can use all resources that the mobile device

provides through the used SDK. If the mobile device supports it, the application may use 3D

graphics, retrieve the user's position, access the accelerometers, the camera, use Bluetooth, interact

with files and handle disk storage, access the mobile calendar or contacts, or even play music andvideos, while mobile web browsers usually do not provide these features to web applications(Ordua, et al., 2009).

The other possibility is to create a mobile-enabled web platform. Support for web applications inmobile devices has increased during the last years. With the arrival of the Web 2.0 and Cloud

computing, it became necessary to support complex web applications in mobile devices.

However, web applications usually need to be adapted for mobile devices. This adaption requires

the following (Ordua, et al., 2009):

1. Provide a proper layout. Developers should think what is actually going to be used from amobile device, and how may the user see it in a small screen. For instance, newspapers tendto provide a vertical panel where each news item is represented in a row with a single

sentence, so the user can quickly see what news item is more interesting and click on it.

Each row acts as a button, so it becomes easy to click it with a touch screen.

2. Provide the required contents. Developers should think what contents are going to bemigrated to the mobile version. Users might look at the mobile version as a complement to

the desktop version, so it becomes normal that some features are not present.

3. Avoid plug-ins. Many web applications provide features that are based on plug-ins such asJava applets, Adobe Flash or Microsoft Silverlight. These plug-ins are not available in most

devices, and it is difficult that they become available there, due to the resources required for

the plug-in developer to port the plug-in to the wide range of mobile platforms.

The following table2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of web vs. native apps

development.

Web Apps Native Apps

Platform independent development, socan reach a wider range of audience

The app can be delivered instantaneously

as there are no intermediate delivery

platforms like app storeFaster development and lower

maintenance

High end (rich) applications can be

developed if HTML5/CSS3 technology is

used for development, which also enable

use of audio, video and animation within

Lets you access the devices features likecamera, accelerometer or the data like

address book

Controlled user experience

Rich media functionalityDevelopment time would be more so would

be the maintenance overheads

The app has to go through some kind of app

store / marketplace before it reaches the

intended audience and the process could be

time consuming and fuzzy

2see: http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-

or-web-apps/, http://bottomlineperformance.com/wp-

content/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdf

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the application

Content remains secure on your servers,no data is stored on the device

Updates immediately affect all usersWeb-apps require no approval, fees, or

placement process within a commercial

app store

Requires Internet access

Requires a web URL; you must host it on

a server

Features and functionality are limited,

especially with regards to access todevice features

Performance can be lower as compared

with that of native apps and will also be

dependent on the web access speedLess control over user experience

Lack of standards across mobilebrowsers

Allow creation of a dedicated channel for

access and retrieval (pull) of information/knowledge just when needed

Can store user specific information and actas a personal learning agent (at least to

some extent)

Does not require Internet access

Platform specific; you must build multiple

apps to address various operating systems

Native app stores require an approval

process; for each device, the app has to go

onto a different storeHigher cost of development

Nevertheless, there is also a third option that lets developers take advantage of both web and native

characteristics. The hybrid apps are developed with HTML5 wrapped in a native container. The

container allows them to be sold in app markets also gives them access to native capabilities like

the camera, microphone, contact list, or notification system. For the end user, they look and behave

like native apps. But the main content is written in HTML so it can be updated and modified easilyand its development is considerably cheaper than creating and updating a native app, especially if

we need to develop for multiple operating systems.

We also need to emphasize that some of the commonly mentioned advantages of native apps over

web apps (better performance, offline mode, access to device attributes, geo-location capabilities)

are becoming less obvious with the development of technologies based on HTML5/CSS3 and

JavaScript.

While HTLM5 functionalities are not yet stable, some of them are already implemented by major

web browsers (Ordua, et al., 2009). These features include:

Audio and video

Canvas Geolocation Storage and databases New forms

Some widespread web applications, such as YouTube or Google Maps, already provide contentsusing HTML5. YouTube supports video through HTML5 instead of depending on Flash, if the user

explicitly agrees. Google Maps use HTML5 geolocation capabilities to show the user where he is by

pressing a small button. This button will only appear if the web browser supports geolocation

(Ordua, et al., 2009).

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Since mobile web browsers are based on modern web browsers, some mobile web browsers

already provide these functionalities. For instance, both iPhones and Android devices can already

handle geolocation, as well as Windows Mobile by installing a plug-in (Ordua, et al., 2009).

2. DEFINING MOBILE LEARNING

To understand better mobile learning, firstly we must know its origin.

Before the era of computers and the Internet there was only one way to get educational content

without staying at home it were correspondent courses. People subscribed to it, paid for it, and

they get post deliveries with materials. It was the only way that had been working for very longtime. When computers appeared together with them new and instantly quick way of information

delivery the Internet was introduced. It had changed the picture of modern education

completely. People gained access to immense quantity of information. But there was still one step

to go. The development of mobile devices opened quite new era of information accessibility.

Mobile devices are now similar to mobile personal computers and even they have access to the

Internet via telecommunicate network or WiFi. What is even more interesting is the fact that today

smartphone is one thousand times faster, 100 thousand times smaller and 1 million times cheaper

than the MIT supercomputer from 1965. It is equipped with wide screen, touch UI, GPS, and

accelerometer orientation sensors, loud-speakers, WiFi, CPU and GPU capable of running 3D

games.

Mobile devices, with that kind of equipment, offer what computers cannot - constant access to

information everywhere. In this way mobile learning has become very sufficient way of acquiring

knowledge.

2.1. REVISING THE DEFINITION OF MOBILE LEARNING

Unfortunately there is no one definition of mobile learning but there are several most popular. At

the beginning the most popular definitions emphasized technological aspect of the process. Butwith the time the other important factors has been incorporated, such as: personal, social and

ubiquitous learning.

