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“Integration of Virtual Reality and 360 Degree Video into the Rail Industry”

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Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... 4

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... 4

Chapter One ......................................................................................................................... 5

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................. 5

1.2 Study Objectives ......................................................................................................... 9

1.3 Research Questions .................................................................................................... 9

1.4 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 10

Chapter Two ....................................................................................................................... 11

Concepts and Applications of Virtual Reality and 360 Degree Video ................................ 11

2.1 Conceptualizing Virtual Reality: History and Applications ....................................... 11

2.2 Categorizing VR Systems ........................................................................................... 15

2.3 Constituents of a Virtual Reality System .................................................................. 21

Chapter Three ................................................................................................................. 25

A Review of VR Risks and Hazards .................................................................................. 25

3.1 VR Use and Health-Related Issues ............................................................................ 25

3.2 VR Systems and Physical Side-Effects ....................................................................... 29

Chapter Four ....................................................................................................................... 33

Virtual Reality: Case of the Rail Industry ............................................................................ 33

4.1 VR Implementation and Opportunities in the Rail Industry: Case Studies ............... 33

4.1.1 Educational System for Railway Maintenance through Mixed Reality (Song &

Kim, N/A) ..................................................................................................................... 33

4.1.2 Virtual Reality Techniques for Training Rail Drivers and Track Manual

Interventions on a French Line (David & Lourdeaux, 2001) ........................................ 36

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4.1.3 Emerging State-of-the-art Virtual Reality Adoption in the Rail Industry (Case of

UK Rail Industry) (Pauley, 2015) .................................................................................. 41

Chapter Five ........................................................................................................................ 44

Discussion and Conclusions ................................................................................................ 44

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 48

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List of Tables

Table 1: Comparison of Various VR Systems ...................................................................... 16

Table 2: Potential Factors that relate with Simulator Sickness in a VR Environment ........ 27

Table 3: Effects Resulting from VR Exposure ...................................................................... 29

Table 4: VR-Specific Risks .................................................................................................... 30

List of Figures

Figure 1: An HMD System with Two Screens ...................................................................... 17

Figure 2: A Semi-Immersive Projection ............................................................................... 19

Figure 3: Components of VR System ................................................................................... 22

Figure 4: Interaction between the Hardware Devices ........................................................ 23

Figure 5: System for railway maintenance using Mixed Reality ........................................ 34

Figure 6: Hardware Architecture for Training .................................................................... 38

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Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Background

Over the past decades, Virtual Reality (otherwise referred to as VR) has continued to gain

overwhelming attention and continued developments across different fields such as

training and education, health, games, military operations and other industrial

operations, etc. Beyond that, the technology has given rise to other emerging

applications like augmented reality in aeronautics (Chevalet & Bonnefoy, 2003), data

visualization and exploration for decision-making (Eddy & Lewis, 2002) and tele-

operation and tele-presence in robotics (Kantonen, Woodward & Katz, 2010). VR refers

to the tendency to manipulate interactively around a computer-generated environment.

Being a good communication medium for all interested parties to have access to an

enhanced understanding and common representation is the main driver for VR usage. As

put by Fuchs (2006), VR is a “scientific and technical domain exploiting the possibilities of

computers and behavioural interfaces to simulate in a virtual world the behaviour of 3D

entities, which interact in real time with each other and one or more users in pseudo-

natural immersion through sensorimotor channels”. VR, precisely, entails an immersive

reality experience that is computer-simulated and has the capacity of transporting

viewers into a closed virtual reality from their physical state. An experience with VR in

the entertainment field can be likened with people sitting in their living room, putting on

their goggles, and of a sudden, feeling immersed in the sights and sounds of a different

planet (like what obtains in Star Wars). While they remain physically present in the living

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room, VR technology makes it possible to manipulate one’s senses while interactively

feeling as though the planet is real.

Unlike the VR, the 360 degree sometimes referred to as the ‘spherical’ video has limited

interactivity, hence, one can majorly see through a spherical camera rig or the eyes of a

stationary. It is limited in the sense that, although the angle of view can be controlled,

one’s position in an immersive environment cannot be controlled. Albeit differently, both

the 360 degree video and VR have been widely deployed across diverse fields.

Besides their attempts to visualize and present all kinds of information and ideas, VR also

ensures that concrete images about something that is unknown or abstract, to varying

degrees, are presented. Like words in a textbook where readers can coin their own

perceived and cognitive interpretations to texts according to their background or

contexts, VR can help people process networks of information exchanges across

industries. This makes it critical and relevant in the rail industry where VR technology has

been positively appraised for its ability to improve safety, save money and time (Sadler,

2016).

Apparently, key among the most sought after development needs in the rail industry are

the need to reduce the amount of time needed on track, the need to upgrade signaling

(traffic lights for railway) for enhanced reliability and the potential effect on train services

among others. The traditional method where designers have to go all the way to plot

new locations for signals and map out ways through which drivers can view these signals

have been described as “time-consuming” as it requires frequent access to the railway

which is often very tedious. On most railway track projects, several tasks run

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concurrently. Telecom teams and signaling teams need to install safety systems and train

controls; track engineers are expected to install new tracks; in the same vein, civil

engineers and other maintenance experts are focused on buildings and the train

platform. Shutting down the station under this condition for upgrades and to allow

stakeholders function effectively can cause disruptions for passengers; and for the

railway operators, it could be very expensive.

As an answer to these challenges, this study proposes the integration of VR through the

instrumentality of a 360 degree video by attempting to see the extent to which the rail

industry has mitigated the aforementioned difficulties. In this context, this study seeks to

know how different actors and stakeholders (track engineers, civil engineers, drivers, and

other specialists) in the industry can make decisions based on their spatial perception of

VR information on a rail system.

There is no doubt that VR offers opportunities to develop both cognitive and perceptuo-

motor skills such as hazard perception, decision-making and problem-solving without

necessarily exposing operators to hazards and risks. Besides the scope of the study – rail

industry – this strategy has been deployed in other hazardous industries such as defence,

health and aviation.

In Blickensderfer et al (2005) for instance, a history of simulation as used in pilot training

was reviewed. Flight simulators have equally been demonstrated by other authors (e.g.

Carretta & Dunlap, 1998; Hays et al, 1992). VR simulators have been demonstrated in

these studies and their applications cut across aviation skill acquisition and training. How

effective such trainings will be depends on nature of training, the time required to get

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trained and the amount. Simulators have been found to be effective for such flying tasks,

landing and take-off training. It has also been found to be effective in training sessions

for aircraft maintenance personnel (Vora et al, 2002). In a virtual environment, the

acquisition of naval fire-fighting skills has also proven (Tate et al, 1997). Through

rehearsals, evidence reveals that spatial awareness of locations can be taught and

learned.

