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Thi j t h b f d d ith t f th E C i i d th

Mobile Training Methodology

for E-business

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The Mobile Training Methodology for E-businessver. 1.0 has been prepared as part of the

E-business Mobile Training - use of mobile Performance Support System for acquiring e-

business management skills project, co-financed by the Leonardo da Vinci Lifelong

Learning Programme. It is based on mobile Performance Support System for Vocational

Education and Training project, and results developed during its implementation.

This consortium implementing this project consists of:

Nowoczesna Firma S.A. (NF)

Plovdiv University (PU)

Management Observatory Fundation (FOZ)

National Distance Education University (UNED)

Authors:

Piotr Maczuga (NF)

Micha Plewczyski (NF)

Nevena Mileva (PU)

Dimitar Tokmakov (PU)

Agnieszka witecka (FOZ)

Krzysztof Zieliski (FOZ)

Elio San Cristbal Ruiz (UNED)

Manuel Castro (UNED)

ISBN: 978-83-936582-0-6

Warsaw 2012

E-business Mobile Training - use of mobile Performance Support System for acquiring e-

business management skills

www.mtraining.eu

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Page 1

Table of content:Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 2

The mobile world. Workforce mobility and the rise of mobile devices ..................................................................... 2

Learning with mobile devices everyday contexts and use patterns ........................................................................ 2The why and how of learning/working with mobile devices ......................................................................................... 4

Hardware, software, and mobile learning models ............................................................................................................. 5

Defining Mobile Learning ...............................................................................................................................13

Revising the definition of mobile learning ......................................................................................................................... 13

Why is mobile learning different? .......................................................................................................................................... 14

Supportive vs. instructional tool ............................................................................................................................................. 15

Four levels of mobile learning ................................................................................................................................................. 16

Advantages and opportunities ............................................................................................................................................... 17

Challenges and risks .................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Mobile learning applications, uses, and experiences ..................................................................................................... 20Mobile learning content sources ........................................................................................................................................... 23

LMS integration ............................................................................................................................................................................. 23

Andragogical aspects of mobile learning ....................................................................................................25

Learning theory for mobile learning ..................................................................................................................................... 25

The mobile learning scenario .................................................................................................................................................. 28

M-learning theoretical framework ........................................................................................................................................ 29

Mobile learning in corporate contexts .........................................................................................................32

Business drivers of mobile learning ...................................................................................................................................... 32

Contexts ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 35

Mobile learning tools .................................................................................................................................................................. 40Mobile performance support system ...........................................................................................................44

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 44

Performance-centered learning ............................................................................................................................................. 44

Implementation of performance support scenarios....................................................................................................... 46

Designing and delivering mobile learning ...................................................................................................54

General aspects of mobile design ......................................................................................................................................... 54

Mobile usability ............................................................................................................................................................................. 56

Multimedia and learning ........................................................................................................................................................... 68

Tools for developing mobile learning .................................................................................................................................. 71

Final remarks ....................................................................................................................................................73Tips for implementing mobile learning ............................................................................................................................... 73

Bibliography .....................................................................................................................................................75

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Page 2

Introduction

The mobile world. Workforce mobility and the rise of mobile devices

Mobile computing is one of the fastest growing areas within the technology industry worldwide.

According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2011), there are 5.9 billion mobile-cellularsubscriptions. Global penetration reaches 87% and 79% in the developing world (ITU, 2011). Mobile-

broadband subscriptions have grown 45% annually over the last four years and today there are twice as

many mobile-broadband as fixed broadband subscriptions (ITU, 2011).

This information reveals that mobile devices are a very accessible and spread tool that do not require

important equipment investments, and that penetration to all economic layers is possible thank to them

(Martin, et al., 2010).

In general, mobile devices are reaching all levels of our society, being used not just for communication

any more. New commerce, advertising, social networking, media, and obviously corporate training and

formal education are having mobile devices as a fundamental platform for future development.

Smartphones and tablets have enabled workers to be more flexible than ever before because they do nothave to be rooted to their desks in an office to do their job. According to the report published by Cube

Labs (Cube Labs, 2012) the number of mobile workers in 2012 is of 397.1 millions using mostly

smartphones (91%) and tablets (44%). The profile of mobile employee goes from consultants, financial

services professionals, banking executives, delivery drivers, and retail sales employees, to field service

employees, executive assistants, supervisor and general manager. According to this study, younger

employees prefer Apple and Android devices, while older employees prefer Blackberry. The differences

between these devices are that Blackberry devices focuses on productivity apps, Android devices on

information apps and Apple devices focuses on task-oriented apps (Cube Labs, 2012).

Learning with mobile devices everyday contexts and use patterns

According to (Cube Labs, 2012), the most common apps used by mobile employees are related to email(86%), Web browsing (80%), contacts (80%), calendar (75%), instant messaging (73%), office apps (71%),

task and project management (63%), line of business apps (59%), and CRM (51%). However, thanks to the

new lifelong learning initiatives educational apps will become as usual as any other kind of apps. Also,

some devices are particularly focused on content consumption, such as tablets. According to (MeeFeedia,

2010) iPad users consume 3X as many videos as web users, spend 4X as long watching videos as web

users, and consume 5X as many videos as iPhone users. That fact makes these devices great vehicles to be

used to deliver educational resources. However, not only video-based resources can be used to foster

education on these devices.

Current mobile learning projects range from informal learning (e.g. museums, flights) aimed to provide

additional information and services in informal environments; to outside-the-classroom experiences based

on geo-location where learners can collaborate and participate in real environments; or performancesupport systems, aimed to improve learning performance by scaffolding the learning process through

immediate feedback in adaptive scenarios (Martin, et al., 2010). These systems are not just an extension of

the traditional Learning Management Systems (LMS), since they allow students learn in any place and any

moment, taking advantage of, for example, the boredom moments in the bus.

Reviewing the mobile and ubiquitous learning literature, there are several classifications of m-learning

(mobile learning) applications. Naismith [Naismith, 2004] uses as indicators the technical features of the

devices used for information, communication or educational purposes. According to the information and

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communication technologies (ICT) approach, the systems are classified by the type of mobile device

(Notebooks, TabletPCs, PDAs, cell phones or smart phones) and the type of wireless communication

technologies (GSM, WiFi, Bluetooth, etc.) that they support (Martin, et al., 2010).

Other authors focus more on the ability to support on-line or off-line access to learning materials (Attwell,

2005), or on the type of information used in the educational process: learning or administrative [Chang,

2003].

These classifications do not cover the complexity of the current mobile learning applications (Martin, et

al., 2010). This is why authors like Georgieva provide two types of classification [Georgieva, 2005] (Figure

1):

Information and Communication Technologies, as in Naismith [Naismith, 2004];

Educational technologies. The proposed classification is based on the following main indicators:

Support of synchronous and/or asynchronous communication.

Support of e-learning standards. Currently most m-learning systems do not support e-

learning specifications such as SCORM.

Availability of a permanent Internet connection between the mobile learning system and

users: on-line, off-line and mixed-work.

Users location: on-campus, off-campus or both.

Access to learning materials and/or administrative services. This means that the student

receives course content such as tests or administrative information such as schedules and

exam marks.

Figure 1. A general classification of m-learning systems [Georgieva, 2005].