When defining mobile learning or mlearning, two perspectives can be distinguished, depending on

whether the mobility of the learner is stressed or the use of mobile technology. Addressing the first

perspective the use of a mobile device is not always necessary, because access to the internet or a

network allows the learner also to be mobile. Addressing the second perspective, the learner is

always mobile, but does not need to be all the time. When stressing the use of a mobile device when

defining mobile learning, a distinction can be made between the use of mobile technology as the

only tool for learning or mobile technology as one of the tools. Moreover, a distinction can be made

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between learning within an educational institute (i.e., school or university), or learning on location

(i.e., natural environment or workplace).

The two perspectives described are complementary and can be combined in a definition for

mlearning in which mobile devices increase the mobility of the learner. Thus, mlearning may be

defined as the provision of education and training on mobile devices. However, to facilitate this

mobility, the mobile device should meet several requirements. The learner must be able to use the

mobile device wirelessly, standing and with minimal effort. Moreover, the device should be small

enough to be held in one hand and should be easy to take along (Dye, 2007). Examples of such

devices are PDAs (personal digital assistants), smartphones, mobile phones, handhelds, palmtops,

MP3 players, and iPods.

So we could find mobile learning defined as any educational provision where the sole or dominant

technologies are handheld () devices (Kukulska-Hume & Traxler, 2005). Another author

considers that "mobile learning should be restricted to learning on devices which a lady can carry in

her handbag or a gentleman can carry in his pocket (Keegan, 2005).

But as mentioned for other definitions, technology was not most important aspect.

One of the best descriptions of mobile learning was presented by MOBIlearn Project:

... when considering mobility from the learner's point of view rather than technology's, it can be

argued that mobile learning goes on everywhere - for example, pupils revising for exams on the bus

to school, doctors updating their language skills while traveling abroad. All these instances offormal or informal learning do not necessarily involve the use of mobile technologies, but have been

taking place while people are on the move and should therefore be classified as instances of mobile

learning. Moreover, mobile technologies can be used at a person's usual learning environment. In

fact, there has been substantial amount of research in recent years looking at the employment of

PDAs in classrooms. By virtue of the technology's mobility, such PDA-based classroom learning has

also been considered as mobile learning (O'Malley, et al., 2005).

For operational purposes in the context of proposed methodology which is directed to usage

mobile devices, we could say that mobile learning happens when people implement their

mobile devices to the process of learning and therefore they are not limited to specificlocation.

2.2. WHY IS MOBILE LEARNING DIFFERENT?

These perspectives also help to distinguish the field of m-learning from e-learning. M-learning is aspecific type of learning within the field of e-learning. It focuses on learning across contexts and on

learning supported by mobile technology, whereas e-learning does not necessarily involve mobile

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devices. The task for the field of m-learning is to move on from the field of e-learning to the

development of m-learning. Specifically and practically this means the evolution from the wired

virtual learning environment of today, to the wireless virtual learning environment of tomorrow.

We can compare traditional learning to e-learning and e-learning to m-learning. Criteria are verysimple how, when and where. E-learning gives a possibility to acquire knowledge without

appearing personally on stationary courses and when time is the most suitable for a user. Thelimitation concerns accessibility to a computer and internet network. It is also important that rules

concerning communication between students and teachers are different than in traditionallearning.

Mobile learning is some sort of extension of e-learning and often is complementary to it. It could be

also complementary to traditional trainings. Because of the fact that mobile devices are used tosupport m-learning process there are technical limitations of the appearance of course content and

its length. Mobile learning appears most efficient when it delivers very short piece of information

and when it is not overloaded with multimedia.

At the beginning of mobile learning, the fastest and the cheapest way to prepare mobile content wasto resize down previous eLearning material. But after several years it became clear that mobile

learning could not be e-learning on small screen devices. The development of mobile learningmethodology shows that courses materials for mobile learning must be prepared differently than

for e-learning. If not, they are usually ineffective.

The reason is simple. As it is written above and will be mentioned below mobile devices havecertain limitations. If educational content is not prepared due to specification of the device, some

audio-video material could be displayed incorrectly, font could be too small and a quantity of text

could be too large.

There is also another very important thing besides use of modern technology. It is way of thinking.

Mobile learning is a sign of important shift of educational paradigm. Learning becomes more

ubiquitous than ever. With personal computer and the Internet we have gained access to vastamount of data. With the mobile revolution this access we have everywhere. This is powerful tool

we have. Now we must learn how to use it efficiently.

Thats why Horton (Horton, 2012) distinguishes between the two meanings of the term mobilelearning:

Participation in conventional learning by mobile individuals. Mobile learning

techniques and technologies allow mobile individuals to participate in established forms oflearning including classroom learning, virtual-classroom learning, standalone e-learning,

social learning, and performance support.

Real mobile learning. In real mobile learning, we learn not from the mobile device but

from the world around us. Real mobile learning requires learning from objects,

environments, and fellow learners that we encounter as we move about in the real world.

There is an old adage in distance education research which states It is not technologies withinherent pedagogical advantages which are successful in distance education, but technologies

which are generally available to citizens. Never in the history of the use of technology in educationhas there been a technology as available to citizens as mobile telephony today. One can safely

assume that every student in every program in every institution in every one of the 27 states of the

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European Union possesses one. They use these mobile devices constantly in every walk of life

except their education. With the exception of a few notable large-scale implementations of

podcasting in the USA, and leaving aside many short-term projects, the university sector has not yet

adopted m-learning, despite widespread use of e-learning. It is the role of the field of mobilelearning to harness for education and training this unprecedented availability of technology,especially because there are specific problems in university learning that mobile technologies can

help overcome: limited real world context, limited access to learning resources, low studentengagement in classes, and lack of practical experience in learning about mobile technologies.

