mp07 motivational psychology

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MP07 Motivational Psychology
Section 1 – Exercise benefits ......................................................................................................... 2
Section 2 – Exercise factors ........................................................................................................... 3
Module Two: Goals and Motivations ...................................................................................... 10
Section 1 – Goal setting ............................................................................................................... 10
Section 2 – Goals, motivations, and arousal ................................................................................ 12
References ............................................................................................................................ 23
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Unit Introduction
Welcome to the unit MP07 Motivational Psychology. This unit is made up of the following Unit of
Competency:
SISFFIT016 Provide motivation to positively influence exercise behaviour
Before you begin please read through the following frequently asked questions.
What is the full name of the course award I am working for?
Successful completion of this unit can count towards several qualifications. Check your registration details for the qualification you are working towards.
How much work is involved?
Whichever qualification you are working towards will have a number of units of competency you
are required to complete.
We recommend that, to successfully meet the requirements of each cluster of units for this
course, you plan to complete one cluster of units of study per month. You will receive your
personalised study plan two weeks after your enrolment date. This study plan is a structured plan
which allocates a manageable study timeframe, with the allocation of additional months at the
end of your study period.
This will enable you to read through the materials, undertaking a range of activities which focus
on this cluster of Units. You should then be ready for the final assessments at the end of this
Cluster of units.
If I get stuck or need help, what is available?
The Technical Panel is available to support you during business hours, from Monday to Friday
(excluding public holidays). You may book a phone coaching session with a Technical Advisor by
emailing your questions to [email protected]. One of the Technical Advisors will
respond to you within two business days. In the meantime, whilst you are waiting for a response,
we recommend that you continue working through your cluster of units learning and activities.
Aim: What is this cluster of units about, and what will be expected of me?
This unit describes the performance outcomes, skills and knowledge required to promote exercise
and incorporate behaviour change strategies into fitness instruction, programming and provision
of fitness advice.
This unit applies to personal trainers who work in controlled and uncontrolled environments.
These individuals typically work independently with some level of autonomy. Work is performed
according to the relevant legislation and organisational policies and procedures.
No occupational licensing, certification or specific legislative requirements apply to this unit at the
time of publication.
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Learning objectives: What should I be able to do, when I have successfully achieved this cluster of units?
We are working with you to support you in developing your competence in the following areas:
SISFFIT016
(iii) Maintain and update knowledge of motivation and behaviour change.
What kind of work will I have to undertake and complete?
This is an online learning course, which is different from learning in the traditional classroom. You
can work at your own pace, refer to your own past experiences and seek support, when needed.
Each time you read and complete a set of information, save that work and return to it, if you wish
to revise or review, at any time. Work through one module at a time. It will take time to adapt to
online learning, so be fair to yourself, and allow yourself time to get used to this new and exciting
way of developing your skills and knowledge!
How many modules are in this course?
There are two modules to be completed within this course. They are:
1. Exercise benefits and factors
2. Goals and motivations
How are the modules presented?
Each module will provide you with an introduction and overview of information.
When do I get assessed?
You will submit your assessments at the end of this cluster of units. You can of course ask for help
before or during your studies if you wish. Please feel free to read through the assessments at any
time.
How will I be scored/assessed?
The Assessor is looking for a demonstration of your competence in this cluster of units. There are
four assessment items for each cluster of units. Each of the four assessment items must be
assessed as ‘Satisfactory’. If any assessment item is assessed as ‘Not Yet Satisfactory’, this means
that the item does not meet the cluster of units standards/requirements. You will then be
required to review and resubmit the assessment item/s. The Assessor will provide comments to
you for the purpose of assisting in revising and reviewing your submission to meet cluster of units
standards and criteria. Professional AIPT assistance is also available for you, on request.
The final assessment outcome of the cluster of units will recognise you to be ‘Competent’ in each
of the individual units that make up this cluster of units. This can only be confirmed when all four
assessment items are assessed as "Satisfactory". You will not be deemed "Competent", until all
four assessment items are separately assessed as “Satisfactory". This is the basis on which all
MP07 Motivational Psychology Learner Guide V2.0 (2020/04/03)
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vocational (work-based) training is assessed. Please note that neither scores nor grades are
issued to candidates within the competency-based assessment process.
Additional learning aids (subject to availability)
• eLibrary of templates and resources available for you to use
• Video clips to enhance your e-learning (subject to availability)
• Webinars can be organised (subject to availability and numbers)
• Online chat forums are encouraged (subject to availability).
What icons are used throughout the course?
We have included the following icons to identify the different work you are going to undertake:
Icons Icon type Description
Prescribed Reading Courses with prescribed readings require you to have access to a particular text for the duration of the course. This icon represents readings from this text.
Suggested Reading These are readings which will add depth and understanding to your course participation.
Definition These represent definitions of important terms relevant to this course.
Reflection Reflections prompt you to think about certain subject matters. You are being encouraged to draw on your own personal experiences.
Tip Hints and tips to assist you in this subject area.