Evidences from the surgical and medical fields have also shown that VR simulations can

play a huge role by ensuring that surgical skills are acquired (Gurusamy et al, 2008). The

tendency of VR to improve safety has been proven in the mining industry (Schofied et al

2001). In Kizil (2003), it was suggested that the utilization of VR-based training will, in no

doubts, curb fatality numbers and other kinds of injuries.

Also in a virtual environment, evidence suggests that motorcyclists, car drivers,

emergency vehicle drivers and truck drivers can acquire relevant driving skills (Fisher et

al, 2002; Strayer et al, 2004; Uhr, 2004; Lindsey, 2005; Parkes & Reed, 2006; Liu et al,

2009). Not only do trainees acquire the skill for mobility, they also acquire skills on

hazard related issues, fuel efficiency and safety-related attitudes.

This current study posits that in addition to the above studies, this technology can be

integrated into the rail industry. By tapping into the potential possibilities and keeping up

with recent trends and investigations, the railway system can be improved since people

can be trained in virtual environments. A step into such development informed the need

for this current study of VR and 360 degree video integration into the rail industry.

Chapter two of this study will discuss virtual reality in-depth, its applications and the

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concept of the 360 degree video. Chapter three will examine risks and hazards that can

occur from the implementation or non-implementation of VR technology in the rail

industry. This Chapter will also examine recent technological trends and VR opportunities

in the rail industry while Chapter four will focus on recent developments regarding the

efficiency of VR and 360 degree video in the maintenance of the industry.

1.2 Study Objectives

Following the aim and background of this study, the following specific objectives shall be

looked into;

1. Identify those hazards and risks which could occur from the implementation and

non-implementation of VR technology in the industry.

2. Examine the available opportunities for engineers and other personnel in the rail

industry based on their spatial perception of VR information.

3. Examine how efficient the 360 degree video and VR technology have been in the

maintenance of the rail industry.

1.3 Research Questions

1. What are the hazards and risks that could occur from the implementation and

non-implementation of VR technology?

2. What are the available opportunities for engineers and other personnel in the rail

industry based on their spatial perception of VR information?

3. How efficient have the 360 degree video and VR technology been in the

maintenance of the rail industry?

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1.4 Methodology

The study shall rely mainly on relevant secondary case studies, journals, research

proceedings, articles and other up-to-date findings on virtual reality and 360 degree video

and as relate with the rail industry.

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Chapter Two

Concepts and Applications of Virtual Reality and 360 Degree Video

2.1 Conceptualizing Virtual Reality: History and Applications

Although it might be difficult to accurately imply the real world, VR systems and

application date back to the 1950s where, according to Cline (2005), the device was used

specifically for vehicle simulator. Although the idea of inclusion in an artificial

environment is not new, VR remains a new and revolutionary technology (Costello,

1997). In some studies, it has been regarded as an extension of old time innovations such

as wide screen cinema, IMAX, Sensorama and flight simulation (Heilig, 1962). Viewers are

presented with screens through such innovations, and the purpose of this screen is to

give a powerful sense of presence by taking up a large portion of a visual field. The first

development of HMD (Head Mounted Display) was recorded in 1965 by Sutherland who

upon his determination just after the introduction of the minicomputer in the 1960’s,

come to the realization of potentials a computer can produce. Previous innovations allow

the generation of images through the video camera, but in his findings, Sutherland

discovered that images can be generated from a computer for flight simulation. In 1984,

both McGreevy and Fisher (two NASA Ames scientists) built on the idea of Sutherland

and worked on a virtual workstation project. This idea soon became a reality, called

VIVED (Video Environment Display), making it the first commercially available HMD from

NASA. This development was significant and unprecedented for some reasons. First, it

gave rise for more development in the VR industry; Secondly, NASA had a commercially

available HMD at a relatively cheap price (Costello, 1997).

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Asides the space industry, VR usage became increasingly frequent and common in other

fields, including the field of fire safety. As explored in the Introductory Chapter, several

authors have also examined VR utilization across other fields, focusing on the use of VR

for training purposes, safety, gaming, etc. Reason is not far-fetched as it generally

attempts to simulate physical presence in imaginary worlds and the real world through

computer-simulated environments. A typical example of VR application is the Virtual

Stonehenge by English Heritage and Intelä. This is an application that promotes virtual

tourism, and can also be applied as an architectural, historical or educational tool.

In an attempt to interface critical thinking and real textbook biology with visceral

response, action and fun, a University of California based group in San Diego worked on a

Virtual Explorer learning tool. This virtual environment which they called ‘Fantastic

Voyage’ is made to allow users shrink down to cellular scales in order for them to

navigate through the human vascular system, while examining the various components

that make up the immune system and its interplay with how bodies respond to foreign

invaders.

In collaboration with Bravo Multimedia, a simulator called truck driVR was developed by

Amoco for the evaluation of their tanker drivers’ skills. The simulator uses Virtual

Research FS5 HMD and an Intergraph PC. The simulation comprises of about twenty-one

events that include a car backing out of the drive, a deer crossing a road, an emergency

or an ambulance car driving past, all occurring both in rural and urban routes. Drivers are

assessed by making them to take charge of a Kenworth truck hauling 40,000 gallons of

fuel. This is done to examine their ability to withstand the series of events occurring,

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Like the Stonehenge, there is also an internet version that can be utilized by creating a

connection between the Intel’s corporate site and a personal computer. This model

allows a user to navigate the environment across 10 eras. Users are also allowed to move

backwards and forwards in time from as far back as 8500 BC to 2000 AD from a fly over

the scene approach or from any angle, and can see moonlight, daylight, and sunrise. The

Internet model was created on a PC for other educational purposes using Superscape’s

VRT authoring software (Costello, 1997). VR Solutions Limited of Salford in conjunction

with English Heritage have also developed an additional to the Internet model using the

GIS (geographic information system) data of surrounding landscapes and photographs of

the stones. This model was named a photorealistic VR model of Stonehenge. Other

projects on VR are currently underway as parts of the research and development projects

in other organizations such as Rolls Royce, IBM, Intel and Boeing. In recent times,

companies like Samsung (as seen in Samsung Gear VR headset) and Facebook (Oculus Rift

headset) have also joined the league of tech companies who have shown interest in this

technology (Magyari, 2016).