A promising approach to convince students to use their mobile devices for educational purposes

comes from the more user-centered studies on m-learning, which propose to thread innovativeuses of technology into the existing fabric of behavior (Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007). The

existing pattern of students use of mobile devices identified forms the basis for mobile education.Furthermore, when designing m-learning it is important to do this from the perspective of the

learning process and the learner and not from the perspective of mobile technology. That is, the

decision to use a mobile device to deliver training or information should not be driven by the mereavailability of the mobile device, but should be based on the added value of this device for the

students learning processes.

2.3. SUPPORTIVE VS. INSTRUCTIONAL TOOL

Mobile devices can be integrated as (a) a supportive tool or (b) an instructional tool. As a tool to

support educators mobile devices allow the recording and maintenance of the lessons that take

place, the instructional procedures, the type of mentoring and the pedagogical approach, the role ofthe teacher and students. Additionally, they facilitate communication between faculty members and

students through file sharing capabilities, built-in networking and a friendly interface with on-linediscussion and e-mail options.

On the other hand, mobile devices can be used as instructional tools to construct learning. Mobile

devices can be treated as tools that help students execute their tasks and promote the balanced

development of their mental abilities by functioning as intellectual partners to the instructor and

the learner. Educators can provide students with electronic books, content reference sites, graphic

calculator, dictionary, and thesaurus etc. Finally, electronic quizzes and tests can be taken through

mobile devices.

2.4. FOUR LEVELS OF MOBILE LEARNING

Mobile learning is now a decade old as its origins can be traced to the work of Sharples (Sharples,2000) with the use of PDAs in primary schools in the United Kingdom. Over the decade four levels

of provision of mobile learning have emerged, with each requiring different instructional design

guidelines.

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Level 1: SMS messaging. The use of SMS messaging in educational contexts stems from the daily

need of all schools, colleges and universities to communicate with some or all of their student

bodies. For urgent communications (e.g., cancellation of a lecture), the main avenues for

communication used by these institutions are: the postal services, email or SMS messaging. In manycases the postal services are too slow and not all students check their emails regularly, makingthese means not effective for this type of communication. However, all students enrolled in schools,

colleges and universities carry a sophisticated communications device. If the institutionscommunication is sent to the students mobile phones by SMS messaging, the message will be

received immediately by all students. An SMS messaging system can be set up by in-housedevelopment or by using an SMS service provider.

Level 2: Screenshots of educational content. Mobile devices are ideal for receiving short, five to

six screen presentations of educational content, such as a course summary, advice on examinationpreparation, and assistance with a part of a course that has caused difficulties to students in the

past, tutorial advice or even multiple choice tests. It is important to note that the limitation of

having only 160 characters available (including spaces) for an SMS text message poses some veryinteresting challenges when it comes to the formulation of SMS messages for education. It is a real

challenge to formulate the correct message that provides the exact information you want tocommunicate without leaving possibilities of misunderstandings or misinterpretations. One badly

formulated SMS can create lots of chaos with financial and many other implications.

Level 3: Course modules. Presenting full mobile learning courses on Personal Digital Assistants(PDAs) cause no problems. A comfortable didactic environment can be created by using Microsoft

Reader Works to display the content. However, the challenge today is to solve the problems ofscreen size for the presentation of course modules in mobile learning on the slightly smaller

screens of smartphones and mobile phones. Many experts in the field of mobile learning have

argued that mobile devices are only suitable for snippets of learning information and cannot be

used for the presentation of full course modules.

If this position were accepted mobile learning would remain forever peripheral to mainstream

education and never be incorporated into mainstream education and training. For mobile learningto succeed the following need to be achieved:

Mobile learning courseware needs to be assessed in the same way as face-to-face courses,

distance education and e-learningMobile learning courseware needs to be accredited as at least part of normal degree or

diploma programsMobile learning courses need to be listed in the college or university prospectus as are face-

to-face courses, distance education and e-learningStudents need to pay for studying mobile learning courses (in those countries in which it is

normal for students to pay for education).

Level 4: Course modules with location and context sensitivity characteristics. Mobile learning

course development with context sensitive and location sensitive characteristics places learning in

context. It enables learners to study information while being in the context to which this

information applies, seeing the environment which the study material refers to. Mediascapes andQR codes can be used for the manipulation and delivery of the course.

Mediascapes are a new form of media which combine and layer digital sight, sounds and

interactions into the physical world to create immersive and interactive experiences. Users

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equipped with a mobile device can move through the physical world and trigger digital media with

GPS via an invisible interactive map, in response to their physical location. Mediascape design is a

process of experience design which involves interaction design, choice of location, media region

design, and an overall specification of the program logic and content production. Mediascapesinvolve producing specific narrative scripts of the work package training and specifying the logicfor the interaction flow of the dialog. Any time dependencies for playing the scripts are also built in.

Deciding how, when and in what form the user can interact with the media is central.

A QR or Quick response code allows the attaching of information to space. The QR code is a twodimension bar code that can be read by all mobile camera phones. When a QR code is read it will

automatically open the mobile web browser and access a web page. This adds significant value as itimproves accessibility to information on the move. The QR code leads to the clickable world where

any physical object can become an interface to the virtual world.

2.5. ADVANTAGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

It is becoming more and more popular to have personal smartphone or tablet. This type of mobile

devices, due to its small size and lightness, opposite to laptop, can be easily taken everywhere

opposite to a laptop. Additionally they usually allow to connect with the Internet. Having modern

electronic device with an access to the Internet one can easily participate in mobile educational

process.

A possibility of learning in mobile environment responds to current situation of many people. They

are constantly in a hurry doing couple of things at the same time. Mobile accesses to learningdatabase give them great possibility to spend potentially non-productive time for acquiring newinformation and skills. One can learn everywhere; it could be queue in a market or an office, a bus

or a train, a bench in the park etc.