Video Videos to support the course content. Watch these short videos to learn more about the topics covered.
Web Internet web link to support course content and provide further reading or research opportunities
AIPT is committed to, and continuously reviews, the design and development of their
contemporary eLearning tools and resources to support you, in your studies. However, resources
will be subject to availability.
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Recommendation to make the best use of your time
We recommend that you attempt to complete at least one cluster of units per month. A
minimum of 12 hours per month should be set aside in a quiet area where there are minimum
interruptions for you. This time is YOUR investment in YOUR learning and, in YOUR success.
Great! I think we are ready to get started. Please work through and complete the following
checklist, to ensure you have the tools needed to get started.
To be successful within this cluster of units, we need you to demonstrate your competence. What
does that mean for you?
To be competent is to: Demonstrate your skills, knowledge and attributes for completing a
task/job to national standards.
Tip:
Read through and identify any area/s in which you may wish to undertake personal
research prior to commencing your studies.
Remember that AIPT has Technical Advisers who are available to work with you after you have
commenced your studies. When contacting them (preferably by email), list the key questions or
queries you have. By doing so, you will enable them to assist you in the best possible way.
Telephone appointments are also available! Their email address is [email protected].
So, let’s look at the ‘competencies’ that are to be demonstrated, within this cluster of units.
Checklist for you to get started
Computer – full access to the Internet and Microsoft Office suite (Word, Excel and PowerPoint, at the very least)
Writing materials (pens, paper, ruler, rubber) – these are useful for note taking
Contact details for AIPT technical advisors – please refer to the Support area of My eCampus (Subject Support)
Timeframes, to complete this cluster of units, written into diary/calendar – please refer to your personalised Study Plan
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SISFFIT016 P
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• Use knowledge of exercise behaviour change strategies to improve own instructional practice to improve exercise adherence of clients:
- Collect information from each client regarding attitude towards exercise:
Belief systems and values
Perceived barriers to exercise participation and adherence
- Implement behaviour change models
- Consider personal and situational factors
• Motivate clients during exercise programs using:
- Principles of goal setting
- Confidentiality of client information
- Contracting
- Prompts
- Reinforcement
- Progress charts
- Direction of effort
- Intensity of effort
- Persistence of behaviour
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• Personal and situational factors that may affect behaviour and/or exercise adherence:
- Family, cultural and social situation
- Habits
- Lifestyle
- Personality
- SMART goals
- Goal achievement strategies
- Perceived versus actual barriers
- Initial low fitness level
- Self-consciousness in client
• Methods of collecting information about client’s attitude towards exercise
• Scope of practice for a personal trainer.
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Standards established to assess you
As you will learn over the course of this cluster of units, to assess any performance requires that a
minimal standard or standards (or benchmark) be achieved. This is written into a Performance
Criterion.
A Performance Criterion will clearly state what is to be demonstrated for assessment to be
successful. The performance criteria for this cluster of units are set by the Australian
Qualifications Framework (AQF).
1. Consolidate understanding of behaviour change strategies.
1.1 Source and access information on motivation and behaviour change relevant to fitness outcomes.
1.2 Use knowledge of motivation and behaviour change in day-to-day professional practice.
1.3 Discuss/explain how understanding of motivation and behaviour change contribute to client commitment and confidence.
1.4 Use a wide range of motivation and behaviour change relevant to fitness outcomes.
2. Apply knowledge to own professional practice.
2.1 Assess ways in which knowledge of motivation and behaviour change may be used, adapted or challenged in instruction and provision of fitness advice.
2.2 Identify current and emerging knowledge of motivation and behaviour change relevant to development of own professional practice.
2.3 Modify approach to fitness programming activities and advice as required.
3. Maintain and update knowledge of motivation and behaviour change.
3.1 Identify and use opportunities to update and expand own knowledge of motivation and behaviour change.
3.2 Monitor response to changes made to own professional practice or instruction.
3.3 Continue to adjust own practice to optimise results.
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Learning Objectives
This unit describes the performance outcomes, skills, and knowledge required to analyse client
behaviour and motivate clients to commence and adhere to a long-term exercise plan.
This unit applies to those operating as exercise trainers in fitness environments, such as fitness
centres or gyms, or autonomously in the fitness or health industry.
During this unit, you will learn about:
• The benefits of regular and specific exercise
• Client barriers to exercise and adherence techniques
• Interpersonal factors and their effect on exercise adherence
• The behavioural stages of change and their influence on client adherence
• The benefits of correct communication
• The use of goal setting in adherence and motivation
• Motivation techniques to assist with clients’ adherence to exercise
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SECTION 1 – EXERCISE BENEFITS
Statistics about sport and physical activity in Australia show that just over half of Australians
perform sufficient exercise to gain health benefits. Exercising a few times every week offers a
range of health benefits.
any number of health benefits, including:
• Improvement of strength and balance
• Reduction in stress levels
• Better quality of sleep
• Decrease in body fat
• Improved daily performance and concentration
Fitness professionals can help educate clients on the potential benefits that they may experience
through completing regular physical activity. The role of the fitness professional is to help clients
achieve as many benefits from their training program as possible as well as achieving long-term
goals. Every goal will have a particular style or type of training that will ensure that clients
achieve what they wanted to.