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The why and how of learning/working with mobile devices

In the context of mobile learning it is worth to analyze Bob Mosher and Conrad Gottfredsons Five

Moments of Learning Need. The five needs occur:

1. When learning for the first time2.

When wanting to learn more3. When trying to remember and/or apply

4. When things change5. When something goes wrong

Due to its specific character, m-learning works best in some specific areas or situations of providing

information1. Mobile learning is most suitable when it comes to the number 2, 3, 4 and 5.

1Compare: 1. Mobile Learning: All Talk? What is the reality of mobile learning in corporate learning? December

2011, Copyright Elearnity; 2. http://learningcircuits.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-different-about-mobile-

learning.html; 3. Dr. Conrad Gottfredson, head of the Performance Support Lab & Seminar at the Masie Center

http://www.xyleme.com/podcasts/archives/7

http://learningcircuits.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-different-about-mobile-learning.htmlhttp://learningcircuits.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-different-about-mobile-learning.htmlhttp://www.xyleme.com/podcasts/archives/7http://www.xyleme.com/podcasts/archives/7http://learningcircuits.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-different-about-mobile-learning.htmlhttp://learningcircuits.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-different-about-mobile-learning.html

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When wanting to learn more mobile technology can be used as supportive tool for learning.

They allow quick access to additional information (like corporative data bases, documents and

procedures) in the exact moment and place where it is needed.

When remembering and/or applying whats been learned it can provide knowledge

refreshers, job aids or performance support any moment it is needed, especially in the need of

applying previously gained knowledge and skills in real context, during performance of given

action.

When things go wrong it can be very helpful in situations of crisis, when quick access to critical

information is needed. Therefore it allows react instantly and effectively to overcome difficulties or

correct errors.

When things change - especially in business environment, we live in the era of continuous

change and information overflow. Employees need to adapt swiftly to changing rapidly

conditions, and constantly update their knowledge and skills and continue learning in formal and

informal ways. They also need to deal with infobesity, i.e., difficulties of understanding and

decision making caused by the presence of too much information. Mobile learning can help them

in finding relevant data delivered just in time and always up-to-date.

After we have known situation when mobile learning do its job, it is good to know its basic toolbox:

Mobile Refreshers the content provided via mobile devices could be really helpful after

attending regular training. It could be distributed as supportive material, and designed to simplify

the process of repetition. A review of short part of material, focused on most important things,

could support learning and prevent forgetfulness.

Mobile Just in Time Performance Support mobile learning model gives also opportunity to

provide accessibility to learning materials on demand when it is the most necessary. The

information is delivered exactly in the same time when one needs it. This could be done by

delivering an access to the content that was specified earlier or by collaborative work. In the

second case somebody can get an answer or a tip from a person who is experienced in that

specific field.

Workflow Support this is a combination of all previous elements in the context of the business.

A mobile access to information gives possibility to review important information in the moment

of need. For example, it could be very useful in business environment, before important meeting

outside the company. An access to relevant information in anytime and anyplace could be very

beneficial.

Hardware, software, and mobile learning models

Mobile devices

A mobile device, which is also referred to as a handheld, handheld device or handheld computer, is a

small-size computing device. The most popular mobile devices used for learning are:

Mobile phones (also known as cellular phones, cell phones and a hand phones) are used to make

and receive phone calls and SMS text messages by connecting through radio signals to base

stations that are linked in a cellular network. Most of todays mobile phones have a number of

additional features like MP3 player, short-range wireless communications (Bluetooth, infrared), e-

mail and internet access, or camera. They are sometimes called feature phones and lie halfway

between low-end, simple mobile phones and smartphones.

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Personal digital assistants (PDAs) (also known as a palmtop computers or personal data

assistants) are small personal information managers with office software and multimedia display

capability. Most of these capabilities are now present in various smartphones, which are quickly

replacing PDAs in the marketplace (Woodill, 2011).

Smartphones: While there is no standard official definition of the term smartphone (and its

sometines hard to distinguish it from feature phone), we assume that a smartphone is a device

that combines the functionalities of mobile phone, personal digital assistant and computer. It is

based on an advanced operating system that allows to install and run various applications and

offers access to the internet via mobile browser. As Woodill states, [c]urrent smartphones have

taken on some of the functionality of laptop computers, allowing access to e-mail, documents,

and office productivity software. Smartphones usually have a miniature QWERTY keyboard, or a

virtual keyboard on a touch screen. Smartphones are currently seen as being one of the most

suitable platforms for mobile learning purposes (Woodill, 2011).

eBook readers (also called an e-book devices or e-readers) are devices designed primarily for

the purpose of reading digital e-books and periodicals. They use electronic paper technology for

better readability of their screens especially in bright sunlight. The disadvantages of electronic

paper are that currently it can display content only in black and white and has no ability of

displaying video content. Thus, its application for mobile learning is limited to mainly textualinformation.

Notebook and netbook computers: Not everybody consider laptop/notebook and netbook

computers a part of the mobile ecosystem. But as they become smaller, thinner and easier to

carry around they can be used as mobile learning devices that are generally more powerful than

smartphones and equipped with full features of PC computers. On the other hand, they allow full-

feature, traditional e-learning without design restrictions typical for mobile content.

Tablet devices and computers: half-way between smartphone and laptop computer, they take

advantage of both kinds of devices. Having screen big enough for browsing traditional e-

learning content, they present some limitations (for example, many of them dont support Flash

or other formats popular for Web) but also some advantages (like GPS or gyroscope) over regular

computers. Their market share is still limited, but their popularity is growing very quickly and they

are likely to substitute in some extent e-book readers and netbooks.

Portable media players (such as iPods and MP3 players): are used for storing and playing digital

media such as audio, images, video, documents, etc. Their clear advantage is the small size and

light weight, but they have to compete in the market with mobile phones and smartphones, as

well as other more specialized devices such as portable DVD players.

For purpose of our methodology we shall concentrate on smartphones and tablets, as they are the two

prevalent platforms for business use.

The capabilities of mobile devices

Horton (Horton, 2012) provides a detailed list of the capabilities of mobile devices and the possibilities oftheir use for learning.

See Horton (Horton, 2012) for ideas of how to take advantage of every one of those capabilities and the

learning activities that can be involved.

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Capability Description (what the user can do)

Screen display Display text, graphics, and video.

Audio playback Play voice, music, and sounds.

Video playback Play video segments.

Clock Display time, measure time, and schedule events.

Calendar Schedule activities and display reminders.Contact list Catalog the name, address, e-mail, phone number, and other contact

information for participants.

GPS Detect latitude and longitude coordinates.

Map display Show streets, roads, buildings, and terrain. Can pinpoint the learners location

with GPS capability.

Navigation Get instructions on how to get from one place to another.

Bluetooth Connect to another Bluetooth-enabled device.

E-mail Send and receive e-mail messages and attachments.

Web browser Access Web servers and all that they provide.

Radio-frequency

identification (RFID)reader

Read a short message encoded in a RFID tag. Tags are tiny (4 cu. mm.) devices

that transmit an identifying message triggered when a PFID reader comes withina few centimeters.

Text messaging Send short text messages to another mobile device.

Audio recorder Record voice, music, and other sounds using the built-in microphone or an

external microphone.

Still camera Take photographs.

Video camera Record motion and audio.

Edit and format text Enter, organize, and format text.

Edit photographs Adjust photographs: crop, straighten, change brightness and contrast, alter color,

and apply special effects.