In this point of technical development and social needs, educational bodies have great opportunityto use mobile devices to deliver specially prepared content to the individual users. It could be files,

a piece of short information about important events. But what is the most important it also could be

highly interactive educational content. Possibility of collaborations with other participants is also

an available and very useful option. Learning material could be provided everywhere when it is

needed. Only internet access must be available.

According to Shuler in (Shuler, 2009), mobile learning has some unique attributes that can enhanceeducation beyond the anywhere, anytime learning. This view is shared by other authors:

Mobile devices reach places that traditional learning cannot. Along these lines, Colley said,

Twenty-first century learning is not confined to a geographical location, or a particularspace designated for learning purposes (Colley & Stead, 2007).

Learning is more user-centered.

Mobile device-based learning works best as part of a blend of approaches.

Mobile device-based learning works best if it is perceived as another tool that can be used

to fit a learning need (Sharples, Corlett, & Westmancott, 2002), (Stead, 2005).

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Mobile devices can be used to remove some of the formality of education that non-

traditional learners may find unattractive (Attwell, 2005).

Mobile devices can increase motivation and engagement with learning.

Mobile learning is ideal for facilitating collaboration and communication.Mobile technology can foster the growing shift from an instructor-centered classroomteaching to constructivist learner-centered educational settings (Holzinger, Nischelwitzer, &

Meisenberger, 2005).Mobile devices make the learning process faster, easier, more attractive and more

acceptable to disenfranchised learners (Attewell, 2002).Every time when it is suitable for somebody. Thanks to the fact that mobile devices could be

easy carried there is no problem to use them in the right time (Stone, 2010).Through mobile devices the access to specific information is possible in the moment of need

Mobile learning allows to save time. In this way one can learn when normally it will be notpossible.

For young people their smartphones are part of everyday life. They talk, send text messages,

play, browse the Internet and do a lot of other things using them. Often they cannot imaginelife without them.

2.6. CHALLENGES AND RISKS

Elearnitys report on mobile learning (Elearnity, 2011) addresses some of the most common

challenges of using mobile devices for learning:

Small screen of mobile devices. It is natural that mobile device, to be still mobile, must be

small. Therefore, it is possible to carry it easily. As a result screen size is also limited. Thisproblem was partly solved by resignation of traditional keyboard in favor of bigger screen.

There is also constantly new technology under development to bring better and better

screen resolution and quality of colors. It results in improvement of visual experience

without making devices bigger.

Short battery lifetime. Today smartphones and tablets are as much powerful as computers

ten years earlier. New Samsung Galaxy III has a CPU with four cores. To run such powerful

machine a lot of energy is necessary. It is clear that developers made a decision. They prefer

giving more powerful devices now than wait for new, more efficient battery technology. As

an effect, we have fancy smartphones that need to be charged usually every day.

Slow internet connection and high prices for bandwidth. To have quick access to a pieceof information (and it was not preloaded) one must have good speed of internet connection.It is not always granted. Some problem with the Internet could occur even in developed

countries in Europe. It is especially true in rural areas.Touch keyboard. In most smartphones there is no real keyboard which is replaced by

touch keyboard displayed on a screen. One of disadvantages of this solution is the fact that,when keyboard is displayed, space for other visual elements is limited.

Technical limitations of operating systems. On the market there are several operating

systems for mobile devices. Main are iOS and Android other are Symbian, RIM, Bada and

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Windows Phone3. Each has different capabilities of playing multimedia files. For example,

iOS does not support flash files and it is great limitation for content creators. As a result

content must be prepared with awareness of each platform limitation.

Designing mobile content. The preparation of content for mobile devices is differentprocess than preparation for standard eLearning. Due to technical capacity some technicalaspects must be fulfilled. The main aspects are processing the speed of device, system

capabilities and the size of screens. It requires appropriate set of skills from designersteam. Furthermore, there is serious technological limitation concerning mobile devices. For

example: Apples devices do not support flash. Generally every kind of mobile devicesrequires specific skills that should be fulfilled. This process may be simplified by using

special software which automatically sets up parameters of the materials. This type ofsoftware usually cost a lot of money.

Organizational challenges. Nowadays people are more and more advanced in usingmobile devices but one must assume that it is possible that somebody could have problems

with using mobile device in learning environment. Secondly mobile learning is not well

acknowledged by people (HR, CEOs) responsible for strategic decisions in companies andeven by trainers yet. If we want mobile learning to develop it must be supported by wide

range of professionals.

Shuler (Shuler, 2009) also affirms that some critical challenges must be addressed to achievesuccessful implementation of m-learning:

Negative aspects of mobile learning, such as potential distraction or privacy issues.Cultural norms and attitudes.

No mobile theory of learning. Currently, there is no established theory of mobile learningaddressing assessment, pedagogy and instructional design issues.

Differentiated access and technology. The wide range of technologies and their inner

complexities must be overcome by teachers and learners.

Corbeil addressed other challenges about mobile learning:

Mobile devices may make it easier to cheat.

Mobile learning could give tech-savvy students an advantage over non-technical students.Mobile devices could create a feeling of isolation or of being out-of-the-loop for non-

technical students.Mobile learning may require media to be reformatted or offered in multiple formats.

Mobile learning could create an additional learning obstacle for non-technical students andinstructors.

Mobile devices may be used as a new high-tech package for the same old dull and boringcontent.

This last challenge is very interesting because it captures the reality of many current m-learningapplications. These projects tend to provide the same content with the same methodology but

through a different technological delivery method. These projects do not take advantage of the factthat mobile devices offer a totally different set of features aside from content provision and support

evaluation.

3Sales of smartphone in 1 quarter of 2012 with division by operating system: Android 56.1%, iOS 22,9%, Symbian

8,6%, RIM 6,9%, Bada 2,7%, Windows Phone 1,9%, other 0,9%. Source:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system#Market_share

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Actually, according to Corbeil, mobile learning supports learning experiences that are collaborative,

accessible, and integrated with the world beyond the classroom (Corbeil, 2007).