There are two types of exercise that trainers use when developing programs:
Cardiovascular exercise
The most common type of exercise is cardiovascular exercise, also
called aerobic exercise, which utilises oxygen and helps burn fat.
This type of exercise has consistently been shown in numerous
studies to improve cardiovascular and respiratory health. As a
result, this type of exercise conditions the lungs to be able to use
more oxygen while increasing the heart’s efficiency by decreasing
heart rate.
utilisation of oxygen. Aerobic physical activity improves the heart,
lungs, and vascular system. It is recommended that the most
effective exercises for improving the cardiovascular system should
employ large muscle groups in activities that exceed 20 minutes.
1
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Resistance exercise
Resistance training, also called weight training or strength training, involves putting muscles
against a resistance such as a weight – for example, a dumbbell or barbell – or other type of
resistance to build the strength, anaerobic endurance, and/or size of skeletal muscles. A well-
rounded program of physical activity includes strength training to improve bone, joint function,
bone density, muscle, tendon, and ligament strength in addition to aerobic exercise for improving
heart and lung fitness.
Strength training aims to improve the efficiency of the muscular system by placing the muscles
under a load, i.e. weight. Doing this forces the muscle to strengthen, thereby improving a
person’s overall strength or ability to lift weight.
The benefits of strength training include:
• Increase in muscular size
• Increase in ligament and tendon strength
• Aiding in the correction of postural challenges
• Decrease in the chance of osteoporosis
• Slowing the effects of muscular atrophy
• Improved rehabilitation of an injury
SECTION 2 – EXERCISE FACTORS
Definition
Exercise adherence refers to the strength of an individual’s commitment to performing physical exercise and adhering to a training program.
Barriers
People with strong exercise adherence continue physical activity despite opportunities and
pressures to withdraw. However, many people cease programs within 6 to 8 weeks of starting
one.
•Increase in stroke volume
•Decrease in blood pressure
•Decrease in body fat
•Improvement of glucose metabolism
programming include:
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There are many different reasons why a person will not stay with a fitness program or a fitness
professional. Some of these reasons may be injury, social commitments, financial strain, loss of
focus, boredom, lack of results, and lack of support. Some of these factors are summarised in the
following table.
Reason Explanation
Boredom
If a client seems to be losing focus on their training or appears bored, it is vital that you find out the reasons why. If you do not, it will only be a matter of time before the client stops training altogether. To help reduce boredom, work with the client to re-establish their goals. Find out what it is that they would like to achieve through their training, and make the client believe that it is possible. You may wish to introduce a new type of training.
Energy Lack of energy is often cited as an excuse for not exercising. Although there will be days when your clients do not feel like exercising because they are too tired or lack energy, it is important to try to complete the exercise program or to do your workout at a lower intensity level. Explain to clients that exercise will often revitalise them and provide them with more energy.
Injury There is a possibility that a client who is training with you may encounter an injury that could prevent them from exercising. It is common that a person that suffers in this way could feel that training is impossible, too hard, or not worth continuing. Trainers should help clients realise that it could be possible and worthwhile for them to continue with their training whilst managing their injury.
Money At times, a client may go through a period of financial hardship and cut out exercise as a luxury expense. When you encounter this, look at ways to encourage your client to continue with their training. Remind clients how important their health and fitness is to them, and emphasise what the client has so far achieved. Demonstrate ways to find the money for an exercise program by, for example, cutting back on either takeaway food, buying lunch, or buying alcohol.
Time Time management is an important part of everyone’s life, and finding time to exercise is vital if an exercise program is to be adhered to. The most commonly used excuse is that a client does not have time to exercise. Explain to clients the importance of scheduling their workout time and allowing sufficient time before and after their workout for travel time, changing, and showering.
Adherence techniques
Providing support to your clients to overcome adherence barriers will assist with long-term goal
achievement. Following below are some techniques that you and/or your client can use to assist
with this:
• Identify SMARTER goals
• Choose appropriate facilities
• Obtain social support
• Implement individual trackers for self-monitoring, e.g. exercise logs, food diaries
• Monitor effects of exercise, e.g. benefits and side effects
• Ensure variety and enjoyment
• Establish a regular schedule
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Interpersonal factors
positive. The client-trainer relationship forms the
platform upon which the whole personal training
model is delivered. Poor communication and
interpersonal issues and the trainer’s agenda are
issues that might come together to form a non-
facilitative relationship.
Trainers are required to deal with a wide range of
people. It is imperative, therefore, that trainers be
able to adapt their training style to suit different clients. Two common features of difference to
the trainer that may be encountered are the client’s culture and age. The following are some tips
on what to be aware of when encountering these differences.