Generally, the designs of the above VR systems and indeed any VR environment can take

four steps: specifying the VR content; specifying the virtual environment, and the degree

of immersion for immersive VR environment; specifying the interaction methods

between participants and the virtual objects and the degree of interaction; and lastly,

specifying the method of interaction among multiple participants, and the extent of

interaction for collaborative competitive application (Li, 2012). Interaction in this context

means the tendency of participants to modify the VR environment. When the interaction

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is collaborative, it means more than one participant interacts in a virtual reality

environment with same virtual objects at the same time (Li, 2012).

The aim of utilizing VR experiments is to ensure that the inability of representing a full

objects or scale test, which are most of the times tedious to build is addressed. Field

studies like unannounced drills on the other hand make provision for good ecological

validity (Andree et al 2013). Meanwhile, it is almost impossible to assess from real world

studies complete experimental control. Since virtual reality experiments are

experimental in nature and it is possible to easily design replicable experiments with

acceptable efforts and costs, it makes it widely acceptable. Another benefit of using a

virtual reality system is that it has the ability to reproduce dangerous and complex events

with maintaining the complete control of the experiment in a safe environment, for

instance a laboratory (Boyle and Lee, 2010). Albeit avoiding irritant smoke, a VR system

can reproduce smoke-filled environments.

More so, a lot of virtual reality environments are basically visual experiences in spite that

there are chances to have additional sensory information, that includes touch and sound,

and it is not impossible, through the use of olfactometers, for odours to be reproduced

(Lundström et al., 2010).

In a typical VR application, interaction and immersion present the most important

phenomena; therefore implementing techniques which allow a user to be immersed in a

virtual environment through the instrumentality of sensory-motor interfaces is vital. In

this case, the aim is to relate with virtual processes. The user gets sets of information via

these sensory-motor interfaces (it includes force feedback via a haptic arm; return

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immersive 3D on a big screen, etc.). The interaction with the virtual scene entails

interactions with interface of sensorimotor control as haptic arms for seizure of virtual

objects, the motion capture system which can control a virtual avatar, data gloves etc.

The VR, mostly known to be an extension of the simulation, stands out on the basis that

it offers users good levels of immersion (such as touch or sound). Hence, it allows

industries of nowadays to simulate different processes efficiently and effectively. It

provides an avenue for interaction with simulation models. In Kalawsky (1996), some key

benefits VR techniques provide include: inherent flexibility/adaptability; allows high rates

of interactivity; simulation of complex systems; slow and fast time simulation;

macroscopic and microscopic visualization; allows a feeling of immersion. These benefits

inform Zhuang and Wang’s (2010) expressions of VR which they define as a high end

human-machine interface that works on the combination of technologies like pattern

recognition, sound systems, networking, graphics, artificial intelligence and image

processing and others to produce interaction and computer simulation, which in turn

produce a feeling of presence via multiple synthetic feedback sent to sensorial channels

(e.g. virtual).

2.2 Categorizing VR Systems

Categorizing VR systems, according to Costello (1997), is a difficult task however majority

of available configurations belong into one of the three main types with each ranked

based on the degree of presence it allows or the sense of immersion it provides.

Presence, otherwise called immersion relates to how powerfully a user’s attention is

focused on tasks at hand. It is generally assumed therefore that immersion presence is a

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product of a whole lot of parameters that include field of regard, stereoscopic view,

image complexity, update rate of the display and of course, the level of interactivity

(Costello, 1997). As an illustration, rather than providing a monoscopic view, a

stereoscopic view of a VR environment will enhance the sense of immersion of a user.

Noteworthy is that the rate of immersion that is achievable is due to the activity of

several factors. Meanwhile, in isolation, no single parameter can achieve the desired

result.

Good comparison, based on their performances, has been provided between the

categories of VR system (Kalawsky, 1996). The three categories of VR include: full

immersive VR (also called Head-coupled); the semi-immersive VR (projection) and the

non-immersive VR (desktop).

Table 1: Comparison of Various VR Systems

Performance

Features Full Immersive VR

(Desktop VR or

Head-mounted)

Semi-Immersive VR

(Augmented reality

system or hybrid)

Non-Immersive VR

(Window on World

system or Fish

tank)

Sense of

Immersion

Medium-High Medium-High None-low

Lag Medium-High Low Low

Field of regard High Medium Low

Sense of

situational

awareness

(navigation skills)

High Medium Low

Scale (perception) High Medium-High Low

Resolution Low-Medium High High

Kalawsky (1996) in Costello (1997); Bamodu and Ye (2013)

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As described by Costello (1997), the head-coupled or full immersive VR provides the most

direct VR experience of all the categories. This category is by far the most commonly

known VR implementation where a user either puts on some form of head-coupled

display or Head Mounted Displays (HMDs). Such display could be BOOM (Binocular Omni-

Orientation Monitor) (Bolas, 1994).

Head Mounted Displays utilize small monitors that directly face the eyes since it can

provide either of the stereo, monocular or binocular images. In similar ways to shutter

glasses, stereo images are produced. The only difference is that both screens are placed

very near to the eye, although the image the wearer puts its attention will be much

farther away because of the optical system of the HMD. Monocular images can be

provided by only one display screen and by displaying identical images on each screen,

binocular images can be provided. Below is an example of a HMD system that comprises

of two screens and capable of producing not only stereo images, but stereo sounds

owing to the inbuilt speakers.

Figure 1: An HMD System with Two Screens

Costello (1997)

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Common among the available displays of a typical HMD is the Liquid Crystal Display

(LCD). The Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) may also be used by more sophisticated and

expensive HMDs. Unlike the LCD, the CRT enhances image resolutions. Basically, HMD

can fully and in some instances, partially exclude users’ views of the actual world and

increases the field of view of computer-based world. This is beneficial in that users can

receive visual image when they have their heads turned to look in any direction; in other

words, users are provided with a 360° view. While fully immersive VR systems are

capable of given a full sense of presence as earlier explained, various parameters are

responsible for the sense of immersion and these factors comprise of the update rate,

resolutions, the HMD field of view, and the illumination and contrast of the display.

Unlike full-immersive systems, the semi-immersive systems borrow considerably from

other developed technologies in the field of flight simulation. Apart from the fact that

they are relatively new, Costello (1997) describe these systems as high performing

technology with graphics computing system which can come with either of the following;

a multiple television projection systems, a large screen projector system or a large screen

monitor. They are also referred to as augmented reality system or hybrid systems reason

being that, according to Dani and Rajit (1998), they provide high levels of immersion

while maintaining the simplicity of the physical model of non-immersive VR system.

