Movement-AwareApplications forSustainable Mobility:Technologies and Approaches

Monica WachowiczWageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands

Hershey • New YorkInformatIon scIence reference

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xv

Preface ...............................................................................................................................................xvii

Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ xix

Section 1State-of-the-Art in Tracking and Sensing

Chapter 1Data Collection on Personal Movement using Mobile ICTs: Old Wine in New Bottles? ...................... 1

Martin Lee-Gosselin, Université Laval, CanadaSean T. Doherty, Wilfrid Laurier University, CanadaAmer Shalaby, University of Toronto, Canada

Chapter 2Challenges of Sensor Discovery ........................................................................................................... 15

Simon Jirka, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Germany

Chapter 3Ubiquitous Travel Environments and Travel Control Strategies: Prospects and Challenges ............... 30

Caspar Chorus, Delft University of Technology, The NetherlandsHarry Timmermans, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands

Chapter 4Setting the Stage for the Integration of Demand Responsive Transport and Location-Based Services ................................................................................................................ 52

Frank van der Hoeven, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

Table of Contents

Section 2Exploring New Methods on the Analysis of Movement Behaviour

Chapter 5Developing an Interactions Ontology for Characterising Pedestrian Movement Behaviour ............... 62

Daniel Orellana, Wageningen University, The NetherlandsChiara Renso, KDD Lab – ISTI - CNR, Italy

Chapter 6GUESS: On the Prediction of Mobile Users’ Movement in Space....................................................... 87

Maribel Yasmina Santos, University of Minho, PortugalAdriano Moreira, University of Minho, Portugal

Chapter 7Revealing Taxi Driver’s Mobility Intelligence through His Trace ..................................................... 105

Liang Liu, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USAClio Andris, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USAAssaf Biderman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USACarlo Ratti, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Chapter 8Archiving Nature’s Heartbeat Using Smartphones ............................................................................. 121

Jinglan Zhang, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaPaul Roe, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaBinh Pham, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaRichard Mason, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaMichael Towsey, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaJiro Sumitomo, Queensland University of Technology, Australia

Section 3Privacy Issues and New Perspectives on Movement-Aware Services

Chapter 9Law and Technology: Anonymity and Right to Anonymity in a Connected World ........................... 140

Giusella Finocchiaro, University of Bologna, ItalyClaire Vishik, Intel Corporation, UK

Chapter 10Show Me My Way: The Use of Human Spatio-Temporal Behaviour Patterns for DevelopingUbiquitous Wayfinding Systems ......................................................................................................... 157

Alexandra Millonig, Vienna University of Technology & Austrian Institute of Technology, AustriaGeorg Gartner, Austrian Institute of Technology, Austria

Chapter 11FriendFreight: Leveraging Real-Time Location Information for a Sustainable Community-Based Goods Delivery Service ....................................................................................... 175

Christine Outram, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USAFrancesco Calabrese, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Chapter 12Attribute Hierarchies to Tally Fish ...................................................................................................... 195

Andreas Mitrakas, European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA)

Section 4Selected Readings

Chapter 13Video-Based Motion Capture for Measuring Human Movement ....................................................... 209

Chee Kwang Quah, Republic Polytechnic, SingaporeMichael Koh, Republic Polytechnic, SingaporeAlex Ong, Republic Polytechnic, SingaporeHock Soon Seah, Nanyang Technological University, SingaporeAndre Gagalowicz, INRIA, Le Chesnay, France

Chapter 14Navigating a Speckled World: Interacting with Wireless Sensor Networks ....................................... 229

Matthew Leach, Napier University, UKDavid Benyon, Napier University, UK

Chapter 15Modelling Pedestrian Movement to Measure On-Street Crime Risk ................................................. 243

Spencer Chainey, UCL Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science, UKJake Desyllas, Intelligent Space Partnership, UK

Chapter 16A Framework for Data Warehousing and Mining in Sensor Stream Application Domains ............... 264

Nan Jiang, Cedarville University, USA

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 280

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 308

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 314

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xv

Preface ...............................................................................................................................................xvii

Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ xix

Section 1State-of-the-Art in Tracking and Sensing

Chapter 1Data Collection on Personal Movement using Mobile ICTs: Old Wine in New Bottles? ...................... 1

Martin Lee-Gosselin, Université Laval, CanadaSean T. Doherty, Wilfrid Laurier University, CanadaAmer Shalaby, University of Toronto, Canada

This chapter examines the current status of data collection methods employing location/time-aware devices to observe evolving patterns of spatio-temporal behaviour, including patterns that are affected by ICTs. Drawing mostly on transport research, it is suggested that two streams of development have emerged: a “passive” stream that maximises the automatic interpretation of positioning data, and an “active” stream, that is using increasingly sophisticated mobile computing devices and/or the Internet to engage respondents in the validation, interpretation and enhancement of their own data. Recent and future developments are described that promise to go beyond simply using technologies to carry out conventional travel surveys: rather, some new classes of data may be obtained, notably because of com-mon or overlapping interests with other fields, such as public health research. There are, however, some ethical and public acceptability constraints that must be respected.