Edit audio Shorten, combine, and adjust volume and tone of audio recordings.

Edit video Cut, sequence, overlay, and adjust video clips.Keyboard (screen) Enter small amounts of text.

Keyboard (external) Enter large amounts of text.

Phone call Talk to other people.

Social networking Connect to social-networking sites and tools, such as, Twitter and Facebook.

Wireless networking Connect to the Internet and local-area networks via WiFi, EDGE, 3G or other

wireless protocols.

Calculator Perform common calculations.

Spreadsheet with

charting

Perform math with rows and columns of numbers and display charts of results.

Voice control Activate and direct functions of the mobile device with voice commands.

Text-to-voice synthesis Have the device speak aloud words stored as text.

Voice-to-text Convert spoken words to text.

External microphone Record sound through the microphone jack on the device.

Augmented reality View relevant data superimposed on the image recorded by the video camera.

Data probes Measure physical data such as: temperature, air pressure, pH, salinity, O2, CO2,

acceleration, force, light, color, and sound level.

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Mobile operating systems

Modern mobile operating systems combine the features of a PC operating system with others typical for

mobile devices, such as touchscreen, GPS navigation, camera, or cellular communication. They allow to

take best advantage of handhelds technical features and apps.

The most common mobile operating systems are:

Android form Google (free and open source)

iOS form Apple (closed source, proprietary)

Blackberry OS from RIM (closed source, proprietary)

Symbian form Nokia and Accenture (open public license)

Bada from Samsung (closed source, proprietary)

Windows Phone from Microsoft (closed source, proprietary)

Source: wikipedia

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Below we compare the two most popular operating systems:

System Content

capability

Strengths Weaknesses

iOS HTML, HTML5,

apps. No Flashcontent

Popular with end users and

strong installed base. Highperformance and stable

operating system. High level of

standardization. Good quality of

software and technical support.

Lack of enterprise security.

Closed operating system;requirements of using Apple

App Store to deliver apps

(complicated and long process

of approval).

Android HTML, HTML5

(depends on

browser), Flash,

Android apps

Popular with end users. Good

documentation. Open platform

based on Java, integrated with

Google apps. Wide choice of

different models at various

prices.

Customization by phone

manufacturers, many different

screen resolutions and other

differences.

Mobile browsers

As in case of operating systems, mobile browsers differ greatly in terms of features. While the most

advanced offer full support for most websites in addition to some native features, others have limited

functions and can only display mobile-optimized content. Smartphones and tablets, whose important

function is web browsing, generally implement advanced features, and allow users install additional

browsers if the native one does not suits them (for example, to play Flash content on iOS devices).

Source: StatCounter

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Web Apps vs. Native Apps

There are two main approaches for porting an educational environment to mobile devices: adapting a

web version to the constraints of mobile devices, and building a native implementation in each supported

mobile phone.

Regarding native applications, most mobile devices provide development frameworks on top of which

third-party developers can build applications. The added value of this is clear: the functionality of the

mobile device becomes flexible, since new applications can be built using the capabilities of the mobile

device (Ordua, et al., 2009).

However, the range of development frameworks has become wide. Applications available for mobile

operating systems are usually native applications developed in their own SDK, which is only supported by

each operating system (Ordua, et al., 2009).

The advantage of using a native technology is that it can use all resources that the mobile device provides

through the used SDK. If the mobile device supports it, the application may use 3D graphics, retrieve the

user's position, access the accelerometers, the camera, use Bluetooth, interact with files and handle disk

storage, access the mobile calendar or contacts, or even play music and videos, while mobile webbrowsers usually do not provide these features to web applications (Ordua, et al., 2009).

The other possibility is to create a mobile-enabled web platform. Support for web applications in mobile

devices has increased during the last years. With the arrival of the Web 2.0 and Cloud computing, it

became necessary to support complex web applications in mobile devices.

However, web applications usually need to be adapted for mobile devices. This adaption requires three

changes (Ordua, et al., 2009):

1. Provide a proper layout. Developers should think what is actually going to be used from a mobiledevice, and how may the user see it in a small screen. For instance, newspapers tend to provide a

vertical panel where each news item is represented in a row with a single sentence, so the user

can quickly see what news item is more interesting and click on it. Each row acts as a button, so itbecomes easy to click it with a touch screen.

2. Provide the required contents. Developers should think what contents are going to be migratedto the mobile version. Users might look at the mobile version as a complement to the desktop

version, so it becomes normal that some features are not present.

3. Avoid plug-ins. Many web applications provide features that are based on plug-ins such as Javaapplets, Adobe Flash or Microsoft Silverlight. These plug-ins are not available in most devices, and

it is difficult that they become available there, due to the resources required for the plug-in

developer to port the plug-in to the wide range of mobile platforms.

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The following table2

summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of web vs. native apps development.

Web Apps Native Apps

Platform independent development, so canreach a wider range of audience

The app can be delivered instantaneously as

there are no intermediate delivery platforms

like app store

Faster development and lower maintenance

High end (rich) applications can be

developed if HTML5/CSS3 technology is

used for development, which also enable

use of audio, video and animation within

the application

Content remains secure on your servers, no

data is stored on the device

Updates immediately affect all users

Web-apps require no approval, fees, or

placement process within a commercial app

store

Requires Internet access

Requires a web URL; you must host it on a

server

Features and functionality are limited,

especially with regards to access to device

featuresPerformance can be lower as compared with

that of native apps and will also be

dependent on the web access speed

Less control over user experience

Lack of standards across mobile browsers

Lets you access the devices features likecamera, accelerometer or the data like address

book

Controlled user experience

Rich media functionality

Development time would be more so would be

the maintenance overheads

The app has to go through some kind of app

store / marketplace before it reaches the

intended audience and the process could be

time consuming and fuzzy

Allow creation of a dedicated channel for

access and retrieval (pull) of information

/knowledge just when needed

Can store user specific information and act as a

personal learning agent (at least to some

extent)

Does not require Internet access

Platform specific; you must build multiple apps

to address various operating systems

Native app stores require an approval process;

for each device, the app has to go onto a

different storeHigher cost of development

Nevertheless, there is also a third option that lets developers take advantage of both web and native

characteristics. The hybrid apps are developed with HTML5 wrapped in a native container. The container

allows them to be sold in app markets also gives them access to native capabilities like the camera,

microphone, contact list, or notification system. For the end user, they look and behave like native apps.

But the main content is written in HTML so it can be updated and modified easily and its development is

2see:http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-

or-web-apps/,

http://bottomlineperformance.com/wp-

content/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdf

http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-or-web-apps/http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-or-web-apps/http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-or-web-apps/http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-or-web-apps/http://bottomlineperformance.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdfhttp://bottomlineperformance.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdfhttp://bottomlineperformance.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdfhttp://bottomlineperformance.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdfhttp://bottomlineperformance.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/BottomLinePerformance_mLearningBrief_20110802.pdfhttp://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-or-web-apps/http://www.upsidelearning.com/blog/index.php/2010/07/13/mobile-learning-considerations-native-apps-or-web-apps/

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considerably cheaper than creating and updating a native app, especially if we need to develop for

multiple operating systems.

We also need to stress that some of the commonly mentioned advantages of native apps over web apps

(better performance, offline mode, access to device attributes, geo-location capabilities) are becoming

less obvious with the development of technologies based on HTML5/CSS3 and JavaScript.