These systems, through wide field views, are capable of increasing the sense of presence

or immersion a user experiences. Nevertheless, projected image qualities are important

factors to be considered. More so, calibrating the geometry of projected images to

screen shape is important in order to prevent any form of distortion, and the resolution

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will also determine texture quality, the ability of define shapes, colours and user ability to

read text on-screen. Ideally, 1000 – 3000 lines are the resolution range of projection

systems. To achieve maximum levels, however, it is worth adopting the more expensive

multiple projections. In essence, semi-immersive systems give a higher sense of presence

than the non-immersive ones, and they also produce greater appreciation of scale.

Additionally, images provided can be higher than HMDs in terms of resolution and it also

gives users ability to share their VR experiences. As illustrated by Costello (1997), such

systems give value to educational implementation since, unlike the head-mounted

immersive systems, it allows simultaneous experience and it also allows stereographic

imaging through some shuttered glasses in the form of graphics system via

synchronization. An example of a semi-immersive projection system (wide-screen) with

shutter glasses is shown below:

Figure 2: A Semi-Immersive Projection

Costello (1997)

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The system above, called a liquid crystal shutter (LCS) is considered a vital technology in

the field of semi-immersive systems. It consists of a liquid crystal with a lightweight

headset placed over both eyes. Albeit expensive, commercially available examples of this

system include the 3D Max Shutter Glasses System and the CrystalEyes Shutter Glasses.

They are expensive given the level of performance associated with the VR

implementation (Costello, 1997). There are challenges, however, with current interaction

systems for implementation. First is the need to take into cognizance the applications

such systems may be utilized for. “For a flight simulation system it is possible to simply

used an inceptor (joystick) which can be interpreted by the aircraft model as the flight

control input” (Costello, 1997; p.7). Secondly, multi-user issues must be considered given

that it is almost the major advantage of the system. Thus, the handover of control among

users must be considered as technology evolves.

As regards the non-immersive systems, they are the least immersive implementation of

VR systems as the name rightly suggests and are also referred to as the Desktop VR

System, Window on World system or Fish tank (Bamodu and Ye, 2013). Using the desktop

system, the virtual environment is viewed through a portal or window by utilizing a

standard high resolution monitor. Interaction with the virtual environment can occur by

conventional means such as keyboards, mice and trackballs or may be enhanced by using

3D interaction devices such as a SpaceBallä; or DataGloveä (Costello, 1997).

The non-immersive system has advantages in that they do not require the highest level

of graphics performance, no special hardware and can be implemented on high

specification PC clones, making it the VR with the least sophisticated components

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(Bamodu and Ye, 2013). This also means that these systems can be regarded as the

lowest cost VR solution which can be used for many applications. However, this low cost

means that these systems will always be outperformed by more sophisticated

implementations, provide almost no sense of immersion and are limited to a certain

extent by current 2D interaction devices. Additionally, these systems are of little use

where the perception of scale is an important factor. However, one would expect to see

an increase in the popularity of such systems for VR use in the near future. This is due to

the fact that Virtual Reality Modeling Reality Language (VRML) is expected to be adopted

as a de-facto standard for the transfer of 3D model data and virtual worlds via the

internet. The advantage of VRML for the PC desktop user is that this software runs

relatively well on a PC, which is not always the case for many proprietary VR authoring

tools (Costello, 1997). Furthermore, many commercial VR software suppliers are now

incorporating VRML capability into their software and exploring the commercial

possibilities of desktop VR in general.

2.3 Constituents of a Virtual Reality System

Like most of the available technologies today, the VR system consists of two main

subsystems: software and hardware. The software comprises further of application

software and database, while the hardware consists of I/O devices, the VR engine or

computer, output devices and the input devices.

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Figure 3: Components of VR System

(Bamodu and Ye, 2013; p.22)

VR Hardware:

As described earlier, the hardware of the VR systems consists of the input and output

devices and the VR engine. The input devices send signals about a user’s action to the

system in order to provide relevant reactions in real time back to the user via the output

devices. Simply put, they are the platform through which users interact with the VR

world. The input devices can be categorized into point input device, tracking device,

voice device and bio-controllers (Bamodu and Ye, 2013). In Dani and Rajit (1998), the

tracking devices are used for tracking a user’s position, reason they are also called

position sensors. They comprise data gloves, electromagnetic, optical, neural, ultrasonic,

gyroscopic and electromagnetic sensors and muscular controllers (Craig, William and

Jeffrey, 2009). The mouse is an example of an input device, however, in a VR system; the

technology of the mouse has more functionality with a 3D capability. Examples of such

mouse are the space ball or 6DOF mouse. Table 4 illustrates how the input devices relate

with the VR engine and the output devices.

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Figure 4: Interaction between the Hardware Devices

The VR computer system or engine in typical VR systems has to be chosen in line with the

required application. Some of the noteworthy factors are image generation, graphic

display, and time consuming task in the system. The selection of engine is dependent on

the level of immersion, input and output devices, user, application field, and the graphic

output required given that it is responsible for generating and calculating graphical

models, texturing, mapping, lighting, object rendering, simulation and display all in real-

time (Bamodu and Ye, 2013). In addition, the engine also serves as an interface with

input and output devices, and controls the interaction with a user. Another important

factor to put into consideration is the computer processing power. This is defined by

Bamodu and Ye as the amount of senses that can be rendered over a particular

timeframe. Approximately every 33ms, the engine is expected to recalculate the VR and

produce over 24fps simulation in real time (Burdea and Philippe, 2003). Meanwhile, it is

expected also that the graphic engine should be able to produce stereoscopic vision. As

regards the VR engine, it could be a standard PC with distributed computer systems

interconnected via powerful speed communication network; a strong graphics

accelerator; or a PC enhanced processing power (Burdea and Philippe, 2003).

Just as the VR engine gets instructions from the input device, the output devices get

feedback from the VR engine. This feedback passes on to the user via the corresponding

output device to stimulate the senses. Some frequently used classifications of output

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devices based on the senses are the haptic (force or contact), audio (aural) and the

graphics (visual). Others like taste and smell are at present uncommon. The audio is an

important aspect of the VR and has the capability to produce 3D sounds, and varying

sounds across diverse locations in order to produce a more realistic VR application. As

regards the graphics, the HMD and the stereo display monitor are two common possible

options. The HMD produces a higher level of immersion has earlier described and this

makes it possible for the brain to interpret and provide a 3D view of the virtual world.