According to Najima, mobile learning allows the learner to keep track of his learning activities fromany location, even while moving from one place to another (Najima & Rachida, 2008). In addition totraditional learning activities such as courses and multiple choice exercises, mobile learning

provides a suitable environment for practical training. For example, mobile devices can be used torequest assistance, to carry out practical work, and to project realization, as they allow the learner

to follow these activities in a realistic context.

In summary, most authors agree that the achievement of a successful mobile learning applicationrequires

Developing new pedagogical theories for mobile learning.Educational innovations to produce new applications for new environments.

Training teachers and learners to adopt mobile technologies and incorporate them into the

learning process.

2.7. MOBILE LEARNING APPLICATIONS, USES, AND EXPERIENCES

We propose the following classification of mobile learning applications:

1. Communication and collaboration2. Location aware applications3. Data collection4. Referential information5. Reminders and schedulers6. Assessment and evaluation

Communication and collaboration

Collaborative applications are all those thatencourage knowledge sharing, making use of thelearners physical location and mobility (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009).This covers

various collaborative activities (form text messaging to social media), games, simulations and

virtual worlds, user generated content, as well as mentoring and cognitive apprenticeship (Woodill,

2011).

Thanks to the Web 2.0 the role of an information provider that creates the content and an audience

that consumes it is changing. Currently the audience is both provider and subscriber, having asmain example Wikipedia. Educators can incorporate this feature into education to help learners

taking an active position in their own learning. The objective is not only to study what teachers say.Learners can be more involved in the learning process.

The mobile devices were created to allow communication and they are perfect tool to support

social learning. [M]obile learning technologies allow for collaborative learning, social networking,

building of communities of practice, learning games, simulations, virtual worlds, immersive

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language learning, mentoring, and messaging. They allow learners to work on projects from

anywhere in the world while they are mobile. (Woodill, 2011).

Boticki carried out a pilot project about learning fractions. In this pilot each student had a fractionin the device (e.g. 1/3, 3/8, 2/5) and should interact with the peers to find others with a fractionthat makes the unit. In this application, for example a student with the 1/3 fraction should interact

with other students trying to find other with a 2/3 fraction, or two students with a 1/3 fraction.This application involved students collaborating to solve a problem. At the same time they learn

how to sum fractions to get a unit (Boticki, Looi, & Wong, 2009).

Technical capabilities of modern mobile devices and vide range of content creation and sharingapps (like extremely popular photo app Instagram) permitted extend communication far beyond

voice callas and short text messages. Users can now take pictures, record and edit audio or video, oruse text-to-speech (or speech-to-text) tools to create original content directly on their phone and

share it in an instant with the world. This content can document learning, be part of the assessment,

learners mobile portfolio or learning content for others.

Another field of application is mobile games. Mobile learning and educational games are two trendsthat are rapidly converging. The main reason is because gaming is a very well-known language for

new generation of students (Kirriemur & McFarlane, 2004). Most of them spend several hoursevery day with these platforms, using video games consoles such as Playstation, Wii, or Xbox. In

addition, there are also mobile video games consoles, such as PSPor NintendoDS. This last productoffers educational products, such as Brain Training with a great acceptance focused in a new

public target: adults. In this game the motivation is to improve the mental age by solvingmathematics-related problems.

According to that concept, authors such as Becker have pointed out aspects of videogames very

related to constructivist principles (Becker, 2007), which can be used to promote students to play

active roles and learn through experience rather than just memorization. While users play they feel

as an active element, free to explore the in-game world, which can help in the acquisition of deep

knowledge about the domain of study (Lavn-Mera, Torrente, Moreno-Ger, & Fernndez-Manjn,

2009).

The AudioGene project proposes an interesting approach where an educative and collaborativegame integrates blind and non-blind students to solve biology problems (Sanchez & Aguayo, 2008).

Results showed that the game helped to create a work environment where students forget abouttheir vision differences to solve problems and build knowledge together.

Location aware applications

Location aware applications contextualize information, allowing learners to interact directly with

their environment; for example, collecting environmental data linked to geographical context or

accessing contextually relevant reference material (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009).

Context-based systems (where context is defined as a compilation of location, profile, etc.) provide

a very interesting added-value to mobile learning applications. Context-aware applications let

students interact with the environment in a totally new way.

Authors like Baldauf in (Baldauf, Dustdar, & Rosenberg, 2007) defines context-aware systems suchas applications able to adapt their operations to the current context without explicit user

intervention and thus aim at increasing usability and effectiveness by taking environmental context

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into account. Particularly when it comes to using mobile devices, it is desirable that programs and

services react specifically to their current location, time and other environment attributes and

adapt their behavior according to the changing circumstances as context data may change rapidly.

For instance, a student in the restaurant will have different needs than in a museum or in a garden;or a teacher in a classroom will need different information than in an office. Knowing where the

user is in each moment it is possible to offer personalized learning through the mobile devicedepending not only on the profile but also on the moment and the location.

There are examples of this kind of application for informal learning at cultural environments, suchas museums or historical places. In this case, the system would offer information about master

pieces, buildings or areas when the user approaches to them. Users could enjoy not only with text,but also with funny videos or animations related to the content.

Mobile context-aware learning applications seem to cater for certain specialties more than otherssuch as: agronomy, biology, geology, archaeology, etc.

Data collectionData collection applications use the handheld devices ability to record data in the form of text,

image, video, and audio (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009).Those can be used for assessment and evaluation (we will discuss it below), feedback gathering,

polling and voting, creating media (see discussion on user generated content above), or monitoring(especially in medical field).

Referential information

According to Clough at al., [r]eferential applications [are those]that use dictionaries, translatorsand e-books to deliver content when and where it is needed (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon,

2009). Speaking of content delivery, Woodill (Woodill, 2011) mentions also RSS feeds, digital media

channels (podcasts, video), job aids and other applications.