Chapter 2Challenges of Sensor Discovery ........................................................................................................... 15

Simon Jirka, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Germany

This chapter addresses the challenges of sensor discovery on the background of the Sensor Web En-ablement architecture of the Open Geospatial Consortium. In the first part of the chapter two kinds of sensor discovery are introduced: sensor instance discovery and sensor service discovery. After this, four

Detailed Table of Contents

key challenges are presented: the dynamic structure of sensor networks, the integration of sensor status information, the semantics of the observed phenomena and sensor metadata models as well as metadata harvesting mechanisms. Additionally, a practical solution for sensor discovery is introduced. This solu-tion is integrated into the Sensor Web Enablement architecture and aims at addressing the challenges of sensor discovery.

Chapter 3Ubiquitous Travel Environments and Travel Control Strategies: Prospects and Challenges ............... 30

Caspar Chorus, Delft University of Technology, The NetherlandsHarry Timmermans, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands

In the near future, ubiquitous travel environments in which travelers have direct access to information and communication technology will become widely available. In principle, it will allow various orga-nizations and companies not only to provide real-time dynamic information but also to induce travelers to behave in ways that contribute with some underlying personal or system-wide objective (e.g. avoid risk, environmental concerns etc). The latter application assumes a sufficiently valid and reliable model of traveler response to information provision or recommendation. As these two fields have mainly de-veloped in isolation, the purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the state of the art of these two fields.

Chapter 4Setting the Stage for the Integration of Demand Responsive Transport and Location-Based Services ................................................................................................................ 52

Frank van der Hoeven, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

Demand responsive transport systems such as paratransit could deliver services that collective transport simply cannot provide. Location-based services may be capable of bridging the divide between trans-port services without fixed routes, stops or schedules and their potential users. This chapter outlines how the integration of demand responsive transport and location-based services may help to deliver a flexible transport system that is sensitive to the needs of individual users in urban and rural areas. Such a system would have the potential to liberate urbanism from the need to orient spatial development on rigid transit lines.

Section 2Exploring New Methods on the Analysis of Movement Behaviour

Chapter 5Developing an Interactions Ontology for Characterising Pedestrian Movement Behaviour ............... 62

Daniel Orellana, Wageningen University, The NetherlandsChiara Renso, KDD Lab – ISTI - CNR, Italy

Since the introduction of Time Geography, the literature has witness a growing interest in representing and understanding human movement and its relationship with the environment. Although recent tech-

nology in personal tracking devices brought new potentialities in collecting and representing individual movements, methods to deal with the complexity and dynamism of collective movements are still lack-ing. This chapter introduces a spatial knowledge representation for the conceptualisation of pedestrian movement as a complex system based on the interactions. Movement interactions are defined and clas-sified to represented global characteristics of the movement as emergent properties other than as a set of individual properties. The devised approach is exemplified through a case study on characterizing visitor behaviour in the Dwingelderveld National Park in The Netherlands.

Chapter 6GUESS: On the Prediction of Mobile Users’ Movement in Space....................................................... 87

Maribel Yasmina Santos, University of Minho, PortugalAdriano Moreira, University of Minho, Portugal

The increasing availability of mobile networks and devices motivate the development of new paradigms of interaction between users, and between a user and the surrounding environment. When the position of a user is known, location-aware applications can adapt their behaviour accordingly to that position. This usual behaviour of location-aware applications can be enhanced in order to turn these applications pro-active, providing services that can be helpful to the user before he/she asks for them. For this kind of behaviour, location-aware applications need to anticipate the user’s position, predicting where the user is going to be in the future. This chapter discusses the prediction of movement in space by look-ing at the topological constraints existing in the geographical space in which the user is moving. The obtained results show that the topological distance can be used as an alternative or as a complement to the geometrical distance normally used in map-matching techniques.