VR Software:

Components of VR system software comprise of software and tools that are used in the

design, development and maintenance of virtual environments and the place information

is saved. These tools are categorized into development and modeling tools. Development

tools in the context of VR content creation consist of Application Program Interfaces

(APIs), VR software development kits (SDK) and virtual world authoring tools. In VR,

software development flexibility and real time interaction is important because it

requires integrative and complex technologies like tracking technology, 3D computer

graphics, haptic and sound processing technology. According to Bamodu and Ye, a lot of

work is required to start the development of a VR system hence the preference to utilize

the VR development tools as against the basic codes in OpenGL, Java or C/C+ that comes

with low level of system reliability. Owing to the difference in flexibility varying software

packages have to offer, careful consideration should be considered when selecting VR

development tools. Examples of VR modeling tools include Maya and Creator. Software

like Solidworks, Pro/E, CATIA or UG can be used for engineering specific applications.

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Chapter Three

A Review of VR Risks and Hazards

While a lot of studies have emerged across academic and commercial institutions, the

potential applications of VR and the 360 degree video technology are still underway as

more studies imply better innovations and effective useable systems. In spite these

attempts, concerns have been raised regarding the downside of exploiting this new

technology, and this suggests that users may experience not only psychological side

effects, but also physiological and physical consequences from using VR equipment.

Some of the early reports albeit received wide coverage in the media have been

countered, suggesting that they may be inaccurate, sensational and misleading. In this

section, the study shall be exploring those potential hazards the literature on VR has

reported. In this regard, indications of the risks and hazards of VR systems particularly as

relate with the railway industry would be better understood from the account of its

implementation within a broad range of other industries.

3.1 VR Use and Health-Related Issues

Often times, new inventions especially in the technological world attract some resistance

and public backlash. This could be due to a number of reasons, according to Wilson

(1996). The technology for instance might exert negative impacts on people’s lives, their

environment. With the introduction of VDUs (Visual Display Units), Howarth (1994) and

Wilson (1996) draw some insights regarding the speculations that surround VR

equipment usage in the early 80’s. Following the introduction of VDUs, there were

growing concerns about the psychological, physical and physiological impacts particularly

26

as regards the technological limitations of VDUs (screens) as of that period. Since VR

technology is constantly evolving and continuously being improved by varying

manufacturers, it becomes a challenge when one tries to define health related problems

of VR. Therefore, the need to consider this wide range of HMDs in the market is

important and also to appreciate the approaches to their designs and attributes.

As parts of the health issues associated with the use of VR, user population of any new

invention must be considered (Costello, 1997). In this regard, custom fitting in a

workplace can be easy to achieve reason being that users may be limited unlike a public

space (e.g. gaming, entertainment, etc.) where a potentially massive user base is

expected. Unlike the workplace, those in the public space may have very little to no

understanding regarding safety or health issues on the usage of VR equipment in the

right and appropriate manner.

In a CNBC report titled “virtual reality: are health risks being ignored?” Magyari (2016)

acknowledged that there has been a troubling lack of concern regarding the health and

safety risks associated with VR usage and likely impacts on emotional and physical well-

being. According to the author, issues of anxiety and stress immediately after wearing a

full occlusion headset for some minutes have been found among a large percentage of

users. In addition to that, certain physical disorder such as motion sickness, nausea and

severe eyestrain have been found. In a research carried out at the UCLA Keck Center for

Neurophysics using laboratory rats, new side effects have emerged

(http://cnbc.com/2016/01/08/virtual-reality-are-health-risks-being-ignored-

commentary.html). Among the side effects found are abnormal patterns of activity in the

27

brains of the lab rat, cybersickness and traces of about 60% of neurons shutting down in

the VR environment was found.

Therefore, as part of what users must consider for safety reasons is the demand of the

task itself (Costello, 1997). For instance, a task that continuously induces head movement

on users will be less comfortable than one that requires fewer movements of the head

(such as reading a paper). The complex interplay of the various factors should also be

parts of the consideration. If the headset is heavy or if there are lags in the system,

tracking may become uncomfortable. However, tracking tasks may not be a problem

when headset is light and system lag is low (Costello, 1997).

Certain potential factors that may contribute to simulator sickness symptoms in a virtual

reality environment have been provided below:

Table 2: Potential Factors that relate with Simulator Sickness in a VR Environment

VR System/Simulator Individual Task

Refresh rate Postural stability Sitting vs. standing

Position-tracking error Perceptual style Self-movement speed

Phosphor lag Mental rotation ability Method of movement

Motion platform Illness and personal

characteristics

Rate of linear or rotational

acceleration

Flicker Gender Unusual maneuvers

Field of view Flicker fusion frequency

threshold

Luminance level

Contrast Adaptation Head movements

Inter-ocular distance Experience with real-world

task

Global visual flow

Colour Ethnicity Duration

Calibration Concentration level Degree of control

Binocular viewing Age Altitude above terrain

28

Time lag (transport

delay)

Type of application

Scene content Vection

Viewing region

Update rate (frame

rate)

Seeing that the above factors occurs at the onset of simulator sickness makes it clearer

that the beginning of symptoms could be a result of an extreme and complex interaction

occurring between these factors in each of the 3 platforms. This may be the situation for

the symptoms raised, and the current focus of several studies is in the determination to

understand the most necessary factors in the onset of particular symptoms. Ultimately,

there is the question of which side effects DO actually occur, and which are more fanciful

notions brought about by the general hype surrounding the technologies, symptoms and

applications. There have certainly been rigorous investigations, and no one involved in

the virtual environment disagrees with the fact that unpleasant symptoms can occur but

little is known (Costello, 1997; Mangyari, 2016). Presently, unanswered questions include

concerns such as the duration of symptoms, coping methods adopted by VR users,

predicting individual susceptibility, and the impact on the VR tasks and consequently,

activities such as operating heavy machinery or driving.

Highlight of likely side effects as seen in the literature have been compiled below. These

side effects are categorized into the psychological, physiological and physical aspects.