A natively mobile content are podcasts, or audio recordings delivered originally via iTunes library

to Apple iPod (hence the name). Podcast allows ubiquitous learning whereby students can access a

variety of educational material anywhere, anytime on iPods, MP3 and MP4 players or mobile

phones. Podcasts permit students to access educational materials at home, while travelling touniversity or work, or doing any activity they choose. They can play the recordings at any time

which is convenient to them rather than be confined to set class times. Podcasts in the educationalsetting allow students on-demand access to audio or video-recordings of lectures or other learning

materials at their convenience (Nataatmadja & Dyson, 2008).

Schedulers and remindersThis kind of applications basically sends some piece of information to the student to help him/her

remind something. They can be classified in two different groups depending if they offeradministrative or learning information. Accordingly, they can provide or remind some useful and

most up-to-date administrative information, like exams results, deadlines, appointments or course

schedules, or deliver learning content in a push model. The learning content schedulers can also

be location-sensitive, combining scheduling with location. In (Montalvo & Torres, 2004) a Mobile

Context-aware and Adaptive Learning Schedule (mCALS) tool is described. It creates and enhances

opportunities for students to study in different locations. The goal of the system is to select

appropriate learning objects for students based on their current user contexts (location,concentration level and frequency of interruption) and user preferences (knowledge level of a topic

and available time).

Assessment, evaluation and research

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Mobile devices can be used to track and report on learner progress in many different kinds of tasks,

to perform tests and examinations, facilitate feedback during the learning process, or gather data

for research.

From the point of view of the learning process, the main categories are: Formative assessment and evaluation are methods used for feedback while learning. Adaptive assessment and evaluation are used to individualize the learning path. For

example, a preliminary quiz can determine the level of knowledge of the learner and allowdetermine next steps, like skipping content thats too basic or rehearsing before continue to

the next level.

Demonstrative assessment and evaluation are used to demonstrate knowledge and skillsachieved, for example by tracking and reporting learner progress.

From the point of view of agents involved in learning process, we can distinguish between

automatic evaluation, expert evaluation, peer evaluation or self-evaluation.

2.8. MOBILE LEARNING CONTENT SOURCES

Often you dont need to build a powerful mobile app from scratch to deliver learning content. Good

news is that you are likely to already have training content that can be easily transformed into

mobile forms. Here is a list of content types that can be used:

Formal learning modules (must be shorter than traditional e-learning)

Supplemental content or review materials as part of a blended learning program (Stone,

2010)

Social mediaSearchable references (like Wikipedia, or your companys databases)

Expert videos

Job aids and checklists

Podcasts and video

Audio books

eBooks or book abstracts

Abstracts and refreshers to complement traditional e-learning training

SMS and video calls

Quizzes and assessments

Test-prep flashcards (Stone, 2010)

Follow-up quick-tips (Stone, 2010)

Job aids and checklistsMobile e-reference (Stone, 2010)

2.9. LMS INTEGRATION

Analysing the academic literature about m-learning applications, most mobile learning systems areisolated applications. The applications are made ad-hoc for a particular case, environment, or

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project. Most applications do not make use of the knowledge already existing in e-learning

platforms, despite the fact that on-line education has employed these platforms for years.

E-learning platforms at the centre of on-line education are a repository of both content and servicesand thus should be incorporated into mobile learning applications. Mobile applications should notbe designed independently without taking advantage of all existing resources.

Cheung showed an example of the integration of traditional e-learning into mobile learning

environments (Cheung, Steward, & McGreal, 2006), where a prototype was developed enablingMoodle LMS to be used through smartphones (Cheung, Steward, & McGreal, 2006). These authors

exchanged the three-frame template of Moodle for a one-frame template to allow users to bettervisualise the content. The prototype did not offer the full functionality of Moodle because many of

the features did not work properly in a smartphone. One of the features that could not be movedwas SCORM, which is a fundamental part of the evaluation process in Moodle and must be

incorporated in the design of mobile applications including assessment. Chat, quizzes with timers

and crosswords were also unavailable.

Another example is the use of a web service-based architecture to move some of the functionalitiesof Moodle to a mobile device (Conde, 2009). This also allows the re-use of some of the existing

services in LMS such as authentication and monitoring, making it unnecessary to create them againin the mobile application. The result of this development was MLE Moodle (Mobile Learning

Engine).

Since then, various mobile LMs appeared on the market, mostly being mobile adaptations ofexisting corporate e-learning environments. Some of them are SumTotal LMS, Upside2Go (learning

management system designed especially for mobile), eXact Mobile (an extension of eXact LCMS),

or official Moodle native iOS app that largely replaced the previously mentioned MLE Moodle.

3. ANDRAGOGICAL ASPECTS OF MOBILE LEARNING

1. LEARNING THEORY FOR MOBILE LEARNING

Mobile devices are always available and can be used for a variety of learning functionality -providing access to content (both informational and instructional), review and assessment, and forcommunication and collaboration purposes. They can be used for formal or informal learning

purposes as well as for performance support, i.e. for delivering information and support just-in-

time and in context.

Mobile devices are popular and well used by many people within m-learning project target groups.They are regarded as personal technologies, and as such likely to encourage a positive response.

With the current rate of development mobile devices will have the capability of delivering highquality, multi-media content at affordable prices within the next few years. If considering the fact

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that more people have mobile phones than computers we can assert that m-learning is more

accessible than e-learning.

If we are interested in enhancing adult learning, a priority must be to design m-learning andteaching strategies that involve active learning, for example, in experiential fieldwork, simulations,role-plays and games (Leigh & Spindler, 2004). Learning and teaching strategies are needed that

provide opportunities for learner adaptation and reflection (Laurillard, 1993), that encouragecritical thinking, and that support students professional development through self and peer

evaluation, feedback, review and assessment opportunities (Raban & Litchfield, 2007). Effectiveand practical strategies are needed that support learners to gain knowledge and skills in specific

identified graduate attributes, curriculum objectives and stated learning outcomes.