While HTLM5 functionalities are not yet stable, some of them are already implemented by major web

browsers (Ordua, et al., 2009). These features include:

Audio and video

Canvas

Geolocation

Storage and databases

New forms

Some widespread web applications, such as YouTube or Google Maps, already provide contents using

HTML5. YouTube supports video through HTML5 instead of depending on Flash, if the user explicitly

agrees. Google Maps use HTML5 geolocation capabilities to show the user where he is by pressing a small

button. This button will only appear if the web browser supports geolocation (Ordua, et al., 2009).Since mobile web browsers are based on modern web browsers, some mobile web browsers already

provide these functionalities. For instance, both iPhones and Android devices can already handle

geolocation, as well as Windows Mobile by installing a plug-in (Ordua, et al., 2009).

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Defining Mobile LearningTo understand better mobile learning, firstly we must know its origin.

Before the era of computers and the Internet there was only one way to get educational content without

staying at home it were correspondent courses. People subscribed to it, paid for it, and they get post

deliveries with materials. It was the only way that had been working for very long time. When computers

appeared together with them new and instantly quick way of information delivery the Internet was

introduced. It had changed the picture of modern education completely. People gained access to

immense quantity of information. But there was still one step to go. The development of mobile devices

opened quite new era of information accessibility.

Mobile devices are now similar to mobile personal computers and even they have access to the Internet

via telecommunicate network or WiFi. What is even more interesting is the fact that today smartphone is

one thousand times faster, 100 thousand times smaller and 1 million times cheaper than supercomputer

MIT from 1965. It is equipped with wide screen, touch UI, GPS, and accelerometer orientation sensors,

loud-speakers, WiFi, CPU and GPU capable of running 3D games.

Mobile devices, with that kind of equipment, offer what computers cannot - constant access toinformation everywhere. In this way mobile learning has become very sufficient way of acquiring

knowledge.

Revising the definition of mobile learning

Unfortunately there is no one definition of mobile learning but there are several most popular. At the

beginning the most popular definitions emphasized technological aspect of the process. But with the time

the other important factors has been incorporated, such as: personal, social and ubiquitous learning.

When defining mobile learning or mlearning, two perspectives can be distinguished, depending on

whether the mobility of the learner is stressed or the use of mobile technology. Addressing the firstperspective the use of a mobile device is not always necessary, because access to the internet or a

network allows the learner also to be mobile. Addressing the second perspective, the learner is always

mobile, but does not need to be all the time. When stressing the use of a mobile device when defining

mobile learning, a distinction can be made between the use of mobile technology as the only tool for

learning or mobile technology as one of the tools. Moreover, a distinction can be made between learning

within an educational institute (i.e., school or university), or learning on location (i.e., natural environment

or workplace).

The two perspectives described are complementary and can be combined in a definition for mlearning in

which mobile devices increase the mobility of the learner. Thus, mlearning may be defined as the

provision of education and training on mobile devices. However, to facilitate this mobility, the mobile

device should meet several requirements. The learner must be able to use the mobile device wirelessly,standing and with minimal effort. Moreover, the device should be small enough to be held in one hand

and should be easy to take along (Dye, 2007). Examples of such devices are PDAs (personal digital

assistants), smartphones, mobile phones, handhelds, palmtops, MP3 players, and iPods.

So we could find mobile learning defined as any educational provision where the sole or dominant

technologies are handheld () devices (Kukulska-Hume & Traxler, 2005). Another author considers that

"mobile learning should be restricted to learning on devices which a lady can carry in her handbag or a

gentleman can carry in his pocket (Keegan, 2005).

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But as mentioned for other definitions, technology was not most important aspect.

One of the best descriptions of mobile learning was presented by MOBIlearn Project:

... when considering mobility from the learner's point of view rather than

technology's, it can be argued that mobile learning goes on everywhere - forexample, pupils revising for exams on the bus to school, doctors updating their

language skills while traveling abroad. All these instances of formal or

informal learning do not necessarily involve the use of mobile technologies, but

have been taking place while people are on the move and should therefore be

classified as instances of mobile learning. Moreover, mobile technologies can be

used at a person's usual learning environment. In fact, there has been

substantial amount of research in recent years looking at the employment of

PDAs in classrooms. By virtue of the technology's mobility, such PDA-based

classroom learning has also been considered as mobile learning

(O'Malley, et al., 2005).

For operational purposes in the context of proposed methodology which is directed to usage mobile

devices, we could say that mobile learning happens when people implement their mobile devices to the

process of learning and therefore they are not limited to specific location.

Why is mobile learning different?

These perspectives also help to distinguish the field of m-learning from e-learning. M-learning is a specific

type of learning within the field of e-learning. It focuses on learning across contexts and on learning

supported by mobile technology, whereas e-learning does not necessarily involve mobile devices. Thetask for the field of m-learning is to move on from the field of e-learning to the development of m-

learning. Specifically and practically this means the evolution from the wired virtual learning environment

of today, to the wireless virtual learning environment of tomorrow.

We can compare traditional learning to e-learning and e-learning to m-learning. Criteria are very simple

how, when and where. E-learning gives a possibility to acquire knowledge without appearing personally

on stationary courses and when time is the most suitable for a user. The limitation concerns accessibility

to a computer and internet network. It is also important that rules concerning communication between

students and teachers are different than in traditional learning.

Mobile learning is some sort of extension of e-learning and often is complementary to it. It could be also

complementary to traditional trainings. Because of the fact that mobile devices are used to support m-

learning process there are technical limitations of the appearance of course content and its length. Mobilelearning appears most efficient when it delivers very short piece of information and when it is not

overloaded with multimedia.

At the beginning of mobile learning, the fastest and the cheapest way to prepare mobile content was to

resize down previous eLearning material. But after several years it became clear that mobile learning

could not be e-learning on small screen devices. The development of mobile learning methodology

shows that courses materials for mobile learning must be prepared differently than for e-learning. If not,

they are usually ineffective.

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The reason is simple. As it is written above and will be mentioned below mobile devices have certain

limitations. If educational content is not prepared due to specification of the device, some audio-video

material could be displayed incorrectly, font could be too small and a quantity of text could be too large.

There is also another very important thing besides use of modern technology. It is way of thinking. Mobile

learning is a sign of important shift of educational paradigm. Learning becomes more ubiquitous than

ever. With personal computer and the Internet we have gained access to vast amount of data. With themobile revolution this access we have everywhere. This is powerful tool we have. Now we must learn how

to use it efficiently.

Thats why Horton (Horton, 2012) distinguishes between the two meanings of the term mobile learning:

Participation in conventional learning by mobile individuals. Mobile learning techniques and

technologies allow mobile individuals to participate in established forms of learning including

classroom learning, virtual-classroom learning, standalone e-learning, social learning, and

performance support.

Real mobile learning. In real mobile learning, we learn not from the mobile device but from the

world around us. Real mobile learning requires learning from objects, environments, and fellow

learners that we encounter as we move about in the real world.

There is an old adage in distance education research which states It is not technologies with inherent

pedagogical advantages which are successful in distance education, but technologies which are generally

available to citizens. Never in the history of the use of technology in education has there been a

technology as available to citizens as mobile telephony today. One can safely assume that every student

in every program in every institution in every one of the 27 states of the European Union possesses one.