The psychological is further divided however into the behavioural and the cognitive;

29

Table 3: Effects Resulting from VR Exposure

Psychological Physiological Physical

Cognitive Behavioural

Change in psychomotor performance

Mood changes, addiction, stress, isolation

Biochemical and Gastrointestinal change

Strange postural demands

Changes in perceptual judgment, perceptual shifts and disorientation

Visual asthenopic symptoms, simulator sickness, postural instability

Equipment fit, immersion injuries, physical discomfort hygiene

Cardiovascular change, dissociation of convergence/ accommodation

Costello and Howarth (1996)

Worthy of mention is that these are suggested symptoms, and by implication, certain

symptoms may develop only with specific types of VR implementation. In the following

discussions, each category is explained, with highlights of possible effects that can be

expected with the different implementations of VR.

3.2 VR Systems and Physical Side-Effects

Key among the demands of a desktop VR system is the postural demands. Like a standard

Personal Computer, a user of the desktop VR is expected to be sedentary at a worktop or

desk. Although safety tips and regulations have been put forward with safe and effective

installations, issues relating to posture remain a concern. On semi-immersive

implementations, posture issues may pose a bit more complexity, according to Costello

(1997). As expected, using a large screen implies that users may be standing, using some

interaction device and wearing shutter glasses. As an implication, there may be issues

with postural demands as users interact with VR environment.

30

As displayed in the Table below, users of a fully immersive HMD are more susceptible to

immersion injuries (Viirre, 1993; Gupta et al. 1996). According to Viirre, users are

functionally blind in terms of real world when they wear an HMD, hence, they could be

faced with collision problems with objects in the real world. Even when they have some

external visions, the author suggests also that users could face problems resulting from a

VR system cabling. In addition, sound cues are provided in many HMDs for users that cut

off aural stimulations. The condition then happens when users are fully engaged in virtual

environments that require specific amounts of movements and yet they get no or little

inputs from real world cues. It is necessary therefore that a user operates in safe and

secure areas with railings. For instance, safety barriers that are used in public space

applications are typical examples. Typically, users are enclosed in limited areas with

padded protection, and circular railing for effective immersion (Costello, 1997).

Table 4: VR-Specific Risks

Desktop VR Systems

Semi-Immersive Systems

Fully Immersive Systems

Physical

Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI)

++ - -

Posture

++ ++ (dependent on the nature of

the task)

+++

Headset Weight and Fit

- - +++

Hygiene Issues

+ + +

Immersion Injuries

++

+++ High Risk ++ Medium Risk + Low Risk - No Risk

31

Following the above observations, one can conclude that studies into VR side effects, in

particular, the physical side effects is difficult and complex, and from the above, it is

apparent that worries and concerns regarding the three types of VR systems are

justifiable and germane. Research into this field have also shown that whether the side

effects of VR systems occur on the short term or long term, the effects can be

devastating, and these effects are hard to determine since VR techniques are relatively

evolving. Evidence also suggests that a lot of complex factors are involved in the

symptoms, some of which entail the characteristics of the user, the type of task that is

being used for, and the type of VR system. Given the large variation among individuals

and tasks, predicting the effect of any one task in an accurate manner on one user in a VR

system is practically unrealistic.

Therefore, in an industry like the railway, users of VR systems should be aware of any

potential side effects associated with each VR system implementation and the genesis of

symptoms before use (Costello, 1997). On desktop system, the problems are quite clear

enough and solid safe working practices and regulations are available. On the other side,

however, is the fully immersive systems where recent technologies are continuously

been researched across various industries. This is the reason users of this system face the

biggest immersive effect, and the genesis of several symptoms has been associated with

their usage. When an individual selects a VR system, careful consideration should be

taken to also understand the potential population for usage. If it is important to feel the

sense of immersion the fully immersive system has to offer, then it is necessary to

understand the health and safety implications. If health and safety problems inform a

32

user’s preference for the desktop system, chances that the powerful sense of immersion

would be lost should also be known. Be that as it may, users should be well informed

prior to implementation while also taking into consideration, the demand of the task, the

need of the user and potential population.

33

Chapter Four

Virtual Reality: Case of the Rail Industry

In the middle of the associated risks, hazards and side effects this study has revealed as

relate with the desktop, semi-immersive and fully immersive VR systems, along with the

opportunity and potential possibilities, attempts have been made to link VR technology

with railway technology. Aspects where this technology has been deployed in the rail

industry include training, railway education, railway maintenance, etc. (David and

Lourdeaux, 1999; Song, Back and Kim, N/A). As noted by David and Lourdeaux, the

application of VR technology into the industry can give room for training with 3-D real

images.

4.1 VR Implementation and Opportunities in the Rail Industry: Case Studies

4.1.1 Educational System for Railway Maintenance through Mixed Reality (Song & Kim,

N/A)

In Song and Kim (N/A), railway maintenance through educational system using mixed

reality and 360 degree video was explored. This system implies a platform where realistic

images of trains would be shown in the education room in 3-D space. In this set-up,

training information relies on trainees’ movements. Train is a general means of public

transportation that runs on track. Compared to other means of transportation, they can

transport a lot of goods, people and this gives it an edge coupled with the fact that it

moves on schedule. Owing to the capability and compartment of a typical train, it

34

attracts high level of maintenance, and consequently, maintenance officers with vast

expertise.

If maintenance officers must work optimally in the industry, they need to be trained and

one way to do this is to utilize existing train or real bogie for their training. While it

sounds appreciable, it could be dangerous as trainees stand the risk of injuries as a result

of their exposure and trouble understanding the complex structure of the industry. There

is also a risk that reduces. With an effective educational system using mixed reality, Song

and Kim concludes that these problems can be resolved. Through mixed reality, trainees’

immersion levels can be enhanced by giving them quality information required for train

maintenance with feelings of reality via mixed reality in a VE.

Figure 5: System for railway maintenance using Mixed Reality

35

The system of train maintenance comprises camera for shooting real images of trains,

indicators for displaying the 3-D real images installed in the training room, human body

movement detectors for extraction. Others include 3-D coordinate information that is

dependent on the movements of trainees in above-mentioned room; data storage means

for storing 3-D virtual images consisting of letters or computer graphics to effectively

train rail personnel.

When trainees enter the training room at first, their movement is detected by vision

sensor being a means for detecting human body movements, and then this provides 3-D

coordinate information on trainees’ movement and it also gives 3-D angle information by

infrared sensors installed in the room or body sensor that trainees put on. Projectors are

installed at least in four places in the room; it displays 3-D real image of train. The human

body movement detectors for extracting 3-D coordinate information relies on the

trainees’ movement, using vision sensor to obtain 3-D coordinate information in order to

determine the correlation with their bodies, position of trainees, and to extract

information regarding energy, power dynamics or force rotation of trainees.