1.1. THE NEED FOR A REVISION EXISTING PEDAGOGIES AND LEARNING THEORIES

Emergent technologies for learning demand that educators revisit existing pedagogies and learning

theories. Those existing pedagogical frameworks may no longer be sufficient when learning is

delivered using mobile devices. To continue to subscribe to existing models and practices of

teaching and learning is to limit the learning experience afforded by these brave new technologies.

In order to exploit the full affordance of mobile technologies it is necessary, at the very least, to re-

examine existing pedagogies. Conversely, the phrase Pedagogy before technology is presented by

Beetham and Sharpe, in their introduction to Rethinking pedagogy for a Digital Age. The suggestion

being that, rather than creating a new pedagogy for new technologies, it better serves the

practitioner to locate new technologies within proven practices and models of teaching.

When talking about mobile learning in corporate contexts, we need to remember that employees

are adults and their motivation and learning is different than those of children. We proposeandragogy, constructivism and connectivism as main learning theories relevant to mobile learning.

Andragogy is a theory of adult learning proposed by Malcolm Knowles. His theory con be stated

with the following six principles of how adults learn:

Adults are internally motivated and self-directed

Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning experiencesAdults are goal oriented

Adults are relevancy oriented

Adults are practical

Adult learners like to be respected

Guidelines for mobile learning:

Mobile learning supports learners motivation and sense of control over their own learning.

It allows them to use the devices they are familiar with and to learn at a time convenient tothem. You should also give learners control over pacing and freedom to navigate the course

in their own way.Provide real-life problems and examples. Create a meaningful context: realistic case studies

that learners have to solve for themselves, provide guidance resources needed and feedbackafter they have submitted a solution.

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Base your case studies on examples relevant for their work. Take advantage of their

experiences and knowledge they already have. Dont provide a complete solution; rather, let

learners use their own knowledge to solve the problem.

Make sure the course is relevant to them. Adult learners need to know how the training theyare undertaking can help them to make their work easier. Set concrete, realistic goals forthe course, but remember that possibly every learner will start the course with different

goals and expectations. Be flexible keep an eye on your overall course objectives but letlearners state their own goals. If possible, coach them to make the best of your mobile

course. Motivate learners with realistic scenarios or provide valuable information they caneasily apply in their job.

Provide meaningful, specific and immediate feedback.Dont waste your learners time with unnecessary information or irrelevant content. Leave

out anything that wont help them to achieve their objectives. Use screens, images and casestudies which are close to the learners experiences.

Make learning interactive. The learners want to participate actively in the course and be

able to apply newly-acquired knowledge in practice. This means not only including manycourse-related activities, but, most of all, activities that give them skills to perform their jobs

more effectively.Include practical tips, job aids, and other resources that they will take away to apply in their

work. Encourage use of external resources, like knowledge bases, journals, libraries, etc.Show respect by taking care of the high quality of your course. Listen to your learners, their

expectations, comments and experiences.

The theory of Constructivism is based on a premise that each individual through their learningactivities imposes meaning on the world. The learner through his or her learning activities imposes

meaning on the world. The learners construct their knowledge and understanding through the

learning experience, this knowledge is constructed rather than discovered.

Jonassen, D.H. (Ed.) (2004) Handbook of research on educational communications and technology,

2nd. Ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Jonassen (Jonassen D. , 2004) proposed that there are eight characteristics that differentiateconstructivist learning environments:

1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality.2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real

world.3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction inserted of

knowledge reproduction.4. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context

rather than abstract instruction out of context.5. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as real-worldsettings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.

6. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.7. Constructivist learning environments" enable context- and content- dependent knowledge

construction."

8. Constructivist learning environments support "collaborative construction of knowledgethrough social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition."

Some of the principles of Connectivism, as described in George Siemenss original 2004 article

(Siemens, 2004), are:

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Learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions.

Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.

Learning may reside in nonhuman appliances.

Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.Nurturing and maintaining connections are needed to facilitate continual learning.Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.

Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learningactivities.

Decision making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning ofincoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right

answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow because of alterations in the information climateaffecting the decision.

Examples of application of those teaching frameworks are incorporating the need for students to

acquire multiple perspectives or viewpoints on subject matter into the design of the mobile

learning course. Also, the requirement to abandon rigid pre specified learning objectives will beexamined, and how this will impact on the development of a mobile learning course.

In the Constructivist world, it is vital that students create or construct their own knowledge. Sitting

in a classroom and passively receiving knowledge from an authority figure is not in keeping withthe principles of Constructivism. Interactivity is emphasised, however, it is important to

acknowledge that this requirement for interactivity is not merely satisfied by the adoption of amobile technology into the classroom environment. It is incumbent upon the designers of a mobile

learning course to ensure that students are truly able to interact with the digital media in theirlearning environment. These media as accessed through the mobile technologies, whether video,

digital or audio are important aspects in the creation of a learner-centered environment. The

overriding importance, however, lies not with the technology, nor the digital media, but with the

knowledge constructed by the students as they interact with these tools.

The pedagogical framework informed by the Constructivist and Connectivist school places the

student at the centre of the learning process. Because emergent technology is exiting and newlyavailable, it is easy to become absorbed by the technology itself. This is true both for researchers in

the area and for students employing mobile technology as learning tools. However, it is importantthat the technology itself does not become a distraction or a diversion. Again, poorly designed or ill

structured mobile courseware or a Virtual learning Environment (VLE) may lead to frustrationsand anxieties as students attempt to familiarise themselves with the system. Educators, developers

and designers who strive for mobile learning environments with a sound pedagogical basis willtake pains to avoid this occurrence. An environment of tool should not be a hindrance, but rather

an instrument for thinking and problem-solving (Fjortoft and Sageie, 2000)

A sound pedagogical framework based on developing the students ability to think creatively and

form multiple perspectives on subject matter requires courseware incorporating tasks and subject

matter that are authentic and based in the real world. It is not sufficient to develop a series of

exercises that demand completion simply for the aim of applying a principle of knowledge. It is

incumbent upon educators and developers to draw the tasks from those that the student would be

likely to encounter in a real world environment.

