KEEP CALM

AND

LET THE WATER COME

MSc Thesisby Kotryna Kozlovskaja

MSc Thesisby Kotryna Kozlovskaja

4180690July 4th 2013

Delta Interventions Graduation StudioMSc Urbansim

Faculty of ArchitectureTechnical University of Delft

Delft, Netherlands

KEEP CALM

AND

LET THE WATER COME

Enabling water management plans for Southwest Dutch delta to give the nature more important position in order to strengthen

areas socio-economic vitality

Delta Interventions

ColophonKeep calm and let the water comeEnabling water management plans for Southwest Dutch delta to give the nature moreimportant position in order to strengthen areas socio-economic vitalityMSc thesis Kotryna Kozlovskaja kotryna.kozlovskaja@gmail.comStudent number 4180690

Keywordswater management, value of nature, ecosystem services, strategy for urban development, southwest Dutch delta

Mentor teamprof.dr.ir. Han Meyer - Chair of Urban Design - Theory & Methods, department of Urbanismir. Verena Balz - Chair of Spatial Planning and Strategy, department of Urbanismir. Wido Quist - external committee member

Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of TechnologyMSc Architecture, Urbanism and Building SciencesMSc track UrbanismGraduation studio Delta Interventions (http://www.deltainterventons.com/)Graduation studio leader: ir. Anne Loes Nillesen

This thesis is downloadable for free from the TU Delft library website:http://www.library.tudelft.nl/collecties/tu-delft-repository/

Delft, July 4th 2013

cover images:photo of the water crown (source: www.mota.ru)photo of tidal beach (source: author)

Delta Interventions

PrefaceThis document is a Graduation Thesis of a master student Kotryna Ko-

zlovskaja written under the guidance of Delta Interventions Studio at

the faculty of Architecture, department of Urbanism, Technical Uni-

versity of Delft. This is the result of ten months work according to the

MSc3 and MSc4 study programs. It aims to bring a problem state-

ment, which is relevant to the society and an academic world, an ad-

equate methodology for the consistent research and analysis, which

logically proceeds towards a design - a detailed impression of the

solution for the previously risen research questions. Finally, reflection aims to look back and see if the used approach worked, to under-

stand how and why it is so and to bring conclusions on what can

be learnt from this graduation project.

July 4th 2013, Delft

Table of contents

I Forward III Research & Analysis

II Framework

030011

034013

040020

064024

036

055022

067

069

025

027

introduction

Delta interventions

context

Worldwide deltas and the Southwest Dutch delta

problem statement

Unbalanced delta

aim

Recognizing the value of nature

relevance

Contribution for society and academic world

methodology

Methods for research and design

time planning

Graduation calendar

geographic conditions

Historic overview

geographic conditions

Silting and poldering

geographic conditions / theory

Sedimentation and erosion

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

institutional conditions / review paper

From land-use to spatial planning

institutional conditions

Multi-actor analysis of plans for the project area

societal trends

Sustainability, tourism and energy

research & analysis

Conclusions

conclusion

Nature as a backbone for the delta development

reflection

Checking the approach of the graduation project

references

Literature list

appendix

Multi-actor analysis & cost-benefit calculation

IV Design V Afterword

128072

129073

134078

112

132076

088

118

aim

Nature and economy - a mutual support

design for regulating services

Natural development - as an alternative to dikes

design for production services

Rehabilitating ecological productivity

design for cultural services

Re-enforcing the potentials

design implementation

Strategy

visualizations

Changing landscape

visualizations

The new land-use

Figure 1: the Dutch Southwest DeltaSource: http://maps.google.com/

Edited by author.

011

013

introduction

Delta interventions

context

Worldwide deltas and the Southwest Dutch delta

Figure 2: Worldwide deltas and the most densely populated areasSource: NASA (2012). Composite map of the world assembled from data acquired by the Suimi NPP satellite in April and October 2012. [image online] Available at: [Acessed 05 May 2013].

10

introduction

Delta interventions

terial limits of a finite planet (Costanza et al., 1997). New policies that recognize the interrelatedness of many disciplines at inter-national, national and local scales is one of the tool to achieve the goal; socio-eco-nomic development must happen through qualitative and not quantitative improve-ments. What is more, urban planning is an effective tool as well. Not only that it physi-cally changes the conditions of interaction between nature and economy, but it also has the power to influence the perceptions of society thanks to its characteristics of vis-ual impression. The word delta was the weight-ing factor why I chose the Delta Interven-tions graduation studio. As previously men-tioned, delta areas are like hotspots that embrace many different disciplines whose sustainable interaction can be a great example of securing the future of natural environments and vital society in it. What is more, Dutch have the history of water management like no other nation. It gave me the confidence that I will learn from the best and will enrich my portfolio with a valu-able project.

I would like to thank in advance for reading my MSc Thesis.

The global ecosystem is the source of all the material inputs feeding the economic subsystem (Costanza et al., 1997) and del-ta regions are one of the hotspots of such feeding ecosystem. Deltas have been one of the most nutritious and economy sustain-ing landscapes since the beginning of a hu-man era. They provided food, water, con-nectivity, and even nowadays they remain one of the most densely populated areas on Earth (fig. 2 and 3). Since the Industrial Revolution high-ly advanced technological developments let the man to harness vast areas of the natural environments that were irreversably changed according to the human needs, more and more of the ecosystem sources were used to sustain worlds fast growing economy. It took all of human history to grow to the $600 billion/year scale of the economy of 1900. Today, the world econo-my grows by this amount every two years (Costanza et al., 1997). However, nature is not an inexhaustible source, it has a limited capacity and it regenerates rather slowly. In order to ensure the future of existing and upcoming generations the whole concept of the economy has to change, because nature will never manage to keep up af-ter unprecedentedly fast growing human needs. The relation between economy and nature has to change from nature-abu-sive towards the system where nature and economy sustain each other. Now, the challenge is to learn to live sustainably and well, but with the ma-

Literature:COSTANZA, R., CUMBERLAND, J., DALY, H., GOODLAND, R., NORGAARD, R. (1997). An introduction to Ecological Economics. Florida: CRC Press LLC.

Figure 3: densely urbanized Nile deltaSource: NASA (2013). Nighttime photo of the Nile delta region taken from the ISS. [image online] Available at: [Acessed 05 May 2013].

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Figure 4: the worldwide deltasDrawing by author.

Source used: GOODBRED, S.L. & YOSHIKI, S. (2012). Tide-Dominat-ed Deltas. In R.A. Davis & R.W. Dalrymple, eds. Principles of Tidal

Sedimentology. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. pp.129-49.

12

Southwest Dutch delta

Human interventions in the southwest Dutch delta started in the 12th century when the first dikes were built in order to protect the land from severe floods. The growing popu-lation in the endiked areas forced the need for bigger food supply, therefore thanks for the silting processes and poldering activities more land could be reclaimed and used for the agricultural purposes. Human interven-tion in the deltas formation was gradually increasing and after the disastrous flood of 1953 reached its peak with an extensive hy-draulic engineering undertake - the Delta Works. The delta was transformed by the man-power into a system of compartmen-talized basins blocked from the influence of the sea and rivers. Nowadays, inhabit-ants and their assets are safe by the safety standard of 1/4000, however the natural processes that actually gave a birth to an estuary throughout many centuries are blocked and will never be restored to the previous conditions. Recently, people started to un-derstand how many natural qualities were irreversibly lost due to categorically tech-nocratic decision, which was done very fast, without properly studying the natural processes of an estuary and without con-sidering other options. Closing of four main arms of the estuary brought an end to the natural transitions between fresh, brackish and salt water; sediment transport stopped

Worldwide deltas

There are many deltas worldwide and they all were formed in a certain way, mainly by the power of rivers, waves and tides. The one that dominated the most determined current form and appearance of delta. River-dominated deltas typically have a birds-foot shape. The influence of the river and its sediment supply is so strong that the deltas expand deep into the sea or ocean (typical case: Mississippi river del-ta, fig. 4). Wave-dominated deltas have a shape of the Greek letter (delta). The delta is formed by waves supplying sedi-ment to the coast via long shore drift (Har-ris & Heap, 2003). A good example of such delta is the river Nile delta (fig. 4). Deltas, which undergo strong tidal interaction are classified as tide-dominat-ed deltas. As sediment travels out of the delta into the sea, high tides and flood tides confine sediment on the delta plain and low tides carry sediment seaward. Tide-dominated deltas typically occur in locations of large tidal ranges or high tidal current speeds (SEPM STRATA, 2012). The southwest Dutch delta is an example of such formation that could be compared to the Amazon delta (fig. 4), which has a similar shape. However, what distinguishes the southwest Dutch delta from any other delta worldwide is the major human inter-vention into the deltas formation process-es.

context

Worldwide deltas and the Southwest Dutch delta

Tide-dominated:

Wave-dominated:

River-dominated:

Figure 5: formation typlogies of the worldwide deltasDrawing by author. Source: Harris, P.T. & Heap, A.D. (2003). Environmental management of clastic coastal depositional environ-ments: inferences from an Australian geomorphic data-base. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(5), pp.457-78.