The 3-D angle information from infrared sensor or body sensors can blend 3-D coordinate

information and extract the action pattern information of trainees, virtual images with

the letter or computer graphics according to 3-D coordinates by means of extraction. The

body sensor sends the extracted 3-D angle information to operation control. In this case,

it is required to implement interface, and this interface is simply a communication

technology using Bluetooth module.

36

Operation control can utilize a variety of computer such as personal computers, laptop

computers, and industrial computers. It is required to implement more speakers to

convey information to trainees, and it is required to add voice information in the above-

mentioned data storage means. It equally gives them a voice guide about the

components of the train and for manipulations according to their needs.

4.1.2 Virtual Reality Techniques for Training Rail Drivers and Track Manual

Interventions on a French Line (David & Lourdeaux, 2001)

Track controllers may lose the control on some switches and this result to stoppage of all

the trains on the line. It generally comes from either a defect in a blade sensor or a stone

blocking a switch blade. If the traffic must continue as soon as possible, the controller

must demand from the driver, the next train to control, and probably, to switch the

blades manually.

Drivers’ reactivity and efficiency are therefore considered as important, but the

frequency of these technical problems is very low and keeping the drivers’ skills up-to-

date implies training them continuously along their driving life. Trainings about these

tasks are at the moment made on tracks but teachers are frequently faced with a lot of

issues when conducting these trainings as they have to deal with challenges on the

tracks. Moreover, training is expensive because it involves transportation on tracks.

Training is also time constrained and actually, it looks like a demonstration and is not an

interactive process between trainees and the teacher. The training in its actual form

barely gets to the required quality level to let the driver be efficient on required modules.

37

Consequently, impacts of poor training on traffic quality may result to reactions on the

path of the customers.

Using VR and a simulator in this instance is therefore considered as natural and

economical. Since there are no evidently real dangers in using the simulator, trainees can

make errors which are ideal and important in the learning process. Time is not limited

and the simulator is more accessible than tracks. More so, there is no weather condition

consideration and several different situations may be seen by each trainee.

A Look at the Current Training Method

The current training is based on a lot of factors; first, theoretical parts which are given to

trainee drivers in the classroom, and some forms of demonstration on tracks and on real

switch. The actor of this training is the line controller as the radio communication is a

part of the training. Some of the drawbacks of this training comprise:

Demonstrations are functions of the weather conditions and of the traffic on the

line.

During training, traffic is altered

The procedure can be done only by one trainee

The trainee cannot make errors which are known to be very formative

The line cannot be used for a long time; it is limited to half an hour

The teacher cannot show more than one physical implementation of a switch

One of the main difficulties in this procedure is the manner at which the driver leaves the

emergency situation. This kind of training is not adapted and does not reach the required

38

pedagogical objectives. Among the studied solution, VR was considered the most

interesting. The choice and paradigm of this emerging method of training was to

immerse trainee in a near real situation where acquired knowledge is not just a checklist

of things to do but is more focused on the technical know-how. VR gives some

opportunities to go farther than just reality; for instance, it could reveal hidden

mechanisms such as the components of a switch engine, a view of the tracks or

schematic views and complex abstract concepts.

Requirements for the Training Centre

The authors aimed at building a simulator centre for a group of five and six trainees.

While the other members of the group would be watching, only a member would be

immersed in the simulator. The training is planned in such a way that it would make parts

of the initial driving training. As revealed in the image below, the treadmill and the video

projector are the most impacting aspects of the project.

Figure 6: Hardware Architecture for Training

Components of the Architecture

39

Software: Red hat 6.0

SGI Performer 2.3

Linux Mandrake 7.2;

VRPN 5.3

Hardware

CPU: Duron at 800 MHz PC for device control and teacher actions

Dual Pentium III at 800 MHz for image synthesis

CPU switch

100 Mb/s net switch

Barco 6300 reality video-projector

Devices: Sound Blaster Live 1024

Ascension Flock-of-birds (2 sensors & an extended range antenna)

2 meter long customized treadmill

5dt glove

Microsoft Joystick

Immersion: Walking

Ability to walk along the tracks is a necessary aspect of the task, and as the author

desired, they wanted users to experience the same space and time feeling. This made

them to include a treadmill in the simulator. A standard sport training treadmill was

tested but it failed to meet the expected requirements, hence a new one with more

power, and 2 meters long was requested from a manufacturer as the first one lacked

enough power and ideal length. In order for the trainee to choose his preferred direction

40

and where he wants to go, a joystick is placed near him. The speed of the treadmill can

then be controlled by the user position and can be stopped by releasing the joystick.

Seeing

For the purpose of seeing displayed images, a large screen of about 2 meter high and 3

meter large was used, and it has a resolution of 1280 by 1024 by a LCD rear video

projector. This is also to calibrate the simulation to give a virtual world and create an

illusion of being in a real window. Movements are also taken into account by tracking

points of view. To avoid visual problems and sickness for some users, stereoscopic display

was avoided. An HMD was also not considered too much given that it is not compatible

with a treadmill. A multi-screen solution was ignored for reasons relating to cost and

usefulness, however, the field of view is considered large enough to give good immersion

at about 90° - 130°.

Interacting

Trainees are equipped with data glove touch, catch and handle objects in the VR world. A

magnetic tracker is placed on the hand to allow the system inform the position as well as

the hand’s orientation. Another tracker is placed on the back of the neck. This allows the

system adapt the point of view, function of the position of the user on front of the screen

and to allow the treadmill speed function appropriately. The magnetic tracker is not

placed on the head to avoid too invasive equipment.

Hearing

As previously discussed, sounds are important for immersion, and thus implemented in

this project using a synthesis system to generate acoustic virtual environment. Sounds

41

are generated for immersion and for user actions feedback as well. Some of the sounds

include background noise for immersion, engine sounds, crossing train and feedback

sounds such as beeping when a trainee catches an object.

Overcoming VR Drawbacks

Knowing that distance evaluation can be difficult, a system automatically places a user in

front of important elements in the VE function, a function of a user’s wishes and

movements. Coupled with the fact that the display is not stereoscopic, it allows a trainee

to interact with objects. Since it is not compulsory to reproduce movements in realistic

formats, actions are simplified. For instance, a user needs to keep a key and touch the

box with it to get it opened.

Description of the Software

The Software for this project is called “FIACRE”. It is a LAN of Linux PC (Mandrake and

Red Hat) and functions on the capability of open source software. Hardware devices are

controlled by public domain software known as the VRPN Package which feed the

simulation with data from devices by server/client architecture. Using an OpenAl library

maintained by the Loki entertainment company, a sound generator was designed as an

open source library.