They use these mobile devices constantly in every walk of life except their education. With the exception

of a few notable large-scale implementations of podcasting in the USA, and leaving aside many short-

term projects, the university sector has not yet adopted m-learning, despite widespread use of e-learning.

It is the role of the field of mobile learning to harness for education and training this unprecedented

availability of technology, especially because there are specific problems in university learning that mobile

technologies can help overcome: limited real world context, limited access to learning resources, low

student engagement in classes, and lack of practical experience in learning about mobile technologies.

A promising approach to convince students to use their mobile devices for educational purposes comes

from the more user-centered studies on m-learning, which propose to thread innovative uses of

technology into the existing fabric of behavior (Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007). The existing pattern of

students use of mobile devices identified forms the basis for mobile education. Furthermore, when

designing m-learning it is important to do this from the perspective of the learning process and the

learner and not from the perspective of mobile technology. That is, the decision to use a mobile device to

deliver training or information should not be driven by the mere availability of the mobile device, but

should be based on the added value of this device for the students learning processes.

Supportive vs. instructional tool

Mobile devices can be integrated as (a) a supportive tool or (b) an instructional tool. As a tool to support

educators mobile devices allow the recording and maintenance of the lessons that take place, the

instructional procedures, the type of mentoring and the pedagogical approach, the role of the teacher

and students. Additionally, they facilitate communication between faculty members and students through

file sharing capabilities, built-in networking and a friendly interface with on-line discussion and e-mail

options.

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On the other hand, mobile devices can be used as instructional tools to construct learning. Mobile devices

can be treated as tools that help students execute their tasks and promote the balanced development of

their mental abilities by functioning as intellectual partners to the instructor and the learner. Educators

can provide students with electronic books, content reference sites, graphing calculator, dictionary, and

thesaurus etc. Finally, electronic quizzes and tests can be taken through mobile devices.

Four levels of mobile learning

Mobile learning is now a decade old as its origins can be traced to the work of Sharples (Sharples, 2000)

with the use of PDAs in primary schools in the United Kingdom. Over the decade four levels of provision

of mobile learning have emerged, with each requiring different instructional design guidelines.

Level 1: SMS messaging. The use of SMS messaging in educational contexts stems from the daily need

of all schools, colleges and universities to communicate with some or all of their student bodies. For

urgent communications (e.g., cancellation of a lecture), the main avenues for communication used by

these institutions are: the postal services, email or SMS messaging. In many cases the postal services are

too slow and not all students check their emails regularly, making these means not effective for this typeof communication. However, all students enrolled in schools, colleges and universities carry a

sophisticated communications device. If the institutions communication is sent to the students mobile

phones by SMS messaging, the message will be received immediately by all students. An SMS messaging

system can be set up by in-house development or by using an SMS service provider.

Level 2: Screenshots of educational content. Mobile devices are ideal for receiving short, five to six

screen presentations of educational content, such as a course summary, advice on examination

preparation, and assistance with a part of a course that has caused difficulties to students in the past,

tutorial advice or even multiple choice tests. It is important to note that the limitation of having only 160

characters available (including spaces) for an SMS text message poses some very interesting challenges

when it comes to the formulation of SMS messages for education. It is a real challenge to formulate the

correct message that provides the exact information you want to communicate without leavingpossibilities of misunderstandings or misinterpretations. One badly formulated SMS can create lots of

chaos with financial and many other implications.

Level 3: Course modules. Presenting full mobile learning courses on Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

cause no problems. A comfortable didactic environment can be created by using Microsoft Reader Works

to display the content. However, the challenge today is to solve the problems of screen size for the

presentation of course modules in mobile learning on the slightly smaller screens of smartphones and

mobile phones. Many experts in the field of mobile learning have argued that mobile devices are only

suitable for snippets of learning information and cannot be used for the presentation of full course

modules.

If this position were accepted mobile learning would remain forever peripheral to mainstream education

and never be incorporated into mainstream education and training. For mobile learning to succeed the

following need to be achieved:

Mobile learning courseware needs to be assessed in the same way as face-to-face courses,

distance education and e-learning

Mobile learning courseware needs to be accredited as at least part of normal degree or diploma

programs

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Mobile learning courses need to be listed in the college or university prospectus as are face-to-

face courses, distance education and e-learning

Students need to pay for studying mobile learning courses (in those countries in which it is

normal for students to pay for education).

Level 4: Course modules with location and context sensitivity characteristics. Mobile learning course

development with context sensitive and location sensitive characteristics places learning in context. Itenables learners to study information while being in the context to which this information applies, seeing

the environment which the study material refers to. Mediascapes and QR codes can be used for the

manipulation and delivery of the course.

Mediascapes are a new form of media which combine and layer digital sight, sounds and interactions into

the physical world to create immersive and interactive experiences. Users equipped with a mobile device

can move through the physical world and trigger digital media with GPS via an invisible interactive map,

in response to their physical location. Mediascape design is a process of experience design which involves

interaction design, choice of location, media region design, and an overall specification of the program

logic and content production. Mediascapes involve producing specific narrative scripts of the work

package training and specifying the logic for the interaction flow of the dialog. Any time dependencies for

playing the scripts are also built in. Deciding how, when and in what form the user can interact with themedia is central.

A QR or Quick response code allows the attaching of information to space. The QR code is a two

dimension bar code that can be read by all mobile camera phones. When a QR code is read it will

automatically open the mobile web browser and access a web page. This adds significant value as it

improves accessibility to information on the move. The QR code leads to the clickable world where any

physical object can become an interface to the virtual world.

Advantages and opportunities

It is becoming more and more popular to have personal smartphone or tablet. This type of mobiledevices, due to its small size and lightness, opposite to laptop, can be easily taken everywhere opposite

to a laptop. Additionally they usually allow to connect with the Internet. Having modern electronic device

with an access to the Internet one can easily participate in mobile educational process.

A possibility of learning in mobile environment responds to current situation of many people. They are

constantly in a hurry doing couple of things at the same time. Mobile accesses to learning database give

them great possibility to spend potentially non-productive time for acquiring new information and skills.

One can learn everywhere; it could be queue in a market or an office, a bus or a train, a bench in the park

etc.

In this point of technical development and social needs, educational bodies have great opportunity to usemobile devices to deliver specially prepared content to the individual users. It could be files, a piece of

short information about important events. But what is the most important it also could be highly

interactive educational content. Possibility of collaborations with other participants is also an available and

very useful option. Learning material could be provided everywhere when it is needed. Only internet

access must be available.

According to Shuler in (Shuler, 2009), mobile learning has some unique attributes that can enhance

education beyond the anywhere, anytime learning. This view is shared by other authors:

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Mobile devices reach places that traditional learning cannot. Along these lines, Colley said,

Twenty-first century learning is not confined to a geographical location, or a particular space

designated for learning purposes (Colley & Stead, 2007).

Learning is more user-centered.

Mobile device-based learning works best as part of a blend of approaches.

Mobile device-based learning works best if it is perceived as another tool that can be used to fit a

learning need (Sharples, Corlett, & Westmancott, 2002), (Stead, 2005).

Mobile devices can be used to remove some of the formality of education that non-traditional

learners may find unattractive (Attwell, 2005).

Mobile devices can increase motivation and engagement with learning.

Mobile learning is ideal for facilitating collaboration and communication.