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sufficient. The Dutch have understood that technological solutions alone will not be suffi-cient to win the battle against water problems in the long run (REINHARD & FOLMER, 2009). The Delta Committee prepared a New Delta plan in 2008 that together with flood risk management and fresh water sup-ply incorporates countrys economic, ecolog-ical and social developments and opportuni-ties (DELTA COMMISSIE, 2011). In other words, it uses an interdisciplinary approach for water management based on strong relations with spatial planning (fig. 7). These interdisciplinary solutions are summarized in the figure 9, which shows that the main river discharge in the southwest Dutch delta should be directed through the Haringvliet by opening the Haringvliet dam and building some closable dams in the Rijn-mond area; in order to reduce the pressure from the dikes in the Haringvliet and Rijn-mond-Drechtsteden areas the Grevelingen and Volkerak lakes will be used as a tempo-rary water storages during the peak river dis-charges and storm surges when the protec-tive barriers are closed; in order to solve water quality problems the tidal movements can be brought back by upgrading Brouwersdam with closable sluices and by breaking off the compartmentalization strategy by recon-necting lakes and increasing the turbidity and salinity in the water. The delta is now seen as a com-plex system (fig. 8), where balance must be found between many participants (nature, economy and safety) and on various scales (national, regional and local), taking into ac-count that delta is a part of a larger river flow-ing through different economic and political systems (IPDD, 2012).

and large changes in the morphology be-gan to develop; the original natural habi-tats disappeared, and were exchanged for man-made habitats (ERASMUS UNIVER-SITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004). The decision-making of such un-dertake can be explained, keeping in mind the circumstances of that time - too much was lost during the flood (836 peo-ple deaths and 450 million euros of dam-age) and the society of 60s was strongly in-fluenced by the technology-driven ideas. The large-scale measure was a decision to persist with existing tradition of man con-trolling over the powers of water. As an inscription in the concrete of the Eester-scheldt dam says:

Here rule over the sea the moon, the wind, and we.

New approach of the delta management

The Delta works can be called an active pro-ject when measures are taken after the dam-aging events. However, extreme floods com-ing from the large water supply from the rivers in Europe during the summers of 1993 and 1995 showed that it is time to work in a pro-active way - before the disaster happened, and think about the water management in a different way. What is more, the new ap-proach of water management is needed as the conditions are changing: the sea level is rising, the ground is subsiding, seasons are becoming unstable and urbanization along the rivers is getting denser. This all puts more pressure (fig. 6) on the flood risk manage-ment and existing means are becoming in-

PRESSURE

River dischargesincrease

Precipitationincreases

The sea levelrises

Economic valuegrows

Natural system Socio-economicsystem

Institutional system

infrastructure

impacts

demands

laws, regulations,

management

Integratedwater

management

Figure 6: the pressure on flood risk management is grow-ingDrawing by author.

Figure 7: Integrated water managementDrawing by author. Source: DELFT HYDRAULICS (1993). Methodology for Wa-ter Resources Planning. Research Rep.

Figure 8: Delta as a complex system Source: IPDD (2012). IPDD flyer. Integrated Planning and Design in the Delta.

OCCUPATION

NETWORKS

SUBSTRATUMsoil-water

transport

urban patterns

industry+ports tourism+leisure

agriculture

energy

water management

eco-systems

geomorphology

14

Nieu

we L

ek

Bypa

ss

Maaschange from 3,800

to 4,600 m3/s

Waal

change

from 16

,000

to 18,0

00m3/s

Rhin

e an

d M

euse

disc

harg

e

22,6

00 m

3/s

Rest

ore

the

tidal

dyna

mic

s be

twee

n

2075

and

212

5

Tem

pora

ry s

tora

ge

Mus

t rem

ain

open

to

pres

erve

nat

ural

estu

ary

and

navi

gatio

n

to A

ntwer

p

Temporary

storage

Possible temporary

storage

Short term

sand nuorishment

Antwerpen

RotterdamR

ijnm

ond

Oost

ers

cheld

eGre

velin

gen

West

ers

cheld

e

Volk

eram

eer

water storage

Legend:

space for the water

salty water

sand nourishment

rivers water discharge

shipping route

dam

tidal dynamics

exisiting barrier

new barrier

Figure 9: reccomendations by the Delta CommitteeDrawing by author.Sources used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/; DELTA COMMISSIE (2008). Working together with water. [e-book] Hollandia Printing. Available at: http://www.deltacommissie.com. [Accessed 18 October 2012].; RIJCKEN, T. (2010). Afsluitbaar Open Rijnmond een systeembena-dering. Delft: Technische Universiteit Delft.

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HARRIS, P.T. & HEAP, A.D. (2003). Environmental man-agement of clastic coastal depositional environments: inferences from an Australian geomorphic database. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(5), pp. 457-78.

IPDD (2012). IPDD flyer. Integrated Planning and Design in the Delta.

REINHARD, S. & FOLMER, H. (2009). Introduction. In S. Reinhard & H. Folmer, eds. Water Policy in the Nether-lands: Integrated Managment in a Densely Populated Delta. First edition ed. Washington, DC, USA: RFF Press. pp.1-13.

SEPM STRATA (2012). SEPM Stratigraphy Web. [Online] Available at: http://www.sepmstrata.org [Accessed 06 February 2013].

Context of location in the North-West Europe

Three major Northwest European metro-politan areas enclose the southwest Dutch delta: Rhine-Ruhr, the Flemish Diamond and the Randstad. They are interconnect-ed through networks of roads, waterways, digital infrastructure and everyday flows of people, goods and information (IPDD, 2012). These areas are the economic and urban centres that have the highest scores in characteristics such as GDP, population, density and level of urbanization (fig. 10). The analysed delta scores very low in all these characteristics and shows how much it differs. It is like an empty zone sur-rounded by highly urbanised areas. This op-posing character makes area strong with the values like an open landscape and lots of nature and due to its vicinity to big cities it can serve as a great recreational area. However, the delta is hardly having any benefits from such position, it rather works as a highway for cargo vessels which slowly but confidently pass the area by. Such situation gives the motive for contemplation about the reason why the advantages of delta are not incorporated into areas socio-economic vitality.

Literature:

DELTA COMMISSIE (2011). Working on the delta.Investing in a safe and attractive Netherlands, now and in the future. [e- book] Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Available at: www.deltacommissaris.nl.ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

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Population:

0,65 mln1 mln

Density:

268/km21000/km2

Area:

644 km2

land

65% water35%

Population:

6,78 mlnDensity:

1500/km21000/km21 mlnArea:

8,287 km2

urban

52%

non-urban

48%

GDP:

230 bn.

100 bn

200 bn

300 bn

400 bn

Density:

800/km21000/km2Population:

5,1 mln1 mlnGDP:

160 bn.

100 mln

200 mln

300 mln

400 mln

GDP:

30 bn.

100 bn

200 bn

300 bn

400 bn

Density:

1422/km21000/km2

Population:

12,2 mln1 mln

GDP:

338 bn.