4.1.3 Emerging State-of-the-art Virtual Reality Adoption in the Rail Industry (Case of UK

Rail Industry) (Pauley, 2015)

Currently in the UK, the adoption of VR simulation capabilities in commercial training is

gathering momentum, and the rail industry is not an exemption. PAULEY, an Interactive

software platform developed a state-of-the-art VR immersive training suite which sits at

42

the hub of the National Training Academy for Rail (NTAR) (A £7million training centre in

Northampton).

VR Headsets and a touch screen technology are among the components used for this

setup. A combination of these with 3D modeling was used to deliver a real-life and

hands-on learning experience meant to give the next generation quality education and

inspirations for apprentices, engineers and upskill individuals in the rail industry, as well

as, those coming into the sector from other industries (Pauley, 2015).

Unlike the previous illustrations on VR application in the rail industry, this is the first time

VR headsets have been used in the rail industry for commercial training. Therefore, the

technology is expected to deliver full-immersion experiences to users while also bringing

about solutions to the burgeoning skills crisis in the sector and creating a world-class

centre of excellence. According to the information from Pauley (2015), over 4,000 pages

of training courses have been transformed into 25 interactive learning modules, thereby,

allowing students the opportunities to get good understanding on all the critical

components and warning systems found inside the train cabs, the high-tech ones in

particular. As compared to other past technologies, trainees only require VR headset in

order to familiarize themselves with the workings of the train, down to the nuts and

bolts, in an effective and safe learning environment. Without the VR, all these would not

be possible either on traditional paper-based techniques or railway tracks.

E-learning for several years and other digital training methods has strived to build an

experience that closely relates to the classroom environment. According to industry

analyst Juniper forecasts that globally, 30 million VR headsets by 2020 will be sold for

43

both individual and commercial use, with hardware retail revenues forecasted to be over

£3bn. This goes a long way to demonstrate the potentials of VR, not only in the rail

sector, but among tech-savvy individuals to help them build technical skills that are

needed across a host of other industries.

44

Chapter Five

Discussion and Conclusions

Key among the most sought after development needs in the rail industry are the need to

reduce the amount of time needed on track, the need to upgrade signaling (traffic lights

for railway) for enhanced reliability and the potential effect on train services among

others. The traditional method where designers have to go all the way to plot new

locations for signals and map out ways through which drivers can view these signals have

been described as “time-consuming” as it requires frequent access to the railway which is

often very tedious. On most railway track projects, several tasks run concurrently.

Telecom teams and signaling teams need to install safety systems and train controls;

track engineers are expected to install new tracks; in the same vein, civil engineers and

other maintenance experts are focused on buildings and the train platform. All these

specialties require serious levels of training, but shutting down the station under this

condition for training purposes, upgrades and to allow stakeholders function effectively

can cause disruptions for passengers; and for the railway operators, it could be very

expensive.

As an answer to these challenges, this study attempted to see the extent to which the rail

industry has adopted VR capabilities in solving the above issues. In this context, this study

seeks to know how different actors and stakeholders (track engineers, civil engineers,

drivers, and other specialists) in the industry can make decisions based on their spatial

perception of VR information on a rail system. Asides this, an attempt was made to also

identify those hazards and risks which could occur from the implementation and non-

45

implementation of VR technology in the industry; available opportunities for engineers

and other personnel in the rail industry based on their spatial perception of VR

information; and lastly, examine how efficient the 360 degree video and VR technology

have been in the maintenance of the rail industry.

Insights regarding the potential side effects of VR implementation posit the need for

users to be aware of any potential side effects associated with each VR system

implementation and the genesis of symptoms before use. For instance, the problems on

the desktop VR (non-immersive) are quite clear enough and solid safe working practices

and regulations are available. On the other side, however, is the fully immersive systems

where recent technologies are continuously been researched across various industries.

This is the reason users of this system face the biggest immersive effect, and the genesis

of several symptoms has been associated with their usage. When an individual selects a

VR system, careful consideration must be taken to understand the potential population

for usage. If it is important to feel the sense of immersion the fully immersive system has

to offer, then it is necessary to understand the health and safety implications. If health

and safety problems inform a user’s preference for the desktop system, chances that the

powerful sense of immersion would be lost should also be known. Findings suggest

therefore that users should be well informed prior to implementation while also taking

into consideration, the demand of the task, the need of the user and potential

population.

While it would be reasonable to expect that VR systems may cause the genesis of

symptoms such as simulator sickness, problems such as immersion injuries, the physical

46

discomfort of an HMD and system lags can actually be minimized. These considerations,

and the fact that a reasonably powerful sense of immersion can still be achieved with

semi-immersive large screen systems, explain the preference towards their use in some

cases.

This study also presented the summary of selected architecture of VR applications (semi-

immersive and full-immersive VR systems) in the rail industry for training purposes, the

creation of the virtual work environment, and the extent of their application and

immersion. Unlike the semi-immersive case on VR application in the rail industry, the

study findings showed that VR headsets, with a full immersion experience, have recently

been used in the rail industry for commercial training. Therefore, the technology is

expected to deliver full-immersion experiences to users while also bringing about

solutions to the burgeoning skills crisis in the sector and creating a world-class centre of

excellence. As compared to other past VR technologies, trainees only require VR headset

in order to familiarize themselves with the workings of the train, down to the nuts and

bolts, in an effective and safe learning environment. Without the VR, all these would not

be possible either on traditional paper-based techniques or railway tracks. By tapping

into the potential possibilities and keeping up with recent trends and investigations, the

railway system can be improved since it has been proven that rail workers can be trained

in VR.

Overall, this study has revealed that, indeed, there are promising results derived from

other domains which indicate that virtual environments, in spite the associated health

concerns, can be effectively used for safety related training, at least in some situations.

47

These results suggest that there is potential for virtual environments to be effective in

the rail sector. However, besides examinations of utilization or the subjective impressions

of trainees, there has been little systematic examination of the effectiveness of VE as a

training medium in the rail sector. Where evaluations have been undertaken recently,

the designs were done using state-of-the art technologies and the sample sizes are quite

large. This is a great improvement from what obtains in the past, but concerning the

fears that may arise from the implementation of any VR system, it must be noted that a

lot of complex factors are involved in the symptoms, some of which entail the

characteristics of users themselves, the type of task that is being used for, and the type

of VR system.

48

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