Individual barriers
physical activity because they are potential
mediators of people’s behavioural choices
regarding physical activity (Dishman, R.K.). There
is a range of personal factors that the personal
trainer needs to be aware of so that they can
increase participation in physical exercise. These
include people’s beliefs about the outcomes of
being physically active or inactive; the values they place on those outcomes; satisfaction with
their current status and physical activity goals; self-efficacy, i.e., confidence about being physically
active; and their ability to change their current level of physical activity (Justine, M., 2013).
The following are some factors and influence on exercise participation.
Factor Influence Factor Influence
Blue-collar occupation (e.g. trade based occupations)
Negative Injury history Unclear
Gender (male) Positive Pregnancy and early child rearing Negative
High risk of heart disease Negative
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Different cultures have different opinions on what
is considered healthy. For example, in Western
cultures, it is considered that if a person is thin or
slim, they are likely to be healthy. In many other
cultures, the popular view may be completely
different to this.
training. It may be necessary for you to deliver a
more subdued session for such clients rather than
a military-style boot camp session. Such a session would also include the type of music that you
play when training your client regularly; it may not be appropriate to have loud and fast music
playing.
Age
People of different ages prefer different types of music. As a personal trainer, you must know the
average age of the clients you train and the groups you instruct and choose your music
accordingly. The reasons for this could relate to the speed of the music as well as the type of
language used therein. For example, some age groups may struggle to keep up with fast music;
conversely, you could have groups that find the pace a little slow for their liking. Likewise, when
dealing with certain clients, you may have to vary the formality or familiarity of your language.
In summary, when taking cultural, social, and age differences into account, professional trainers
may need to:
Better Health Channel - Physical activity: overcoming the barriers
•Change how they greet and communicate with clients
•Vary the type of language used
•Vary the type of clothing worn to suit the client’s culture
•Be aware of appropriate body language
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Behavioural stages of change
If clients want something to change within themselves, they have to be prepared to change
something. This behavioural change is not easily accomplished in one step; it often involves going
through different stages at one’s own pace.
The Five Stages of Change model is a useful
framework that describes the series of stages
we go through to change our lifestyle habits.
The critical assumption that underpins this
model is that behavioural changes do not
happen in one step but rather through a
series of distinct, predicable stages.
Understanding and realising the stage of
change you are in may be helpful for you to
succeed.
It is important that strategies be put into
place to prevent lapses or relapses. A lapse
is a temporary return to old behaviours and
habits whereas a relapse is a permanent return to old behaviours.
Prevention strategies include:
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The following is an outline of the stages of behavioural change
Stages of Change
Description
Pre-contemplation Involves a person having no intention of beginning a fitness program or even considering what is required to begin. They may wish for a healthier lifestyle or want to look and feel better but have not seriously considered what is required to achieve this.
Contemplation Involves a person seriously considering making changes in order to begin a fitness program. At this stage, a person may have identified what it is they would like to achieve and begin considering what is required for them to do so. No commitment has been given to beginning a fitness program.
Preparation Involves the person making some changes to allow them to begin a fitness program. This could include finding out what times the gym is open and seeing what services are available to them that will fit into their lifestyle. At this stage, the best way to encourage them to make this decision is to tell the person that they are making the right choice in commencing a fitness program with you. You may be able to assist the person by providing information via brochures or websites, for example.
Action Involves the person taking action and commencing a fitness program. The person has found a gym that fits into their lifestyle and is working out regularly in order to achieve their goals. At this stage, it is imperative that you be positive with your comments to the person about their training. Remind them of their goals, and make positive comments on their appearance or energy levels when you start to notice such changes.
Maintenance Involves keeping the person focused on their training and attempting to avoid any relapse into a lifestyle where they are not exercising. You may wish to sit down regularly with the person and discuss their goals with them. Over time, their goals may change or will have to be revisited as they are achieved. You may carry out regular testing and review the results with the person. Allowing the person to see their progress towards their goals on a regular basis will keep them motivated.
Video
Stages of Behaviour Change (09:21min)
Communication
self-awareness. Understanding your personal style
of communication will go a long way towards
helping you create good and lasting impressions
on others and good relationships with clients.
By becoming more aware of how others perceive
you, you can adapt more readily to their styles of
communication. As a fitness instructor, it is vital
that you be capable of communicating with your
clients by employing both verbal and non-verbal
techniques.
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Verbal
Definition
Verbal communication is the process of communication through words and the tone with which that the message is delivered.
There are several important verbal components to consider when communicating:
• Active listening is important for a fitness instructor. It is imperative that you not only listen to what the client is saying but also understand what is being said.
• Speaking clearly is vital for a fitness instructor. Whether you are communicating to a group of clients or chatting one on one with a person, the other party must be able to understand every word that you say.
• Effective use of questioning. Fitness instructors must be able to use questioning effectively.
• Be courteous. This means that you allow the client to finish speaking before you speak.
• Showing respect to your client is important. This may be by choosing the correct words and tone to use based on your client’s age, sex, or other factors. Similarly, it may be by respecting cultural differences that could exist between you both.