100 bn

200 bn

300 bn

400 bn

Figure 10: the Dutch Delta enclosed by three metropolitan areasDrawing by author.Sources used: www.openstreetmap.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/

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Goeree-

Overflakkee

Grevelingen

VolkeraakDuiveland

Shouwen-

Figure 11: project location - Grevelingen lake areaDrawing by author.Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

020

024

022

025

027

problem statement

Unbalanced delta

aim

Recognizing the value of nature

relevance

Contribution for society and academic world

methodology

Methods for research and design

time planning

Graduation calendar

Water quality and environmentThe Delta Works forced the tide out and filled the basins with fresh or salt water, which became stagnant. Agriculture in particular benefited from the generous supply of fresh water in the area. However, the reduction of the tides, the fragmenta-tion of the Delta into separate inland wa-ters also had its downsides.For example, the Grevelingen lake is now suffering from the lack of oxygen in the deeper levels of water (large anoxic ar-eas). In the Volkeraak lake the blue-green algae and bacteria is forming on the sur-face of the lake during hot summer days. There is plenty other nature-related prob-lems in the project area such as decreas-ing salt marshes that are essential for birds to breed; the seaweed disappearance since 1988 because of increased salinity of the water; the decrease of mussel and oyster populations because of the lack of tides and water refreshment; and the fact that the original natural habitats were ex-changed for man-made habitats. The area is largely used for rec-reational purposes since the Delta Works, therefore, every nature-related problem has a direct impact on economic situa-tion of the region. At the same time, weak economy triggers poor social conditions.

Socio-economic problemsZeeland is undergoing a transition, i.e. a change from growth to stabilisation and shrinkage, with fewer employed people

Current situation in the Southwest Dutch delta and more precisely, the Grevelingen lake area (fig. 11), is suffering from some critical issues related to natural qualities. These issues consequently trigger socio-economic problems as they are closely in-terrelated (fig. 12). Lack of natural qualities stem not only from the position of the area in the Delta (with consequent needs for protection), but also from a failure of plan-ning approaches in recent decays (fig. 13). All this, instead of searching for a balance among all essential aspects of the delta (safety, economy and ecology), stimulat-ed the shift towards safety and economy (fig. 14):

Changes in the use of the lake-like compartments of the branches be-hind the dams were far-reaching. New strong economic interests grew profiting from freshwater for agricul-ture and extensive tide-free shipping routes (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNI-VERSITY, 2004).

Water-related problemsWater quantity (safety)The project area is now safe from flood-ing, however, due to the sea level rise cur-rent technical solutions might become not adequate between 2075 and 2125 (DELTA COMMISSIE, 2008). Thinking about the long-term safety, further dike heightening and other technical solutions would bring only a short-term safety, but much higher risks.

problem statement

Unbalanced delta

Figure 12: water related and socio economic problems in the project area

Social Economic

Socio-economic:

QualityQuantity (safety)

Water related:

Outdate

d 2075

Figure 13: plan for the Grevelingen area in 1975Source: WERKGROEP HERZIENING INRICHTINGSSCHETS GREVELINGENBEKKEN (1975). Nieuwe inrichtingsschets voor het Grevelingenbekken. Rijswijk: Ministerie van cul-tuur, recreatie en maatschappelijk werk.

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Reasons for problemsThe main reason for current unsatisfactory situation in the project area is a constant struggle with the risks of flood. In order to be safe people used a technocratic ap-proach and captured the natural area in an artificial state. At the beginning such decision seemed to be a bold victory against all mighty nature and attracted many people. However, on a longer time scale, natural conditions started to de-teriorate and societal perceptions have changed as well. Now people are more aware of environmental issues and value the natural authentic qualities (DWYER, L. et al., 2008). Further planning approaches and interventions also influenced an existing state of the Grevelingen area. Basically, it is a product of a special vision coming from the 1970s (fig. 13) and which is now very much eroding. The plans of 60s-70s were very determinative and later they failed, as they could not adapt to the changing social, economic and environmental cir-cumstances due to their inflexibility and lack of integrity. The 60s-70s planning ap-proach neglected local ecological cir-cumstances, did not include private and civil stakeholders as the central role was of the government. In the 1990s responding to the criticism of the earlier planning approach planning approaches changed. Summa-rized under the header spatial planning a new planning style focused on construct-ing win-win-win solutions. Characteristics of this style: inclusive for all stakeholders, interactive and flexible, development driv-

en. Recently also this planning approach was critically reviewed: it favours the plan-ning perspectives of powerful (economic) actors, leads to conflict among actors and delays in the implementation of plans. Also in this planning approach natural values are often neglected. High quality nature is not seen as potential for social and eco-nomic development but as a value that re-mains outside of spatial planning; retreat to regulation and protection. The question is: why even under the sound win-win-win slogan the recent planning approach still fails to fulfil the expectations. The aware-ness is there, however the task of imple-mentation appears to be much more complicated than it was thought.

and more elderly people (Zeeland pro-vincial government, 2011). Young people are leaving to the major cities to study and after graduating do not return as there are little job opportunities. New companies are not being created and those that ex-isted move out, therefore the areas econ-omy is weakening. Less working and taxes paying people mean more struggles with maintaining the needed amount of facili-ties for aging population.

Literature:

DELTA COMMISSIE (2008). Working together with wa-ter. [e-book] Hollandia Printing. Available at: http://www.deltacommissie.com. [Accessed 18 October 2012].

ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

WERKGROEP HERZIENING INRICHTINGSSCHETS GREV-ELINGENBEKKEN (1975). Nieuwe inrichtingsschets voor het Grevelingenbekken. Rijswijk: Ministerie van cultuur, recreatie en maatschappelijk werk.

ZEELAND PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT (2011). The Path Ahead! Breaking down reflexes to respond to demo-graphic changes in Zeeland. Zeeland provincial gov-ernment.

DWYER, L., EDWARDS, D., MISTILIS, N., ROMAN, C., SCOTT N. & COOPER, C. (2008). Megatrends underpin-ning tourism to 2020: analysis of key drivers for change. Queensland: CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd.

Figure 14: shift of balanceDrawing by author.

ature

afety conomy

N

ES

ature

afety conomy

N

ES

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flats that were raised along the east coast after the 1953 storm were removed. As a result, the Humber estuary (440 ha) was changed from agricultural land into natu-ral grass and estuary habitats. The river and sea were given more space to flood (wa-ter storage) and the intertidal flats are now working as a natural breaks of the incoming waves and are creating the new habitat for wildlife (fir. 17). The saving in maintenance and building costs of the surrounding dykes was estimated at 18 million euros while the project cost was of 12 million euros. Project involved public participation in planning process in order to make people aware of changing environment and the need of their lifestyle change.

The Sigma plan, Belgium (Scheldt river estu-ary)Another project is in the Western Scheldt estuary, Belgium and is planned to be ex-ecuted in the period between 2005-2030 at a cost of 930 million euros. An idea is to create a system of Controlled Inundation Areas by giving the floodplain back to the tidal system in a controlled way, while new, higher dikes in the hinterland protect the neighbouring villages and cities. This ap-proach gives way for the process of sedi-mentation. The designated areas are filled with normal height of water eight times per year and in this way allow the area to grow following the rise of the sea level. A park with precious ecological and recrea-tional benefits will be created.

The aim of research is to analyse natures position in the Delta throughout time and in the plans according to different plan-ning approaches. What is more, I aim to prove that nature has the value that could be expressed in the monetary way and that it can bring the socio-economic ben-efit for the area. In other words, nature and economy can have a mutual support for each other. Two reference projects should illustrate my position of putting the nature at more prestigious place.

European Fr@me project, England (Hum-ber river estuary)The project was implemented during years 2001-2005; here dikes on the Alkborough

aim

Recognizing the value of nature

Existing situation

Controlled Inundation

Reduced Controlled Tide

Figure 16: Controlled Inunda-tion Area in useSource: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, chang-ing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Figure 15: section of detail from Sigma planSource: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

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Figure 17: European Fr@me project in England, Humber river estuary Source: www.environment-agency.gov.uk.

Figure 18: An overflowing dike in the flemish System of controlled Innundation Areas (CIA), Western Scheldt estuary, BelgiumSource: http://www.imdc.be

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expected to happen in the Delta after the Delta works (greater scales of urbanization and economic growth) - all this can be seen in different plans made for the project area according to various planning approaches (later discussion in the theoretical part of the project). Unfortunately, those expectations did not happen. Islands of the delta were abandoned as the power and population growth shifted to the economic centres of Randstad and Antwerp-Louvain-Brussels-Ghent conurbation. Islands become de-pendent on economic concentrations of power outside of the area (MEYER, H., BOB-BINK, I., NIJHUIS, S., 2010). Nowadays, the provinces, the gov-ernment and the society acknowledge that the area is struggling and everyone agrees that something must be done. This gradu-ation project aims to demonstrate the pos-sible solution and present it in a visual way. Visual impressions can directly speak to the imagination of project developers, the stakeholders, and trigger the following dis-cussions. As mentioned in the Forward part of this thesis, images can help changing the views and perceptions of society. Some-times very ambitious, however rather crucial topics are regarded critically as they stem for fundamental changes that society is not ready for. However, in order for the project to be successful, societal approvement is essential. That is why such projects like this graduation project with its visualizations, can help slowly but surely form new points of view of our society.