Mobile technology can foster the growing shift from an instructor-centered classroom teaching to

constructivist learner-centered educational settings (Holzinger, Nischelwitzer, & Meisenberger,

2005).

Mobile devices make the learning process faster, easier, more attractive and more acceptable to

disenfranchised learners [Attewell, 2002].

Every time when it is suitable for somebody. Thanks to the fact that mobile devices could be easy

carried there is no problem to use them in the right time (Stone, 2010).Through mobile devices the access to specific information is possible in the moment of need

Mobile learning allows to save time. In this way one can learn when normally it will be not

possible.

For young people their smartphones are part of everyday life. They talk, send text messages, play,

browse the Internet and do a lot of other things using them. Often they cannot imagine life

without them.

Challenges and risks

Elearnitys report on mobile learning (Elearnity, 2011) addresses some of the most common challenges of

using mobile devices for learning:

Small screen of mobile devices. It is natural that mobile device, to be still mobile, must be small.

Therefore, it is possible to carry it easily. As a result screen size is also limited. This problem was

partly solved by resignation of traditional keyboard in favor of bigger screen. There is also

constantly new technology under development to bring better and better screen resolution and

quality of colors. It results in improvement of visual experience without making devices bigger.

Short battery lifetime. Today smartphones and tablets are as much powerful as computers ten

years earlier. New Samsung Galaxy III has a CPU with four cores. To run such powerful machine a

lot of energy is necessary. It is clear that developers made a decision. They prefer giving more

powerful devices now than wait for new, more efficient battery technology. As an effect, we have

fancy smartphones that need to be charged usually every day.

Slow internet connection and high prices for bandwidth. To have quick access to a piece of

information (and it was not preloaded) one must have good speed of internet connection. It is not

always granted. Some problem with the Internet could occur even in developed countries in

Europe. It is especially true in rural areas.

Touch keyboard. In most smartphones there is no real keyboard which is replaced by touch

keyboard displayed on a screen. One of disadvantages of this solution is the fact that, when

keyboard is displayed, space for other visual elements is limited.

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Technical limitations of operating systems. On the market there are several operating systems

for mobile devices. Main are iOS and Android other are Symbian, RIM, Bada and Windows Phone3.

Each has different capabilities of playing multimedia files. For example, iOS does not support flash

files and it is great limitation for content creators. As a result content must be prepared with

awareness of each platform limitation.

Designing mobile content. The preparation of content for mobile devices is different process

than preparation for standard eLearning. Due to technical capacity some technical aspects must

be fulfilled. The main aspects are processing the speed of device, system capabilities and the size

of screens. It requires appropriate set of skills from designers team. Furthermore, there is serious

technological limitation concerning mobile devices. For example: Apples devices do not support

flash. Generally every kind of mobile devices requires specific skills that should be fulfilled. This

process may be simplified by using special software which automatically sets up parameters of

the materials. This type of software usually cost a lot of money.

Organizational challenges. Nowadays people are more and more advanced in using mobile

devices but one must assume that it is possible that somebody could have problems with using

mobile device in learning environment. Secondly mobile learning is not well acknowledged by

people (HR, CEOs) responsible for strategic decisions in companies and even by trainers yet. If we

want mobile learning to develop it must be supported by wide range of professionals.

Shuler (Shuler, 2009) also affirms that some critical challenges must be addressed to achieve successful

implementation of m-learning:

Negative aspects of mobile learning, such as potential distraction or privacy issues.

Cultural norms and attitudes.

No mobile theory of learning. Currently, there is no established theory of mobile learning

addressing assessment, pedagogy and instructional design issues.

Differentiated access and technology. The wide range of technologies and their inner complexities

must be overcome by teachers and learners.

Corbeil addressed other challenges about mobile learning:

Mobile devices may make it easier to cheat.

Mobile learning could give tech-savvy students an advantage over non-technical students.

Mobile devices could create a feeling of isolation or of being out-of-the-loop for non-technical

students.

Mobile learning may require media to be reformatted or offered in multiple formats.

Mobile learning could create an additional learning obstacle for non-technical students and

instructors.

Mobile devices may be used as a new high-tech package for the same old dull and boring

content.

This last challenge is very interesting because it captures the reality of many current m-learningapplications. These projects tend to provide the same content with the same methodology but through a

3Sales of smartphone in 1 quarter of 2012 with division by operating system: Android 56.1%, iOS 22,9%, Symbian

8,6%, RIM 6,9%, Bada 2,7%, Windows Phone 1,9%, other 0,9%. Source:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system#Market_share

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system#Market_sharehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system#Market_sharehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system#Market_share

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different technological delivery method. These projects do not take advantage of the fact that mobile

devices offer a totally different set of features aside from content provision and support evaluation.

Actually, according to Corbeil, mobile learning supports learning experiences that are collaborative,

accessible, and integrated with the world beyond the classroom [Corbeil, 2007].

According to Najima, mobile learning allows the learner to keep track of his learning activities from any

location, even while moving from one place to another (Najima & Rachida, 2008). In addition to

traditional learning activities such as courses and multiple choice exercises, mobile learning provides a

suitable environment for practical training. For example, mobile devices can be used to request assistance,

to carry out practical work, and to project realization, as they allow the learner to follow these activities in

a realistic context.

In summary, most authors agree that the achievement of a successful mobile learning application requires

Developing new pedagogical theories for mobile learning.

Educational innovations to produce new applications for new environments.

Training teachers and learners to adopt mobile technologies and incorporate them into the

learning process.

Mobile learning applications, uses, and experiences

We propose the following classification of mobile learning applications:

1. Communication and collaboration2. Location aware applications3. Data collection4. Referential information5. Reminders and schedulers6. Assessment and evaluation

Communication and collaboration

Collaborative applications are all those thatencourage knowledge sharing, making use of the learnersphysical location and mobility (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009). This covers various

collaborative activities (form text messaging to social media), games, simulations and virtual worlds, user

generated content, as well as mentoring and cognitive apprenticeship (Woodill, 2011).

Thanks to the Web 2.0 the role of an information provider that creates the content and an audience that

consumes it is changing. Currently the audience is both provider and subscriber, having as main example

Wikipedia. Educators can incorporate this feature into education to help learners taking an active position

in their own learning. The objective is not only to study what teachers say. Learners can be more involved

in the learning process.

The mobile devices were created to allow communication and they are perfect tool to support sociallearning. [M]obile learning technologies allow for collaborative learning, social networking, building of

communities of practice, learning games, simulations, virtual worlds, immersive language learning,

mentoring, and messaging. They allow learners to work on projects from anywhere in the world while they

are mobile. (Woodill, 2011).

Boticki carried out a pilot project about learning fractions. In this pilot each student had a fraction in the

device (e.g. 1/3, 3/8, 2/5) and should interact with the peers to find others with a fraction that makes the

unit. In this application, for example a student with the 1/3 fraction should interact with other students

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trying to find other with a 2/3 fraction, or two students with a 1/3 fraction. This application involved

students collaborating to solve a problem. At the same time they learn how to sum fractions to get a unit

(Boticki, Looi, & Wong, 2009).

Technical capabilities of modern mobile devices and vide range of content creation and sharing apps (like

extremely popular photo app Instagram) permitted extend communication far beyond voice callas and

short text messages. Users can now take pictures, record and edit audio or video, or use text-to-speech(or speech-to-text) tools to create original content directly on their phone and share it in an instant with

the world. This content can document learning, be part of the assessment, learners mobile portfolio or

learning content for others.