Non-verbal
Definition
Non-verbal communication is the process of communication via sending and receiving wordless, mostly visual, messages. These messages can be communicated through gestures and touch, body language, posture, facial expression, and eye contact.
There are several important non-verbal components to consider when communicating.
• Open body language is important when talking to a client. By keeping yourself open, e.g. no crossed arms or legs, you will help make your client feel more comfortable and more open to talking with you.
• Facial expressions must match the verbal messages you are delivering your client. As most facial expressions occur beyond your conscious control, this is something that you must be very aware of when communicating with clients.
• Eye contact is important when communicating with any person. This will show that you are paying attention to them and are interested in what is being said.
• Tone of speech is vital to showing a client that you are interested in them.
• Volume of speech is important when communicating. Talking too loudly could be seen as being aggressive whereas talking too quietly could be distracting to your client as they are left trying to hear you rather than listening to what you are saying.
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SECTION 1 – GOAL SETTING
Definition
A goal is a specific level of performance or proficiency that you want to achieve. Goal setting enables behavioural change to be broken down into small, manageable steps allowing achievement and motivation.
When a client begins a training program, it is
imperative that you get them to set goals
that they would like to achieve. You should
do this by utilising your communication skills
in order to gain the trust of your client so that
they feel comfortable sharing their goals with
you. Remember that every person who
begins a training program has done so for a
reason. It is up to you to find out why.
Having a goal serves at least three purposes:
1.
•It will motivate the client to gain and develop new skills and knowledge in order to improve their performance.
2. •It will keep the client focused on what it is they are doing and why they are doing it.
3. •It allows the client to keep motivated by focusing on internal (intrinsic) motivation.
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One of the challenges for fitness professionals and clients is making the necessary lifestyle
changes in order to adhere to a training program. Making lifestyle changes can be challenging,
and many people find that having a goal in mind gives them something to work towards,
motivates them to stay on track, and provides a measure of how well they are doing throughout
the training program.
• Increase motivation
• Prevent boredom
• Develop a performance ethos of always striving to do their best
SMART Goals
There is a simple process to follow when setting goals
with a client: the SMART process. The SMART process
comprises of five simple steps that, when used, will
make goal setting not only easy but also fun.
Specific
A specific goal has a much greater chance of being
accomplished than a general goal. To set a specific
goal, make sure you include details of who, what, why,
where, when, and which (or how).
Measurable
toward the completion of each goal you set. This could
be in terms of distance, weight, time, height, etc.
Achievable
or other realistic measures – for it to be attainable and
achievable. If the example goal were to run 10km twice
daily every day for a week, this would not be very
realistic, for example. Ensuring that goals are within the client’s limits and capabilities means that
the client will remain motivated to succeed in achieving them.
Relevant
Is the goal important to your client and important to what they ultimately want to achieve?
For example, if a short-term goal is not relevant to helping achieve a final long-term goal, the
result may be lack of motivation and direction, and the client might not be likely to succeed.
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Timely
A timeframe is a necessity with any goal as it gives
clients a deadline and motivation to keep moving
forward according to milestones. In addition to goals
being measurable via other means, they must always be
time based or time bound with a completion date.
Video
• SMART Goal Setting (13:33min)
Tip
Goal setting is like a road map. The big picture goal is the destination, the short-term goals are the pit stops along the way, and the action goals are what you do to get to the pit stops.
Most people have a destination in mind when they go for a drive, and as an athlete, you need to know where you are headed.
Source: AIS: Goal Setting
Types of Goals
Clients’ goals may not only focus around physical outcomes. Rather, they may be psychological,
physiological, or social goals.
Psychological goals
Psychological goals are those that strive to better a client’s mental health or satisfy a mental
need.
Example goal: To decrease stress, improve general mood, or decrease symptoms of depression
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Physiological goals
Physiological goals are physical and are usually the ones that
first come to mind when goal setting in terms of a client’s fitness
and health. These goals include aspects of muscular strength
and endurance, cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, co-ordination,
power and speed, etc.
Social goals are most evident when sport or recreation involves
a group of others. This could be a scenario such as indoor group
fitness, boot camps, competitive sport, social sports teams, or
simply having a running partner or gym buddy.
Sport-specific goals
Sport-specific goals are those that aim to improve sporting
performance or skills. These goals will greatly vary depending
on the sport in which your client is involved and also the level at
which they compete, perform, or play.
Example goal: Increase 1RM on the bench press
Run continuously for 45 minutes
Example goal: Work more effectively in a team environment
Meet new people and make new friends
Example goal: Increase weightlifting personal best
Improve golf swing technique
Decrease 200m freestyle time
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Better Health Channel: Physical activity – setting yourself goals
Definition
Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. It is what causes us to take action. The forces that lie beneath motivation can be biological, social, emotional, or cognitive in nature. There are three components to motivation to enable effective assessment of progress. These include, the direction of effort, intensity of effort, and the persistence of behaviour. The direction of effort is relating to what the person is aiming to achieve. The intensity of effort is how much effort the individual is exerting towards the desired outcome. And lastly the persistence of behaviour is a description of the amount of persistence towards the attainment of this outcome.