The graduation project aims to contribute for both academic and societal perspec-tives. Academically, it can complement the common body of knowledge and socially - stimulate the discussion and in this way at-tract the attention of important governmen-tal bodies towards the issues that are so im-portant for the society.

Academic relevanceThere is a lot of literature about the state of art in the project area and the topic. However, there is a missing gap of the role of design, which works as a tool to investi-gate what are the possibilities. It is talked a lot about the problems, but what about the solutions that can actually work? This gradu-ation project is the type of research that asks if using certain parts of nature can bring the social attractiveness and economic suffi-ciency to an area. This graduation project also con-tains a literature research paper, where de-velopments in the project area led by dif-ferent planning approaches are discussed. The up- and down-sides are presented as well as the challenges of the current plan-ning approach. The graduation project aims to address those challenges and in this way tribute for the general body of knowledge.

Societal relevanceThe contribution of a project for the soci-ety is significant as it aims to identify and put the Southwest Dutch delta and Grev-elingen lake area on the map. A lot was

relevance

Contribution for society and academic world

Literature:

MEYER, H., BOBBINK, I. & NIJHUIS, S. (2010). Delta ur-banism, the Netherlands. Washington: American Plan-ning Association, Planners Press.

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Why an integral planning is the right approach for the project area?

Method(s):- literature review of previous planning ap-proaches in the project area and the les-sons learnt from them- multi-actor analysis (fig. 19) on previous plans for the project area (what kind of plans were produced, what did they pro-mote, who were the main actors and how much power did they have in the decision-making, what was the relation between main aspects of the delta?)

methodology

Methods for research and design

The main research question is divided into different sub-research questions that will help to build a reasonable methodology and to approach the problem statement systematically.

(1) Integral planning:

What is the integral planning and what should be integrated in the project area?- safety- socio-economic situation- ecology

Method(s):- literature study on integrated water man-agement, current integral plans for the Southwest delta by the New Delta Commit-tee, Integrated Planning and Design in the Delta - IPDD research program

The aim of this graduation project as it was mentioned previously, is to prove that the nature has a monetary value that can bring socio-economic benefits for the project area. Going out of this, the main research question of thesis is formed in order to focus and narrow down the objectives:

How to contribute integrally(1) for the Grevelingenmeer areas socio-economic(2) vitality through positioning the nature(3) at a more prestigious place?

Figure 19: One of the schemes for multi-actor analysis showing hierarchical interrelationships between different stakeholdersDrawing by author. Source: ENSERINK, B. et al. (2010). Policy Analysis of Multi-Actor Systems. Hague: LEMMA.

What are the relations between main aspects of the Delta (safety, socio-economic situation, eco-logy) throughout time?

Method(s):- layer analysis (fig. 20) for systematical ap-proach to a complex system and for seeing the relationships between different layers throughout time- mapping as it helps to present complex ideas in a simple, conceptual way, besides, it is one of the best tools to communicate with other people

How can socio-economic situation benefit from nature?

(2) Socio-economic situation (3) Nature

Figure 20: the layer approachDrawing by author. Source: SCHAICK, J.V. & KLAASEN, I. (2011). The Dutch Layers Approach to Spatial Planning and Design:A Fruitful Planning Tool or a Temporary Phenomenon? European Planning Studies, 19(10), pp.1775-96. Avail-able at: http://www.academia.edu.

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

Nature

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- literature study on Ecological econom-ics by Costanza, 1997; ecosystem services, case studies of ecosystem benefits from Natura 2000 areas by Institute for European Environmental Policy and CE Delft- cost-benefit analysis for actual calcula-tions of investments and benefits that eco-system services can bring according to de-sign

How to design for the safe future of the delta where nature is put for-ward?

Method(s):- mapping and sketching- interviewing an expert about the pro-cesses of erosion and sedimentation (Jan Mulder - senior coastal specialist at Del-tares)- reference study (controlled inundation ar-eas in the Scheldt estuary)

How to design in order to promote ecosystem services?

Method(s):- mapping and sketching- interviewing experts (Sam de Haan - sec-retary RTM Ouddorp; Jaap de Rooij - secre-tary of the Nederlandse Oestervereniging)

The way of organizing this thesis in a logical process is depicted in a graphic scheme (fig. 21). The main process is always based on research by different methods and end up with final products like booklet, review paper or design. Finally, the end products, the process and the ethics of projects are evaluated and brought to conclusions.

Methods

Preliminary literature

study

Literature studymapping,

data analysis

Literaturestudy

Literature study,reference

studies

Literature study,reference

studies,expert interview

Literature study,data analysis,

expert interview,mapping

Motivation

Layer analysis

Problemstatement

& Aim

Researchquestions

Researchby design

Theoreticalframework

Evaluation

Motivationposter

Studiobooklet

Reviewpaper

Design:spatial

organizationidea

Design:key

interventions

CBAcalculations

Conclusions

Process Products

Figure 21: methodologyDrawing by author.

26

P2retake

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February March April May June July36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 1 2 3 4

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September October November December January

P1 P2

Motivation poster

Motivation poster

Orientation

Workshop in Florence

Literature review paper

Research & Analysis

Research by Design

Multi-actor analysis

Draft idea of design

CBA calculations

Reflection Conclusions

Key projects and visualizations

Preparing presentation P1 Preparing presentation P2 P2 retake Preparing presentation P3

Preliminary thesis1 Preliminary thesis 2

Preparing presentation P4

Preliminary thesis 3

Preparing presentation P5

Final thesis

Building with nature conferenceAbstract paper Studio booklet Thesis plan

Literature review abstract

Holidays

Presentation day

Delivery/event day

Process

Delivery

Literature review paper

Thesis plan

Studio booklet

Preliminary thesis 1

Regional scale spatial organization plan

Research conclusions

Preliminary thesis 2

Preliminar local scale projects

Reflection

Preliminary thesis 3

CBA calculations

Final key projects

Delta scale design

Final thesis

Figure 22: graduation calendarDrawing by author.

The main parts of graduation cal-endar are research and analysis, multi-actor analysis, regional scale design, cost-benefit calculations (CBA) and the key interventions on a local scale.

time planning

Graduation calendar

Graduation project is executed during 10 months period (20 weeks). In order to finish on time a strict time planning is required. The faculty determines certain dates of presentations and few deliveries (like mo-tivation poster, literature review paper and thesis plan). The rest is under the guidance of a student who has to organize the work according to a chosen topic of research.

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030

034

040

067036

064

055geographic conditionsHistoric overviewgeographic conditions

Silting and poldering

geographic conditions / theory

Sedimentation and erosion

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

institutional conditions

From land-use to spatial planning

institutional conditions

Multi-actor analysis of plans for the project area

societal trends

Sustainability, tourism and energy

The main research question, which was presented in the previous section, will help to understand how the research part of this graduation thesis is organized. The main re-search question is formulated hereinafter:

Coming from this, it becomes more obvious that focus of research should be on the rela-tion between nature and economy. Relation between nature and economy is influenced by the set of factors, such as:

1. Existing geographic conditions (and de-velopment towards them)

- layer approach

2. Institutional conditions

- literature review on different planning re-gimes- multi-actor analysis of the previous plans for the project area- conclusions

3. Societal trends

- on sustainability (recognizing the natural qualities)- on recreation- on energy

research & analysis

Introduction

How to contribute integrally for the Grevelingenmeer areas socio-economic vitality through positioning the nature at a more prestigious place?

Nature Economy

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The reason for such division of inhabited and not inhabited areas in the XIIIth centu-ry is the typology of soil. The light grey col-our on the maps marks peat areas which are very wet and therefore, unstable to be built on. Later these areas were covered with clay (dark grey) and became suitable for new settlements to arise.

Oldest towns and their activities

In the XIIIth century most inhabited areas of the Delta were in the southern part, while northern part (currently around Haringv-liet and Grevelingen inlets) were still un-touched. Nowadays it is not the case as whole Delta is almost equally dispersed with middle-size towns.

geographic conditions

Historic overview

Urban patterns

Nature

XIII century XXI century

Figure 23: 13th century soil map and exisitng townsDrawing by author. Source used: RIJN, D., POLDERMAN, R., NEDERLANDSE GEMALENSTICHTING (2010). Het water de baas. Nederland: Verloren.