Another field of application is mobile games. Mobile learning and educational games are two trends that

are rapidly converging. The main reason is because gaming is a very well-known language for new

generation of students (Kirriemur & McFarlane, 2004). Most of them spend several hours every day with

these platforms, using video games consoles such as Playstation, Wii, or Xbox. In addition, there are also

mobile video games consoles, such as PSP or NintendoDS. This last product offers educational products,

such as Brain Trainingwith a great acceptance focused in a new public target: adults. In this game the

motivation is to improve the mental age by solving mathematics-related problems.

According to that concept, authors such as Becker have pointed out aspects of videogames very related

to constructivist principles [Becker, 2007], which can be used to promote students to play active roles and

learn through experience rather than just memorization. While users play they feel as an active element,

free to explore the in-game world, which can help in the acquisition of deep knowledge about the domain

of study (Lavn-Mera, Torrente, Moreno-Ger, & Fernndez-Manjn, 2009).

The AudioGene project proposes an interesting approach where an educative and collaborative game

integrates blind and non-blind students to solve biology problems (Sanchez & Aguayo, 2008). Results

showed that the game helped to create a work environment where students forget about their vision

differences to solve problems and build knowledge together.

Location aware applications

Location aware applications contextualize information, allowing learners to interact directly with theirenvironment; for example, collecting environmental data linked to geographical context or accessing

contextually relevant reference material (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009).

Context-based systems (where context is defined as a compilation of location, profile, etc.) provide a very

interesting added-value to mobile learning applications. Context-aware applications let students interact

with the environment in a totally new way.

Authors like Baldauf in (Baldauf, Dustdar, & Rosenberg, 2007) defines context-aware systems such as

applications able to adapt their operations to the current context without explicit user intervention and

thus aim at increasing usability and effectiveness by taking environmental context into account.

Particularly when it comes to using mobile devices, it is desirable that programs and services react

specifically to their current location, time and other environment attributes and adapt their behavioraccording to the changing circumstances as context data may change rapidly.

For instance, a student in the restaurant will have different needs than in a museum or in a garden; or a

teacher in a classroom will need different information than in an office. Knowing where the user is in each

moment it is possible to offer personalized learning through the mobile device depending not only on the

profile but also on the moment and the location.

There are examples of this kind of application for informal learning at cultural environments, such as

museums or historical places. In this case, the system would offer information about master pieces,

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buildings or areas when the user approaches to them. Users could enjoy not only with text, but also with

funny videos or animations related to the content.

Mobile context-aware learning applications seem to cater for certain specialties more than others such as:

agronomy, biology, geology, archaeology, etc.

Data collection

Data collection applications use the handheld devices ability to record data in the form of text, image,

video, and audio (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009).

Those can be used for assessment and evaluation (we will discuss it below), feedback gathering, polling

and voting, creating media (see discussion on user generated content above), or monitoring (especially in

medical field).

Referential information

According to Clough at al., [r]eferential applications [are those] that use dictionaries, translators and e-

books to deliver content when and where it is needed (Clough, Jones, McAndrew, & Scanlon, 2009).

Speaking of content delivery, Woodill (Woodill, 2011) mentions also RSS feeds, digital media channels

(podcasts, video), job aids and other applications.A natively mobile content are podcasts, or audio recordings delivered originally via iTunes library to

Apple iPod (hence the name). Podcast allows ubiquitous learning whereby students can access a variety of

educational material anywhere, anytime on iPods, MP3 and MP4 players or mobile phones. Podcasts

permit students to access educational materials at home, while travelling to university or work, or doing

any activity they choose. They can play the recordings at any time which is convenient to them rather than

be confined to set class times. Podcasts in the educational setting allow students on-demand access to

audio or video-recordings of lectures or other learning materials at their convenience (Nataatmadja &

Dyson, 2008).

Schedulers and reminders

This kind of applications basically sends some piece of information to the student to help him/her remind

something. They can be classified in two different groups depending if they offer administrative or

learning information. Accordingly, they can provide or remind some useful and most up-to-date

administrative information, like exams results, deadlines, appointments or course schedules, or deliver

learning content in a push model. The learning content schedulers can also be location-sensitive,

combining scheduling with location. In (Montalvo & Torres, 2004) a Mobile Context-aware and Adaptive

Learning Schedule (mCALS) tool is described. It creates and enhances opportunities for students to study

in different locations. The goal of the system is to select appropriate learning objects for students based

on their current user contexts (location, concentration level and frequency of interruption) and user

preferences (knowledge level of a topic and available time).

Assessment, evaluation and research

Mobile devices can be used to track and report on learner progress in many different kinds of tasks, toperform tests and examinations, facilitate feedback during the learning process, or gather data for

research.

From the point of view of the learning process, the main categories are:

Formative assessment and evaluation are methods used for feedback while learning.

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Adaptive assessment and evaluation are used to individualize the learning path. For example, a

preliminary quiz can determine the level of knowledge of the learner and allow determine next

steps, like skipping content thats too basic or rehearsing before continue to the next level.

Demonstrative assessment and evaluation are used to demonstrate knowledge and skills

achieved, for example by tracking and reporting learner progress.

From the point of view of agents involved in learning process, we can distinguish between automaticevaluation, expert evaluation, peer evaluation or self-evaluation.

Mobile learning content sources

Often you dont need to build a powerful mobile app from scratch to deliver learning content. Good news

is that you are likely to already have training content that can be easily transformed into mobile forms.

Here is a list of content types that can be used:

Formal learning modules (must be shorter than traditional e-learning)

Supplemental content or review materials as part of a blended learning program (Stone, 2010)

Social mediaSearchable references (like Wikipedia, or your companys databases)

Expert videos

Job aids and checklists

Podcasts and video

Audio books

eBooks or book abstracts

Abstracts and refreshers to complement traditional e-learning training

SMS and video calls

Quizzes and assessments

Test-prep flashcards (Stone, 2010)

Follow-up quick-tips (Stone, 2010)

Job aids and checklists

Mobile e-reference (Stone, 2010)

LMS integration

Analysing the academic literature about m-learning applications, most mobile learning systems are

isolated applications. The applications are made ad-hoc for a particular case, environment, or project.

Most applications do not make use of the knowledge already existing in e-learning platforms, despite the

fact that on-line education has employed these platforms for years.

E-learning platforms at the centre of on-line education are a repository of both content and services and

thus should be incorporated into mobile learning applications. Mobile applications should not be

designed independently without taking advantage of all existing resources.

Cheung showed an example of the integration of e-learning features into mobile learning environments

(Cheung, Steward, & McGreal, 2006), where a prototype was developed enabling Moodle LMS to be used

through smartphones (Cheung, Steward, & McGreal, 2006). These authors exchanged the three-frame

template of Moodle for a one-frame template to allow users to better visualise the content. The prototype

did not offer the full functionality of Moodle because many of the features did not work properly in a

smartphone. One of the features that could not be moved was SCORM, which is a fundamental part of the

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evaluation process in Moodle and must be incorporated in the design of mobile applications including

assessment. Chat, quizzes with timers and crosswords were also unavailable.