Goal setting
•You and your client should develop two or three short-term goals and one or two long- term goals when beginning a program.
•Use a goal-setting worksheet.
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Motivational techniques that fitness professionals may find useful are described with examples as
follows.
Technique Explanation
Imagery This method involves the use of imagery to provide inspiration and motivation to achieve a goal. For example, during a cycle class, have the clients visualise themselves climbing a hill and crossing the line first in order to have them increase and maintain their pace.
Personal reward system
A great way of motivating clients is to get them to set specific rewards once certain goals have been met. This could be something internal or external. It should be pleasurable, thereby increasing motivation to reach their goal. An example might be a new pair of jeans a size smaller than their last or a relaxing massage.
Relaxation This technique is best used at the end of a session. It allows the clients to relax in order to minimise the muscular stress caused by anxiety during the session. It could be helpful to have the clients focus on their breathing techniques or conduct slow stretching during a recovery session.
Self-talk This method involves having the clients focus on the positive aspects of the task or breaking the task down into smaller stages. This is a useful technique to use in a group exercise class to music.
Vicarious experience
This method involves making comparisons with someone who has achieved success by doing the same task or following the same program as the client.
Introduction to motivational psychology
Definition
• Motivation is a term that refers to a process that elicits, controls, and sustains certain behaviours.
• Motivation is a group of phenomena that affect the nature of an individual’s behaviour, the strength of that behaviour, and the persistence of that behaviour.
• Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, enjoyment that exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic motivation is based on taking pleasure in an activity rather than working towards an external reward.
• Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, one that then contradicts intrinsic motivation. An example may be a gym member who exercises to obtain a beach body. The primary goal is to lose weight and reduce inches. You find little to no pleasure in working out.
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Each of these different perspectives have been explained as follows:
• Psychodynamic perspective – Freud’s perspective was that motivation has a biological basis. He believed that there are two central drivers that promote motivation, those drivers’ being sex and aggression. The sex drive is inclusive of love, lust, and intimacy whereas aggression includes blatantly aggressive or sadistic impulses as well as desires to control other people and the environment (Burton, 2015, p. 367). There is now however a move away from Freud’s original view point of sex and aggression and towards two new concepts for motivation, those being wishes and fears. Freud further demonstrated the unconscious aspects of motivation. Unconscious motivation has now been proven, with people being able to self-report unconscious and conscious motives.
• Behaviourist perspective – This perspective explains that humans are motivated to produce behaviours that are rewarded by the environment and to avoid behaviours that are punished (Burton, 2015, p. 369). The drive-reduction theories that are based on the concept of homeostasis, an innate ability the body has to maintain a steady balance or equilibrium. For example, as a biological need occurs, i.e. for water or food, the body needs to give rise to a drive – or an internal state of tension. The organism is then motivated to satisfy the need. The behaviour is then modified to achieve this goal and subsequently the drive is reduced, once the need has been satisfied the balance will be restored to normal. The primary drives to stimulate this homeostatic process are:
• Cognitive – This perspective places an alternative view point on motivation. The theory of expectancy-value has been proposed. This theory combines motivation with the value that individuals place on an outcome and the extent to which they believe that they can achieve it. In addition, goal setting theories also sit under the cognitive approach to motivation and often focus on goals, which is defined as the desired outcome established through social learning. The self-determination theory shows that people have innate needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness and, when these needs are met, intrinsic motivation.
• Humanistic – This perspective provides an alternative approach to motivation, which was advanced by Abraham Maslow (1962, 1970). Humanistic psychologist emphasised that dignity, individual choice, and self-worth all play a key role in human behaviour. The humanistic approach used a hierarchy of needs and indicates that low-level needs, such as basic survival, must be achieved before higher-level needs can guide a person’s behaviour. At the highest level of needs is self-actualisation, which are motives to express oneself and grow or to actually achieve one’s potential (Burton, 2015, p. 373).
1.
What people want to do (the goal they want to achieve) and
2.
How strongly they want to do it (Burton, 2015, p. 367).
Hunger Thirst Sex
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Arousal Techniques
It is important for fitness instructors to realise that arousal can affect levels of performance in
different ways. There are four types of theories that attempt to explain how stress can affect
performance. In order to get the most out of your clients, you may wish to consider some of
these when planning a group session. The four theories are summarised in the following table.
Theory Explanation
Catastrophic model theory
Suggests that if a person’s anxiety levels remain low, their performance will be optimum at their medium level of arousal. A rise in anxiety levels would have a negative effect on performance.
Drive theory States that the more aroused a person is, the better their performance will be. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the person returns to a state of homeostasis and relaxation.
Individual zones of optimal functioning theory
Takes into account that different people have different optimal levels of arousal.