Figure 24: 21st century soil map and exisiting cities and townsDrawing by author. Source used: RIJN, D., POLDERMAN, R., NEDERLANDSE GEMALENSTICHTING (2010). Het water de baas. Nederland: Verloren.

32

turnips, beets and salt - the most precious good at that time. Fishing was also one of the most important activities, Brouwershav-en was famous for its oyster and mussel in-dustry. Towns further inland (Ouddorp, Kerk-werve, Dreischor, Oosterland, Ouwerkerk) were busy with agriculture and farming. Haamstede was a particular town because of its specifically residential function. The balance between nature, economy and safety is clearly leaning towards the nature.

Oldest towns and their activities

XIIIth centuryThe earliest settlements in the Netherlands appeared in the Delta because of their close relationship with water and the oppor-tunities it provided: shipping, trading, fish-ing, fertile soil. This is why most settlements are located by the water and are having ports (Goedereede, Dirksland, Zonnemare, Brouwershaven, Burgh and Zierikzee). Towns were trading wood, stone, wool, textile, flax,

geographic conditions

Historic overview

N

ESFigure 25: the balance of an estuary in the 13th century was towards natureDrawing by author.

Figure 26: 13th century towns and their activitiesDrawing by author. Source: www.geschiedenisvandirksland.com

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

Nature

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Oldest towns and their activities

XVIIth centuryMore settlements and more ports appear when the Oveflakkee island is reclaimed thanks to the silting processes and polder-ing activities. Ports of Middelharnis, Stad

aant Haringvliet, Ooltgensplaat, Oude and Nieuwe-Tonge appear.The silting process is visible - ports are dig-ging the canals in order not to loose the connection with the sea.

Shipping

Fishing

Market/trading

Livestock / farming

Shellfish / oyster

Agriculture

Residential

Port

Trading routes

Dikes

17th century lands

current boundaries

N

ESFigure 27: the balance of an estuary in the 17th century was towards natureDrawing by author.

Figure 28: 17th century towns and their activitiesDrawing by author. Source: ATLAS VAN LOON (2012). Zelandi pars transscaldina vulgo Beooster-Scheld. [image on-line] Available at: [Acessed 05 December 2012].

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

Nature

34

The benefits of living by the water always comes with a certain risk of flood-ing. Because of the strong long-shore cur-rents entering the estuary from the North Sea some settlements could not manage to maintain the dikes in a place and had to give up against the mother nature. The Xs on the map are signing the towns that drowned.

Oldest towns and their activities

XIXth centuryPorts are struggling even more with the silting process and towns that once used to be on the edge between water and land are now in the middle of the island (Goedereede, Dirksland, Middelharnis and Zierikzee).

Figure 29: the balance of an estuary in the 19th century was towards natureDrawing by author.

Figure 30: 19th century towns and their activitiesDrawing by author. Source: Topographisch Militaire Kaart of the year 1830 from TU Delft map room.

N

ES

Port

Trading routes

Main dikes

Secondary dikes

Dunes

Canals

Drowned villages

19th century lands

current boundaries

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

Nature

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In the island of Goeree-Overflakke there are three interesting cases of ports that had to fight continuously with silting process in order to maintain their connection with the sea and economic benefits it was provid-ing.

The set of maps (fig. 31) is showing the growth of the island Goeree-Overflak-kee and how newly silted areas were en-poldered immediately in order to increase the area for the crop cultivation.

geographic conditions

Silting and poldering

Goedereede

Dirksland

1415Goedereede

Dirksland

Middelharnis

1483

Dunes

Plates

Oldest

Youngest

Endiked areas

Nature

36

Goedereede

Dirksland

Middelharnis

1600Goedereede

Dirksland

Middelharnis

1751

Goedereede

Dirksland

Middelharnis

1821

Dirksland

Middelharnis

Goedereede

1937

Figure 31: the growth of Goeree-OverflakkeDrawings by author. Source: Rabobank Middelharnis (2001). [images online] Available at: [Acessed 02 February 2013].

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The Dutch Southwest delta was gradually formed by the natural processes of sedi-mentation coming from the sea and inland rivers. The rise in sea level during the Hol-ocene and the energy of waves, tidal ef-fects, and currents reassembled material from the sea floor and the sediment from the rivers to create the coastal landscape we know today (MEYER, NIJHUIS & BOBBINK, 2010, p.4). Inland rivers were always supple-mented by the rain and meltwater from the mountains. A strong stream would erode the land, catch the sediment and carry it downstream. The lower reaches of the riv-er system are wider so the water stream is getting slower, therefore the sedimentation

rate is faster than the rate of erosion. After building the Delta Works the process of sedimentation stopped as almost all inlets lost their relation to the sea. What is more, rivers also stopped carrying enough sediment as the river banks were strongly consolidated. Two inlets of the Dutch South-west delta were left open or partly open: Westerschelde and Oosterschelde. The Westerschelde due the shipping activities has to be constantly dredged and deep-ened, in return the channels are gradually eased and the tidal wave enters the estuary easier; the difference between high and low tide increases, this in turn leads to higher lo-cal velocities, which in turn affects the build-up of inter-tidal areas (MULDER et al., 2010).

geographic conditions / theory

Sedimentation and erosion

XIXXVII XXI

Legend:

Shallow

Deeper

Deep

Intertidal

Figure 32: bathymetry map of Zeeland 17th centuryDrawing by author. Source used: BLAEU, W. J. (1636). Zeelandia Comitatus. [map] available from: TU Delft map room.

Figure 33: bathymetry map of Zeeland 19th centuryDrawing by author. Source used: Topographisch Militaire Kaart of the year 1830 from TU Delft map room.

Figure 34: bathymetry map of Zeeland 21st centuryDrawing by author. Source used: ZUIDWESTELIJKE DELTA (2009). Atlas van Zuidwestelijke Delta. Een uitgave van het programma-bureau Zuidwestelijke Delta. Middelburg: Southwest Delta Programme Office. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 15 September 2012].

Infrastructure

Nature

38

Figure 35: Schematization of the decrease of shoals by the sand starvation; black arrows represent erosion of the shoals and the red ones - rebuilding, which de-creased by 75%, becasue of the decreased flow veloci-ties indicated by the blue arrows.Source used: HESSELINK, A. W., VAN MALDEGEM , D., VAN DER MALE, K., & SCHOUWENAAR, B. (2003). Veran-dering van de morfologie van de Oosterschelde door de aanleg van de Deltawerken. Den Haag: Rijksinstitu-ut voor Kust en Zee/RIKZ

Figure 36: in- and out-going tidal jetSource used: BRUIJN, R. (2012). The future of the Ooster-schelde with a new inlet channel. Delft: Delft University of Technology.

Figure 37: a closed cycle of a sand trapSource: MULDER, J. Interviewed by: Kozlovskaja, K. (5th December 2012).

both sides of the barrier that form a sand trap. The fig. 37 represents a section of the storm surge barrier and a closed cycle of sand transportation through the barrier. It is estimated that an amount of 400-600 mil-lion m3 of sediment is necessary to increase the flow velocities, restore the sediment transport from the channels and to obtain a new dynamic equilibrium. The sea level rise in the Oosterschelde basin leads to a steady increase of sediment shortage: by the current rise rate of 2 mm per year, the sediment demand is growing by 0.75 Mm3 annually (BRUIJN, 2012, p. 4). The case of Oosterschelde is very important for the area of this graduation project. The reason is that there are plans to upgrade the Grevelingen dam with clos-able sluices (the same situation as in the Oosterschelde basin). Oosterschelde can be seen as a case study of what can hap-pen with the Grevelingen lake if the tidal movements and exchange with the North sea water will be brought back.