Another example is the use of a web service-based architecture to move some of the functionalities of

Moodle to a mobile device [Conde, 2009]. This also allows the re-use of some of the existing services in

LMS such as authentication and monitoring, making it unnecessary to create them again in the mobile

application. The result of this development was MLE Moodle (Mobile Learning Engine).

Since then, various mobile LMs appeared on the market, mostly being mobile adaptations of existing

corporate e-learning environments. Some of them are SumTotal LMS, Upside2Go (learning management

system designed especially for mobile), eXact Mobile (an extension of eXact LCMS), or official Moodle

native iOS app that largely replaced the previously mentioned MLE Moodle.

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Andragogical aspects of mobile learning

Learning theory for mobile learning

Mobile devices are always available and can be used for a variety of learning functionality - providing

access to content (both informational and instructional), review and assessment, and for communicationand collaboration purposes. They can be used for formal or informal learning purposes as well as for

performance support, i.e. for delivering information and support just-in-time and in context.

Mobile devices are popular and well used by many people within m-learning project target groups. They

are regarded as personal technologies, and as such likely to encourage a positive response. With the

current rate of development mobile devices will have the capability of delivering high quality, multi-media

content at affordable prices within the next few years. If considering the fact that more people have

mobile phones than computers we can assert that m-learning is more accessible than e-learning.

If we are interested in enhancing adult learning, a priority must be to design m-learning and teaching

strategies that involve active learning, for example, in experiential fieldwork, simulations, role-plays and

games (Leigh & Spindler, 2004). Learning and teaching strategies are needed that provide opportunities

for learner adaptation and reflection (Laurillard, 1993), that encourage critical thinking, and that support

students professional development through self and peer evaluation, feedback, review and assessment

opportunities (Raban & Litchfield, 2007). Effective and practical strategies are needed that support

learners to gain knowledge and skills in specific identified graduate attributes, curriculum objectives and

stated learning outcomes.

The need for a revision existing pedagogies and learning theories

Emergent technologies for learning demand that educators revisit existing pedagogies and learning

theories. Those existing pedagogical frameworks may no longer be sufficient when learning is delivered

using mobile devices. To continue to subscribe to existing models and practices of teaching and learning

is to limit the learning experience afforded by these brave new technologies. In order to exploit the full

affordance of mobile technologies it is necessary, at the very least, to re-examine existing pedagogies.Conversely, the phrase Pedagogy before technology is presented by Beetham and Sharpe, in their

introduction to Rethinking pedagogy for a Digital Age. The suggestion being that, rather than creating a

new pedagogy for new technologies, it better serves the practitioner to locate new technologies within

proven practices and models of teaching.

When talking about mobile learning in corporate contexts, we need to remember that employees are

adults and their motivation and learning is different than those of children. We propose andragogy,

constructivism and connectivism as main learning theories relevant to mobile learning.

Andragogy is a theory of adult learning proposed by Malcolm Knowles. His theory con be stated with the

following six principles of how adults learn:

Adults are internally motivated and self-directedAdults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences

Adults are goal oriented

Adults are relevancy oriented

Adults are practical

Adult learners like to be respected

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Guidelines for mobile learning:

Mobile learning supports learners motivation and sense of control over their own learning. It

allows them to use the devices they are familiar with and to learn at a time convenient to them.

You should also give learners control over pacing and freedom to navigate the course in their

own way.

Provide real-life problems and examples. Create a meaningful context: realistic case studies thatlearners have to solve for themselves, provide guidance resources needed and feedback after they

have submitted a solution.

Base your case studies on examples relevant for their work. Take advantage of their experiences

and knowledge they already have. Dont provide a complete solution; rather, let learners use their

own knowledge to solve the problem.

Make sure the course is relevant to them. Adult learners need to know how the training they are

undertaking can help them to make their work easier. Set concrete, realistic goals for the course,

but remember that possibly every learner will start the course with different goals and

expectations. Be flexible keep an eye on your overall course objectives but let learners state

their own goals. If possible, coach them to make the best of your mobile course. Motivate learners

with realistic scenarios or provide valuable information they can easily apply in their job.

Provide meaningful, specific and immediate feedback.

Dont waste your learners time with unnecessary information or irrelevant content. Leave out

anything that wont help them to achieve their objectives. Use screens, images and case studies

which are close to the learners experiences.

Make learning interactive. The learners want to participate actively in the course and be able to

apply newly-acquired knowledge in practice. This means not only including many course-related

activities, but, most of all, activities that give them skills to perform their jobs more effectively.

Include practical tips, job aids, and other resources that they will take away to apply in their work.

Encourage use of external resources, like knowledge bases, journals, libraries, etc.

Show respect by taking care of the high quality of your course. Listen to your learners, their

expectations, comments and experiences.

The theory of Constructivism is based on a premise that each individual through their learning activities

imposes meaning on the world. The learner through his or her learning activities imposes meaning on the

world. The learners construct their knowledge and understanding through the learning experience, this

knowledge is constructed rather than discovered.

Jonassen, D.H. (Ed.) (2004) Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, 2nd. Ed.

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Jonassen (Jonassen D. , 2004) proposed that there are eight characteristics that differentiate constructivist

learning environments:

1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality.2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real world.3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction inserted of knowledge

reproduction.

4. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context ratherthan abstract instruction out of context.

5. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as real-world settings orcase-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.

6. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.

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7. Constructivist learning environments" enable context- and content- dependent knowledgeconstruction."

8. Constructivist learning environments support "collaborative construction of knowledge throughsocial negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition."

Some of the principles of Connectivism, as described in George Siemenss original 2004 article (Siemens,

2004), are:

Learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions.

Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.

Learning may reside in nonhuman appliances.

Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.

Nurturing and maintaining connections are needed to facilitate continual learning.

Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.

Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities.

Decision making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of incoming

information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right answer now, it may

be wrong tomorrow because of alterations in the information climate affecting the decision.

Examples of application of those teaching frameworks are incorporating the need for students to acquire

multiple perspectives or viewpoints on subject matter into the design of the mobile learning course. Also,

the requirement to abandon rigid pre specified learning objectives will be examined, and how this will

impact on the development of a mobile learning course.

In the Constructivist world, it is vital that students create or construct their own knowledge. Sitting in a

classroom and passively receiving knowledge from an authority figure is not in keeping with the principles

of Constructivism. Interactivity is emphasised, however, it is important to acknowledge that this

requirement for interactivity is not merely satisfied by the adoption of a mobile technology into the

classroom environment. It is incumbent upon the designers of a mobile learning course to ensure that

students are truly able to interact with the digital media in their learning environment. These media as

accessed through the mobile technologies, whether video, digital or audio are important aspects in the

creation of a learner-centered environment. The overriding importance, however, lies not with the

technology, nor the digital media, but with the knowledge constructed by the students as they interact

with these tools.

The pedagogical framework informed by the Constructivist and Connectivist school places the student at

the centre of the learning process. Because emergent technology is exiting and newly available, it is easy

to become absorbed by the technology itself. This is true both for researchers in the area and for

students employing mobile technology as learning tools. However, it is important that the technology

itself does not become a distraction or a diversion. Again, poorly designed or ill structured mobile

courseware or a Virtual learning Environment (VLE) may lead to frustrations and anxieties as students

attempt to familiarise themselves with the system. Educators, developers and designers who strive for

mobile learning environments with a sound pedagogical basis will take pains to avoid this occurrence.

An environment of tool sh