Inverted “U” Hypothesis A hypothesis applied to sport, stating that performance improves as arousal levels increase to an optimum point, beyond which it deteriorates. In practice, this means that a little excitement and stress associated with competition or performing in public can have a positive effect, but a situation that is too stressful is detrimental.
There are a number of different techniques that can be used to control or optimise arousal.
These are:
Anxiety management Anxiety is best managed through the guidance of a professional such as a psychologist. Some techniques that may be used include cognitive behaviour therapy, controlled breathing, progressive muscles relaxation, and positive self-talk.
Progressive relaxation Progressive relaxation is the act of consciously and progressively relaxing each part of the body. By progressively relaxing the muscles in the body you can relieve the muscular tension in the body and reduce feelings of stress and anxiety.
Stress management Stress management is most effective when undertaken with the guidance of a professional such as a psychologist. Some techniques for managing stress are to identify the sources of the stress, avoid stress inducing situations, time management techniques, exercise, following a healthy lifestyle.
Visualisation This method involves the person forming a mental image of something. This will commonly involve the person visualising themselves performing their desired behaviours to meet their goal. Through this process the person may change their level of arousal and overcome perceived barriers.
Self-talk This method involves having the client focus on the positive aspects of the task and creating a positive internal narrative to encourage oneself. It may be as simple as having positive thoughts about one’s self or performance or it may involve talking oneself through the process of performing a task.
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Strategies to promote exercise behaviour change for the fitness professional
There are a range of strategies that Fitness Professionals can use to promote behaviour change
and to increase client commitment and exercise adherence. The table below describes commonly
used strategies.
Explanation
Contracting Contracting takes place between the fitness professional and the client. The program and the training expectations are defined and agreed upon by both parties. This process increases accountability as the client’s role and responsibilities has been clearly defined.
Prompts Prompts are general reminders that can be given to the client to help them to stay on task. Prompts are usually used in the initial stages of behaviour change with the view to fade the prompts progressively.
Reinforcement A trainer can provide positive reinforcement to a client to encourage a repeat of a desired behaviour. The reinforcement could be as simple as praise or a thumbs up that encourages the client. This reinforces this behaviour and encourages the client to repeat this desired behaviour.
Perceived choice To promote behaviour change and exercise adherence a client must feel in control of their own choices. When planning an exercise program it is important to involve the client to ensure that they have input into the process and perceive that they have chosen or agreed to the program that was set out.
Feedback Feedback is a powerful tool that can increase exercise adherence. When a client receives positive feedback on their performance it can be used as reinforcement of their behaviour and can help improve self-esteem and self-worth. Negative feedback can also be given but must be carefully delivered so that it is not demotivating or demoralising for the client. However, the client may appreciate negative feedback when it is given constructively. For example, you may correct a client’s technique for an exercise that was not being performed correctly. The client may appreciate this feedback as it will allow them to perform the exercise correctly in the future which will assist them to attain their goals.
Rewards A reward is something tangible that can be given in recognition of someone’s performance or achievement. For example a client may love boxing. As a reward for achieving a training milestone you may offer to run a boxing training session with the client on the next session in place of the usual session program.
Self-monitoring Self-monitoring is the process of monitoring one’s own performance and progress. Clients can self-monitor their progress by keeping track of their training. This may be done through the use of a training diary in which the client can keep track of their progress towards their goals.
Social Support Behaviour change can be encouraged through social support. A social support network is commonly made up of family and friends. This network of people are there to provide support and encouragement towards the attainment of a goals or towards behaviour change.
Decision Balance sheet
A decision balance sheet is a pros and cons list of a choice of the options available. By analysing the pros and cons list it is much easier for an individual to make an informed decision on the best option to take. This can aid in exercise adherence by the client weighing out the options and being fully aware of the consequences or benefits of each option.
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Explanation
Physical setting It is important not to underestimate the influence that the physical setting has on one’s motivation for behaviour change. It is very easy to engage in a home exercise program but this setting is often not motivating for many clients. By attending a preferred setting such as a gym that has motivating music, social engagement opportunities and an uplifting atmosphere one’s adherence is improved.
Exercise variety For motivation and exercise adherence to be optimal variety is necessary. The provision of a variety of exercises, classes, equipment or locations can aid in the long term adherence to behaviour change without boredom.
Personalised program to minimise discomfort and promote enjoyment
Programs that are personalised to a client are the most optimal to the clients exercise adherence. If the program is written to suit their physical needs, likes and dislikes then there will be a decreased likelihood of a relapse.
Group training Training with others in a group can benefit exercise adherence in several ways. Other participants and the instructor of the group can form part of one’s social support network. It can also be beneficial for some clients to have set time to attend the gym for a class. Accountability is also increased when a client is aware that their absence from a class may be noticed and thus are more likely to stick to their schedule.
Health assessment and progress charts
Health assessments can yield quantitative data on a client’s current health and fitness. This can be used to benchmark where a client’s currently at and also used to gauge improvements through reassessments in the future. The results from fitness assessments can be recorded on progress charts which are a summary of results.