The process in Oosterschelde is op-posite. Here, after building the Delta works a large change of the hydrodynamics in the basin could be observed: large decrease in the tidal volume and flow velocities. This caused a decrease in sediment transport from the channels with about 75 percent. This situation in Oosterschelde is also called a sand hunger. The consequence of de-crease in sediment transport from the chan-nels is the present ongoing process, where due to waves, the shoals erode, but not build up again. Eroded sediment is trans-ported to the sides of the shoals and chan-nels, but not back from the channels to the shoals, as it did before the interventions (fig. 35). The shoal height and the intertidal area inside the estuary decrease, that mainly has a negative influence on the protected na-ture, which is very important for the natu-ral habitats, safety and recreation (BRUIJN, 2012, p. 9). Another reason for erosion in Oosterschelde is that the sediment trans-port through the barrier is not possible. This is due to the dam that blocks the sediment transport in both directions mainly because of a tidal jet phenomenon. The origin of the tidal jet is the basin geometry that has a small entrance compared to the length of the basin. Water flows from all directions towards the inlet during flood and has so much momentum that when it passes the barrier, it can not spread out fast enough, creating a tidal jet on the landward side (BOSBOOM, 2011). The reverse process oc-curs during the flood (fig. 36). Final reason for the sediment block-ing by the barrier are the scour holes at

Barrier

Turbulence

Scour hole

-60m depth

Flood

SEA

1

2

3

ESTUARY

BarrierSEA ESTUARY

BarrierSEA ESTUARY

Ebb

Slow flow - sedimentation

Turbulence

Turbulence

Scour hole

Flood

Scour hole

Slow flow - sedimentation

Literature:

MEYER, H., BOBBINK, I. & NIJHUIS, S. (2010). Delta ur-banism, the Netherlands. Washington: American Plan-ning Association, Planners Press.

MULDER, J. Interviewed by: Kozlovskaja, K. (5th De-cember 2012).

MULDER, J.P.M., CLEVERINGA, J., TAAL, M.D., VAN WESENBEECK, B.K., KLIJN, F. (2010). Sedimentperspec-tief op de Zuidwestelijke Delta. Delft: Deltares.

BRUIJN, R. (2012). The future of the Oosterschelde with a new inlet channel. Delft: Delft University of Technol-ogy.

BOSBOOM, J. A. M. S. (2011). Coastal Dynamics 1. Delft: VSSD.

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IntroductionAfter the flood of 1953 the Dutch govern-ment stated: This no more! and succes-sive decisions lead to manpower overtak-ing the nature - the shift of balance from nature towards safety and economy (fig. 41). The delta was transformed into safe, compartmentalized and more acces-sible delta without natural processes of an estuary (no organising forces of tides, no sedimentation processes that let the land grow together with the sea level rise and no water refreshment and transitory function for animals - fig. 39). If before the closure the majority of land was endiked and in

this way fixed, so after the Delta Works the water was fixed as well (fig. 40). For delta, which was formed by the water and sedi-ments this was a drastic change. An economic situation was forced to change as well: many ports were shut down (fig. 38) and towns had to rearrange their main resources of economy. Agri-culture became most important industry thanks to the generous supply of fresh wa-ter from Volkeraak lake, reduced drought and salinisation; calm and clean water (be-cause there were no suspended particles) could be used for the new industry for an area - tourism and recreation (fig. 42).

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

Figure 38: the last ship that has left the port of Middel-harnis, 1970Source: http://www.geschiedenisvandirksland.com

Figure 39: the Delta Works influence on natureDrawings by author.

Figure 40: section A-ADrawing by author.

Land LandWater

fixed fixfixed

Goeree-OverflakkeeShouwen-Duiveland

No more organising forces of tides

No more sedimentation process and growth with the sea level rise

No more water refreshment and transitory function of estuary

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

Nature

40

AA

-Overflakkee

Goeree-

-Duiveland

Schouwen-Fresh water

Tides

N

ES

Figure 42: influence of the Delta WorksDrawing by author.Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

Figure 41: the shift of balance from nature towards safety and economyDrawing by author.

Delta Works

Fresh water

Salty / brackish water

Project area

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Influence on natureThe influence of Delta Works was bigger than it was expected in 1960s when Tin-bergen prepared the cost-benefit analy-sis (CBA). He concluded that the costs of Delta Works (1.6 billion euro) will be higher than the magnitude of the damage the flood caused (500 million euros), however in order to justify the high costs the non-material value of the impact of disaster was included at a value of 3 billion euro (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNI-VERSITY, 2004). At that time, the damage made to nature due to mans involvement was not calculated. Nowadays, however, the worldwide degradation of ecological qual-ity, the economic value of ecosystems is being more widely recognised. Applying

the economic values attached to an es-tuary, for instance fisheries, it can often be showed that human intervention results in huge economic losses. Calculated in this way, the economic value of the Dutch south-western estuary will have declined by 40% between 1900 and 2000 (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004). Since the execution of the Delta Works a characteristic estuarine nature has changed dramatically into a typical inland nature (fig. 44, 45). Many ma-rine species were changed with riverine that are more common in the Nether-lands (fig. 46). Much of the intertidal areas were transformed into pasture areas. All in all, the dynamic landscape was put to sleep.

Salt marshes in North Beveland Salt marshes turned into gazing lands, Tholen

Figures 44, 45: from estuarine to typical inland natureSources: http://www.ecomare.nl and http://www.zeeinzicht.nl.

Before: After:

Delta lakes

Ooster- scheld

eWester- sch

elde

Hectares

16000

12000

8000

4000

01856 1910 1938 1960 1978 1988 1995

Figure 43: Development of the total area of salt marsh-lands.Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Nature

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

42

Figures 46: change of flora and fauna speciesSources: http://www.wikipedia.org/

Before: After:

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Environmental problemsThe positive predictions of the benefits from the Delta Works did not last long. The use of fresh water from Volkeraak lake for agricul-ture had to be stopped due eutrophication process (fig. 47 ). Increased nutrients coming from the farmlands and small tributary rivers, and the lack of flow are causing the eu-trophication process to appear. The nutri-ents increase algal growth and after dy-ing they sink to the bottom where they are decomposed and the nutrients contained in organic matter are converted into inor-ganic form by bacteria. The decomposi-tion process uses oxygen and deprives the deeper waters of oxygen which can kill fish and benthic animals. Enhanced growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton and algal blooms disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of prob-lems such as a lack of oxygen needed for fish and shellfish to survive.

The accumulation of organic material in combination with the local low oxygen con-tent of the soil and the water in the Grevelin-genmeer is one of the main concerns of the current situation. The oxygen content in the upper layer is good, but deeper parts of the lake (from about 5m depth and especially at depths greater than 10 m) are suffering from oxygen-free water and soil. This is due to a combination of stratification and oxy-gen consuming (degradation) processes in and near the ground. Stratification is a pro-cess where by differences in temperature and salinity of water, several water layers, separated by a so-called thermocline, oc-

cur. These anoxic conditions characterized by the formation of white mats on the floor of the Grevelingenmeer, caused by differ-ent types of sulphur bacteria Beggiatoa spp. Although anoxic conditions oc-curred since the closure in 1971, the prob-lem has increased further in recent years. Now anoxic conditions occur not only dur-ing a warm spring and hot summer, but throughout the whole year and these con-ditions seem to expand into shallower parts of the lake. Figure 44 shows the places in which the oxygen concentration is insuf-ficient in the summer of 2000. A healthy aquatic system usually contains not less than 8 mg/l of oxygen. Concentrations be-tween 6 and 4 mg/l have negative effects on the growth of marine organisms and below 2 mg/l occurs irrevocably mortal-ity (PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS, 2009). The water quality problems have a big influence on recreational activities in the lake that socially became very impor-tant. Divers who used to enjoy the great variety of plants and animals in the waters of Grevelingen are now facing the layers of white lifeless mud (fig. 50).

Nutrientsfrom agricultural fertilizersand smaller rivers

No turbiditybecause no tides

Suspendingparitcles

Passingsunlight

Not passingsunlight

Decomposingplants uses oxygen

Death of fishand benthic animals

Time

Acquatic plantsgrowth

Algea growth

Figure 47: euthrophication processDrawing by author. Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/edexcel/problems_in_environment/pollution-rev4.shtml

Figure 48: algea formation on the surface of Volkeraak lakeSource: http://www.zwdelta.nl

Figure 49: map showing the dissolved oxygen in the soilSource: PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS (2009). Verkenning Grevelingen water en getij. Rijkswaterstaat Zeeland, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat.

44

Figure 51: water quality problems in Grevelingen and Volkeraak lakes

Drawing by author.Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/

Thats all dead. Nothing survives there. It looks like a thick layer of white mold. Twenty years ago you saw through in the 25 meters depth. Last year it was only in ten meters depth.