A personalised approach to learning is central to a pedagogy based upon the principles ofConstructivism and Connectivism. The mobile device is a pedagogic tool that enables students to

acquire knowledge at a personal level. In order to offer a truly personalised experience, it is

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necessary to first understand the learners existing skills and interests. The Futurelab report

Towards New Learning Networks advocates the following: Currently most discussions about

increasing learner choice and voice are focused around giving learners a greater variety of routes

through predetermined and predefined subjects and curriculum content. However, a trulypersonalised system requires that learners will not only have greater choice and influence over thepace, style and content of learning but that they are also supported to become active partners in

developing their own educational pathways and experiences.

A pedagogy that advocates personalised learning is one that also by necessity advocates a movetowards more informal learning environments, moving outside the classroom. The mobile device

is the ideal tool to foster informal learning. The mobile device affords location independent accessto information services. Professional knowledge is there for a purpose to be used when

professionals need to respond effectively within professional roles Rhoda Sharpe and MartinOliver consider Erauts influential views on professional knowledge in Rethinking Pedagogy for a

Digital Age. Learning knowledge and using knowledge are not separate processes but the same

process. The process of using knowledge transforms that knowledge so that it is no longer thesame knowledge. Sharpe and Oliver point to various studies to demonstrate difficulties

encountered by professionals when asked to explain how they are applying their knowledge andmaking decisions. They write that tacit knowledge is unexpressed and difficult to capture, posing

difficulties when attempting to design effective case studies for students to study. This leads theauthors to advocate professional development that takes the form of observation, conversation or

shared participation, all informal styles of learning, learning through social networks to access theknowledge of colleagues.

Mobility in itself is not the key to the difference, but by focusing on mobility we can, according to

the authors, gain a better understanding of how knowledge and skills can be transferred across

different environments and life transitions and how technology can aid us as a mobile society

seeks to cram learning into the gaps of daily life. A second criterion in their search for a theory of

m-learning is the acknowledgement that much learning takes placed outside the typical learning

environment, from cafes to cars, locations which are described by the authors as impromptu sites

of learning. Thirdly, the authors point to those practices that best enable successful learning anddeduce that the social- constructivist approach is one which fosters successful learning. The last

factor in their attempt to postulate a theory of learning is the ubiquitous use of personal and sharedtechnology. The authors point to the convergence between new personal and mobile technologies

and new conceptions of learning as a personally-managed lifelong activity.

1.2. THE MOBILE LEARNING SCENARIOThe discussion on the main identified issue is centered around two questions: (a) what are the

relationships between pedagogical approaches and technological affordances of mobile devices?

and (b) which are the concrete characteristics of the pedagogical approaches that inform theinstructional design guidelines for technology-enhanced mobile learning?

The traditional instructional methods apparently do not serve the purpose of mobile learning, but

there are a number of pedagogical approaches which may match nicely to the technical affordancesof mobile learning. Some examples of such approaches, but not limited to, are minimalism (Carroll,

1998), cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1994), anchored learning (Bransford et al, 2005), cognitive

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apprenticeship approach (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1996), jigsaw teaching (Bransford, in press),

theory of problem solving cognitive style (Kirton, 2003), performance support system approach

(Gery, 2002), cognitive flexibility theory (Spiro & Jehng, 1990), peer teaching and assessment

(Bransford, in press), and a set of principles (effects) of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005) such assplit-attention principle, modality principle, redundancy principle, segmenting, sequencing andlearner pacing principle, guided-discovery principle, work-out example principle, and collaborative

principle. The analysis of these theoretical approaches would identify the underlying principles thatcould be further used to formulate instructional design guidelines for constructing a mobile

learning scenario. What follows is a possible blueprint of a such scenario.

1.2.1. A SCENARIO BLUEPRINT

The scenario always begin with building challenges, which should resemble, as much aspossible, workplace referent situations (anchored learning, cognitive flexibility theory,guided-discovery principle of multimedia learning)

Then students collect the resources for the challenges, which could take any format (text,audio, video).

An important part in tackling the challenges are just-in-time, just-enough, and just-at-the-

point-of-need advices (performance support system, worked-out example principle of

multimedia learning) by experts (cognitive apprenticeship) and peer teaching from thefellow students (peer teaching and assessment).

Experts and fellows help to build a multiple perspectives view on the issue underinvestigation (cognitive flexibility theory).

Students work first individually and then in small groups (collaboration principle of

multimedia learning). Working in groups they get hints and learn how to manage thediversity of cognitive styles in order to cooperate effectively (jigsaw teaching, theory of

cognitive styles for problem solving).

The messages for mobile communication are based on some of the principles of minimalism

(use as few words as possible, break the text into small, self-contained modules, usually nomore than seven steps for procedures), cognitive load theory and multimedia learning

(split-attention principles, modality principle, redundancy principle and segmenting,sequencing and learner pacing principle).

Mobile technology offers unprecedented possibilities for combining the strengths of formal and

informal education, and professional internship. This technology connect people working atdifferent places (formal, informal, workplaces) with opportunities for expert and peer feedback and

co-learning. Some ideas to enrich this scenario could be borrowed from Bransford et al (in press).

1.3. M-LEARNING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKA framework for learning and teaching with mobile devices could consist of five components:

Pedagogical framework context; defines areas that influence the framework itself and forms

the basis for further development. M-learning pedagogical framework context focuses on m-

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learning theory and practice, motivational