Stress, anxiety, and theories of motivation linked to fitness performance
Stress refers to the challenge a person has to adapt to
as posed by inner and outer demands. It is the most
common researched topic in health psychology due to
its impact on health outcomes. Overall stressful
experiences typically result in physiological and
emotional responses that produce cognitive and
behaviour changes to accommodate and cope with
the stress.
physiological and psychological aspects. Walter Canon describes the fight or flight response to
danger that occurs in an organisms. This mechanism results in the activation of the sympathetic
nervous system and a subsequent spike in adrenalin, thereby causing an increase in blood
pressure, heart rate, and respiration. If the danger does not disappear, then the organism
remains in this state of fight or flight. This subsequently results in deterioration in health as the
body tries to keep up with the demands of this response. Canon’s research identified a pattern
that he termed the general adaptation syndrome, which consists of three phases. They are
explained in the following table.
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Alarm phase:
This phase is mediated by activation of the sympathetic nervous system causing release of two hormones derived from the adrenal glands, adrenaline and noradrenaline. These hormones allow the body to survive during extreme circumstances by redirecting its function. For example, oxygen consumption, glucose, respiratory rate, and the flow of circulation are directed to the central organs (heart, brain, and adrenals) whereas digestion and other functions, which are considered less important, have reduced input of blood supply and nervous system activity. The response of cortisol is slower and longer acting and functions primarily to provide additional glucose from fat and protein breakdown, it increases the pain response, and reduces inflammatory responses. This allows the body to handle a range of extreme circumstances, including physical activity, infections, and emotional crises.
Resistance phase:
Once the stress has gone, the alarm phase generally restores to normal and the individual returns to a state of equilibrium. However, if the stress is prolonged or severe, then the equilibrium state will not be returned and exhaustion is the likely outcome.
Exhaustion phase:
As the stress continues and homeostasis cannot be achieved, then deleterious health outcomes generally occur. Prolonged stress can lead to hypertension, diabetes, cancer, and endometriosis. It is important to remember that, to a large extent, it is the individual’s perception and response to stress that determines the degree of impact it has on our health.
One thing that might not be stressful for one person may be very stressful for someone else. Stress management techniques can be an invaluable part of treatment, and with the many alterations in hormonal function and a range of mind body exercise, they can also be very beneficial in addressing long term stress.
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Anxiety
Anxiety, like sadness, is a normal response. The anxiety response is thought to be a very primitive
response in mammals, and many of the symptoms are exaggerations of underlying process’s that
prepare the animal for fight or flight (Burton, 2015, p. 628). Anxiety disorders are recognised
clinically as the following:
• Generalised anxiety disorder – An ongoing state of excessive anxiety lacking any clear reason or focus.
• Social anxiety disorder – Fear of being with and interacting with other people.
• Panic disorder – Sudden attacks of overwhelming fear occur in association with marked somatic symptoms, such as sweating, tachycardia, chest pains, trembling and choking. Such attacks can be induced even in normal individuals by the infusion of sodium lactate, and the condition appears to have a genetic component.
• Phobias – Strong fears of specific objects or situations, e.g. snakes, open spaces, flying.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder – Anxiety triggered by recall of past stressful experiences.
• Obsessive compulsive disorder – Compulsive ritualistic behaviour driven by irrational anxiety, e.g. fear of contamination.
(Rang, H.F., 2012, p. 531).
The exact reason people develop anxiety disorders is not completely understood, but the main
connecting factors are fear and worry, the neurobiology of which has had much research. The
main controller of fear in the brain is the amygdala, a small almond-shaped region on the base of
the brain. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, which plays an important role in emotional
control. It has connections to the thalamus, hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex, and other regions
of the brain that are involved in complex behaviours, known as the executive functions, such as
social control and personality.
In general anxiety disorders, patients show an increase in cerebral metabolic activity, which is
thought to lead to increased neural activity and thus to an anxious feeling. Along with the
amygdala’s connections with the locus coeruleus, emotions of fear and an autonomic response
are generated, e.g. heart rate increase and rapid breathing. In a stress response, the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) is also activated though interactions with the
hypothalamus caused by the release of neurohormones, like cortisol, adrenaline and
noradrenaline.
•Increased blood pressure
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generated through different functional centres of the brain connecting in feedback loops known
as the cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical circuits. These circuits are instrumental in impulsivity and
compulsivity behaviours. The caudate is involved in learning and memory whereas the orbital
frontal cortex controls decision-making. It is through the actions of these circuits that the fear
response is processed.
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Burton, Westen, and Kowalski. (2015). Psychology Australian and New Zealand Edition. 3rd Ed,
Wiley.
Dishman, R.K., Heath, G.W., and Lee, I.M. (2013). Physical Activity Epidemiology. 2nd Ed, Human
Kinetcis.
Justine, M., Azizan, A., Hassan, V., Selleh, Z., and Manaf, H. (2013). Barriers to participation in
physical activity and exercise among middle-aged and elderly individuals. Singapore Med J 54
(10): 50=81-586.

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