Marloes Otten - an experienced diver from Brouwershaven for the PZC newspaper

Until 3m deep 34m deep Deeper than 4m

Figure 50: visibility in different layers of waterSource: PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS (2009). Verkenning Grevelingen water en getij. Rijkswaterstaat Zeeland, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat.

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Influence on economyThe Delta Works made an area much more accessible and people from all over the country were tempted by the new vast and cheap areas available for the agricul-ture. The map (fig. 54) shows how much the delta towns grew since the construction of Delta Works, most of them grew double of their pre-construction size.

The delta region now contributes only 5% to the Dutch economy: the area makes 30 bil-lion euro of a total gross national product of more than 600 billion euro (1997). This is far less than the average production by area in The Netherlands. To compare: the size of the economy of Rotterdam harbour (80 bil-lion euro) is 2-3 times larger than that of the entire delta region while the surface area is much smaller (fig. 52). Little of the economy of the delta is related to its watery character and could have been developed anywhere in the country. Fewer than half of the economic activities use the water supplies (agricul-ture, industry), while the real water-bound-ed activities (fisheries, sand supply, mari-time sector) represent only 5% of the local economy. In this sense, the strength of the region is not exploited. Although the area is a green (na-ture) and blue (water) oasis of outstand-ing landscape quality, the economy turns its back on these characteristics (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

Urban patterns

Fishing>1%

Services 42%- healthcare 15%- catering 7%- education 5%

Agriculture7%

Trade 18%

Industry 26%- industry 13,5%- construction 6,5%- transport 5,3%

92%Industry, trade

& services

830

8030

644 km2

105 km2

800

GDPbn euro

400

600

700

500

200

300

100

NLPortDeltaFigure 52: GDP camparisonDrawing by author. Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Figure 53: main economic activities of deltaDrawing by author. Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Fishing>1%

Services 42%- healthcare 15%- catering 7%- education 5%

Agriculture7%

Trade 18%

Industry 26%- industry 13,5%- construction 6,5%- transport 5,3%

92%Industry, trade

& services

830

8030

644 km2

105 km2

800

GDPbn euro

400

600

700

500

200

300

100

NLPortDelta

46

Figure 54: the growth of Delta townsDrawing by author. Source: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

Legend:

Expansions:New town areasOld town areas

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47

market price for the Flat oysters. The indus-try now consists of over 30 companies all situated in the delta (Eastern Scheldt and Grevelingen lake working on 1550ha and 500ha cultivation parcels respectively); the harvest of 1400 tons of oysters is worth 5 mil-lion euro a year, where Grevelingen is 13 part of it (http://www.zeeuwseoesters.nl).

The fish population changed after the closure: the number of species declined and the composition altered. Commercial species such as cod and sole have disap-peared while new, less popular species such as the Black Goby, have appeared (fig. 56) (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

Fishing

Where sea and rivers meet, the natural pro-duction in the creeks and on the silt- and sandbanks is very high. People started to exploit these riches through fishing and the gathering of mussels and oysters. Although the area was very suitable for fishing, in re-cent times this has not been a large indus-try. Around 1900, 1% of the working popu-lation worked in the fisheries, about 850 people. Nowadays this figure is almost the same (900), although the total number of inhabitants and jobs in the region has dou-bled (fig. 55).

The delta engineering works had a very negative impact on the fishing and aquaculture activities. In the artificially cre-ated lakes most species disappeared. To compound the difficulties faced by mussel and oyster companies following the works, a parasite has recently harassed the mussel fields causing the transfer of a large part of the industry to the Waddensea in the north of the country. Now, only 2000 ha in the Eastern Scheldt are cultivated for mussels; almost 2/3 of the total area (5600 ha) has moved to the Waddensea. Similarly, oyster culture has barely overcome the effect of the imported disease Bonamiasis. Because of it cultivators had to shift from the cultiva-tion of the Flat oyster (Ostrea edulis), which is exclusive high quality to the cultivation of a Pacific oyster (Cassostrea gigas), which is not susceptible to the disease, however of an affordable high quality. Pacific oys-ter banks have developed vastly in the last decades and has caused a drop in the

1900:

850 people -1% of working population

900 people ->1% of working population

2010:

Figure 55: working population in the fishing sectorDrawing by author. Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Figure 56: commercial species changed into less popu-lar onesSource: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Crassostrea gigasBlack Goby

Cod

Salmon Sole

Shrimp Ostrea edulis

48

Figure 57: working population in the agriculture sectorDrawing by author. Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Agriculture

Providing food for the growing population was the main driving force for large-scale land reclamation and made the build-ing of dykes necessary. Outside the dykes, natural sedimentation went on. Whenever the salt marshes rose high enough for use, new dykes were built to incorporate them into the arable land of the growing islands. This process lasted until deep into the 20th century (fig. 58). Around 1900, 46% of the working population were farmers. They produced mainly grains and these are still the most important crops. The economic importance of the agricultural industry has now declined (fig. 59): it employs 7% of the total working population (8000 people) ac-counting for less than 3% of the income in the area. Agriculture itself has been indus-trialised. Intensive branches such as meat, vegetables and flower production need more and more capital inputs, and less farmland. In The Netherlands, the future of those forms of agriculture which use large areas of land is very uncertain. Some pre-dict almost no land use in that form, as the opening of the world market and the en-largement of the European Union to east-ern European states makes it cheaper to produce elsewhere (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

The delta engineering works had a very positive influence on agriculture. Large volumes of salt water were turned into fresh water for irrigation, to maintain the freshwa-ter bubble, and to flush brackish water out of the ditches and canals. As this delivered

Figure 58: land reclamation process during the period of 12-20th centuryDrawings by author.

mld euro14

12

10

4

6

8

8887

Agriculture Horticulture Livestock

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07

Figure 59: diminishing importance of agriculture nowa-daysScheme by author. Source: CBS, Landbouwrekeningen, 2007.

x 381 = 39 100

46% of workingpopulation

1900:

x 80 = 8 000

7% of working population;3% of total income

2010:

higher agricultural productivity, it proved to be an important argument for the en-gineering response after the 1953 disaster (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVER-SITY, 2004).

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Figure 62: number of guests in ZeelandScheme by author. Source: CONTINUVAKANTIEONDERZOEK (2010). Bewerkt door Kenniscentrum Kusttoerisme.

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

1.3

1.6

1.4

1.7

1.2

1.5

1.8

1.9mln

Literature:

ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004. Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS, 2009. Verkenning Grevelingen water en getij. Rijkswaterstaat Zeeland, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat.

THE DUTCH OYSTER INDUSTRY, 2010. The Dutch Oyster industry. [online] Available at: < http://www.zeeuw-seoesters.nl/de_oestersectorUK.html> [Accessed 17 April 2013].

GESCHIEDENISZEELAND, 2013. Opkomst van Domburg als badplaats. [online] Available at: < http://www.geschiedeniszeeland.nl/tab_themas/themas/kun-stenaars_domburg/domburg_badplaats/> [Accessed 9 February 2013].

Figure 61: the beach of Domburg, 1905Source: GESCHIEDENISZEELAND, 2013. Opkomst van Domburg als badplaats. [online] Available at: < http://www.geschiedeniszeeland.nl/tab_themas/themas/kun-stenaars_domburg/domburg_badplaats/> [Accessed 9 February 2013].

Recreation

The delta area has been a popular recrea-tion destination since 19th century (fig. 61). This happened because of introduction of the steam tram which made villages easily accessible. What is more, it was acknowl-edged that healthy salt air and sea baths help against various ailments. Various vil-las were started to be built since 1830 by wealthy people (GESCHIEDENISZEELAND, 2013).

Thanks to the Delta Works (in-creased accessibility, calm and clean wa-ter) the mass tourism started in 1960s. Such recreational activities like angling, deep-water diving, swimming, sailing, motor-boat cruising, relaxing on the beach, camp-ing, visiting the historical towns and eating mussels are now popular pastimes. Since the 1960s, leisure time has expanded and recreation provisions have become an im-portant component of the spatial planning process. Today, more than 3 million tourists come to the delta area each year, provid-ing an annual income of more than 900 mil-lion euro.

The delta engineering works changed the systems, and recreation has benefited from it. Instead of going to the sea coast, people started visiting the shores of the lakes and the hinterland. The huge

constructions themselves attract hundreds of thousands of people (ERASMUS UNIVER-SITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

Lately, the number of visitors has diminished and stabilized at a certain rate (fig. 62). The reason for this might be inter-national market and availability to travel further and cheaper, increasing needs for active and multi- functional holidays.

x 160 = 16 000

8,5% of workingpopulation;

3% of total income

2010:

Figure 60: working population in the recreation sectorDrawing by author. Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

50

GoesMiddelburg

Brielle

Goedereede

Zierikzee

Somelsdijk

Oude Tonge

Herkingen

Dirksland

Ooltgensplaat

Moerdijk

XIX

InfrastructureSince the construction of the Delta Works, the connectivity has greatly increased. Now the delta is one of the busiest European ship-ping routes that connects two largest ports (Rotterdam and Antwerp) and few smaller ones (Vlissingen, Terneuzen). The east side of the delta is used for the commercial ship-ping, while the western is mainly for the rec-reational use.

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

GoesMiddelburg

Delft

Rotterdam

Vlissingen

Dordrecht

Antwerpen

XXI

Legend:WaterwaysRailroad

Legend:

Roads:

Railways:Passanger HighspeedFreightTourism

HighwaysPossible new highwaysRegional

Shipping:

Sluices:CommercialTouristic

0 - 5,0005,000 - 10,00010,000 - 25,00025,000 - 50,00050,000 - 75,00075,000 - 125,000125,000 - 150,000

Roads:

Railways:Passanger HighspeedFreightTourism

HighwaysPossible new highwaysRegional

Shipping:

Sluices:CommercialTouristic

0 - 5,0005,000 - 10,00010,000 - 25,00025,000 - 50,00050,000 - 75,00075,000 - 125,000125,000 - 150,000

Figure 63: 19th century infrastructureDrawing by author. Source used: Topographisch Militaire Kaart of the year 1830 from TU Delft map room.

Figure 64: 21st century infrastructureDrawing by author. Source used: ZUIDWESTELIJKE DELTA (2009). Atlas van Zuidwestelijke Delta. Een uit-gave van het programmabureau Zuidwestelijke Delta. Middelburg: Southwest Delta Programme Office.

Infrastructure

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Dikes - the elements of separationThe spatial carcass of the project area can be divided in three main areas: closed, open and transitory. Closed spaces are in the west side and has this character be-cause of the dunes landscape and some forests. The major part of islands is an open space with farmlands. There are just a few transition spaces that are outer dike areas, which used to be intertidal areas. Dikes play an important part in di-viding the previously mentioned spaces. This division can be hard, soft or normal. It

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

A

A

BB

C

C

DD

EE

FF

urban areas

farmlands

grasslands

forests

dunes

closed space

transition zones

open space

dike

hard edge

soft edge

bathymetrydeepshallow

dike

hard edge

soft edge

bathymetrydeepshallow

dike

hard edge

soft edge

bathymetry

currents

drowned villages

deep

shallow

Figure 65: spatial carcass of the area and the role of dikes in itDrawing by author. Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

depends on how close the dike is to the wa-ter and how steep is the bottom of the lake. The steepness of most of the hard edges were influenced by the currents entering an estuary from the North Sea. Their forces were continuously eroding the banks. Some of them could no longer stand it and were given back to water. That is why in the areas of strong currents that are close to the land, there are many towns that have drowned. In order to see what is the role of dikes in defining areas spatial quality I drew I serie of sections. Three of them are soft edge, two - hard edge and one - normal edge. The map (fig. 65) shows the places and typology of sections.

52

Section BB is very different from the first one and is a hard edge. The road is enclosed by two more narrow and steep dikes. The first dike is very close to the deep water, thus contributing to the typology of this section. An opportunity to oversee an area is possible only when riding a bicycle on top of the first dike.

Section CC is a soft edge. It cross-es the ex-tidal area of Slikken van Flakkee, which is now a protected area. Slowly rising ground is interrupted by the dike and then the wide stripe of gazing lands follows.

Section AA is a soft edge, because the dis-tance between the dike and water is quite big. The area rises slowly and the dike itself is very wide and divided in several levels with different typology roads on top of it. Driving a car on the top of this dike gives an oppor-tunity to observe the whole area.

JUAN VTE BUENROSTRO 20.154.133-S

crop fields roads ex-intertidal area Grevelingen

Section: A-A

swamp roadsmallroad dikedike Grevelingen

Section: B-B

Slikken van Flakkeesmallroad dikeN215 farmland

secondarydike Grevelingen

Section: C-C

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Scharendijke town dikeroad Grevelingen

Section: F-F

intertidal area Grevelingen damOosterschelde park

NO TIDESTIDES DELTA WORKS

Grevelingen

Section: E-E

Herkingen roadditch dike Grevelingen

Section: D-D

Section EE is a soft edge and is lo-cated on the Grevelingendam. On the right side there is an Oosterschelde with salty tidal waters and on the left is Grevelingen lake with salty, but still water. The difference between nature on both sides is immense: typical marine nature with sand and sev-eral plants; and a typical lake nature with plenty of deciduous trees and grass.

Section DD is a normal edge - the depth of waters is not very big and the steepness is gradual. The narrow road and ditch splits the space between the dike and residential area in several segments making the influence of the vicinity of the dike less tangible.

Section FF is a hard edge and lo-cated in the town Scharendijke. The steep-ness of the lake bottom and dike is high and the living area is only at a distance of the narrow road. This all make this section a particularly hard edge and shows how the living environment is blocked from the rela-tionship to water by a high dike.

54

1 Introduction

The purpose of this literature review paper is to form a theoretical backbone about the spatial development in the Southwest Dutch Delta starting from 1960s till nowadays and use it for the graduation thesis. The Dutch Southwest Delta was a subject to planning for the past fifty years. During this time dif-ferent forms of management on a regional level were applied due to its vulnerability to flooding and due to the Dutch planning doctrine according to which the mostimportant centre of the country is Randstad, which has to be restricted to uncontrolled sprawl so new industrial and residential cen-tres were envisaged to grow in the marginal-ized regions e.g. Southwest Delta. The rea-son for this research is that the current state

This literature review is aimed to form a theoretical backbone about the evolution of spatial developments in the Dutch Southwest Delta. This is due to the fact that the current state of the Delta is a product of a special vision coming from the 1960s and which is now very much eroding. An analysis of land-use planning dominating during those times will help to answer the question of such spatial decay in the Delta. In order to prepare a successful graduation project, the latest planning consensus spatial planning will be analysed and discussed regarding its reasons of emergence, features and main challenges. The main findings of this paper are that land-use planning in the Dutch Southwest Delta had flaws regarding its inability to balance the main factors that are crucial for successful spatial development (i.e. safety, economic strength, social liveability and environmental sustain-ability); the priority at those times was given to the technological insurance of safety (the Delta Works) and economic strengthening through the vast expansion of the Port of Rotterdam and comprehensive transportation network, while question of ecology was dismissed. The spatial planning that replaced the land-use planning is aiming for such balance, however increased complexity and uncertainty makes this task harder to achieve. The theories of both types of planning are supported by the literature review of such academics like Louis Albrechts, Andreas Faludi and Vincent Nadin.

Key words land-use planning, spatial planning, recreation, integration, Dutch Southwest Delta

of the area is a product of a special vision coming from the 1960s and which is now very much eroding. This theoretical research will help me to understand how and why did this happen and will help to distinguish the main challenges that can arise in nowadays planning.

In the next sections I will discuss the current literature on the theories of spatial development and how these theories were and are applied in the Southwest Dutch Del-ta. I will explain the theoretical framework ordered by themes: traditional land-use planning and the spatial planning. I will pay attention to the reasons of emergence of two theories, the differences between them, the supremacy and critics.

institutional conditions / review paper

From land-use to spatial planning

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2 Traditional land-use planning in 1960s

Usually authors distinguish planning as a statutory, legal framework such as regula-tion by means of the zoning of land uses or processes to allocate an investment. It helps to steer developments in a certain direction and to ensure that undesirable developments do not occur (Albrechts, 2004). The traditional land use planning as Louis Albrechts (2004, p.744) a Belgian planner and academic at University of Leu-ven claims embodies a proposal as to how land should be used in accordance with a considered policy as expansion and re-structuring proceed in the future. Land-use planning is basically concerned with the location, intensity, form, amount, and har-monization of land development required for the various space- using functions: hous-ing, industry, recreation, transport, educa-tion, nature, agriculture, cultural activities (Albrechts, 2004, p.744). Another academic of University of Nijmegen Andreas Faludi (2010) states the following:

Project plans are blueprints of the in-tended end-state of a mat