Chapter 7Revealing Taxi Driver’s Mobility Intelligence through His Trace ..................................................... 105

Liang Liu, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USAClio Andris, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USAAssaf Biderman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USACarlo Ratti, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

This study develops a methodology for the analysis of taxi drivers’ operation behavior in a real urban environment. The research objective is to spatially and temporally quantify, visualize, and examine taxi drivers’ operation behavior and skill (as measured by income), which we call ‘mobility intelligence’. Drivers were categorized into top driver and ordinary driver by their daily income. For the first time, many taxi drivers’ different operation strategies were systematically analyzed through their daily ac-tivity traces. Routes and economic behavior data were collected with the use of Global Positioning System (GPS) and a set of spatiotemporal analysis tools were developed. The 3D clustering technique is adopted to qualitatively analyze the spatiotemporal patterns for top driver and ordinary driver. Also, fractal analysis was employed for quantifying tortuosity of movement paths and exploring how top and ordinary drivers operate on different spatial scales, where the primary focus is to reveal top driver mobility intelligence.

Chapter 8Archiving Nature’s Heartbeat Using Smartphones ............................................................................. 121

Jinglan Zhang, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaPaul Roe, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaBinh Pham, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaRichard Mason, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaMichael Towsey, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaJiro Sumitomo, Queensland University of Technology, Australia

The impact of urban development and climate change has created the impetus to monitor changes in the environment, particularly, the behaviour, habitat and movement of fauna species. The aim of this chapter is to present the design and development of a sensor network based on Smartphones to automati-cally collect and analyse acoustic and visual data for environmental monitoring purposes. Due to the communication and sophisticated programming facilities offered by Smartphones, software tools can be developed to allow data to be collected, partially processed and sent to a remote server over the network for storage and further processing. This sensor network which employs a client-server architecture has been deployed in three applications: monitoring a rare bird species near Brisbane Airport, study of koalas behaviour at St Bees Island, and detection of fruit flies. The users of this system include scientists (e.g. ecologists, ornithologists, computer scientists) and community groups participating in data collection or reporting on the environment (e.g. students, bird watchers). The chapter focuses on the following aspects of our research: issues involved in using Smartphones as sensors; the overall framework for data acquisition, data quality control, data management and analysis; current and future applications of the Smartphone-based sensor network, and our future research directions.

Section 3Privacy Issues and New Perspectives on Movement-Aware Services

Chapter 9Law and Technology: Anonymity and Right to Anonymity in a Connected World ........................... 140

Giusella Finocchiaro, University of Bologna, ItalyClaire Vishik, Intel Corporation, UK

In this chapter the authors analyze the concept and definitions of anonymity in the modern connected world. In particular, they explore if modern technology renders complete anonymity impossible and if a new definition of anonymity needs to be adopted. They examine examples of anonymous use of technol-ogy that illustrate the complexity of the concept of anonymity and demonstrate that access to anonymity is not uniform for data owners with regard to multiple data controllers and audiences in complex systems and processes. They evaluate legal definitions of “anonymity” and “anonymous data” as well as the right to anonymity provided in the European directives and by some European statutes, observing that anonymity cannot be absolute, that only “relative” anonymity is realistic in the present technological environment, and that different degrees of anonymity exist. The authors address the issue of measuring these degrees or levels of anonymity in complex systems, in order to provide a new foundation for a

nuanced and comprehensive understanding of anonymity. They conclude that the concept of relative anonymity can become the basis for a new and more effective approach to personal data protection.

Chapter 10Show Me My Way: The Use of Human Spatio-Temporal Behaviour Patterns for DevelopingUbiquitous Wayfinding Systems ......................................................................................................... 157

Alexandra Millonig, Vienna University of Technology & Austrian Institute of Technology, AustriaGeorg Gartner, Austrian Institute of Technology, Austria

The growing amount of ubiquitously available location based information offers great chances for the development of mobile pedestrian navigation services. Yet, providing spot-on real-time adequate infor-mation remains challenging, as relevant information needs to be filtered and group-related behaviour patterns and preferences are still insufficiently known. In this chapter, the authors focus on two aspects. Firstly, they consider the issue of how to comprehensively investigate human spatio-temporal behav-iour patterns in order to enable the provision of customised navigation information, and secondly, they discuss potential impacts of ubiquitous wayfinding systems on human perception of space and possible resulting navigation behaviour modifications.

Chapter 11FriendFreight: Leveraging Real-Time Location Information for a Sustainable Community-Based Goods Delivery Service ....................................................................................... 175

Christine Outram, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USAFrancesco Calabrese, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

The relatively new ability to rapidly transfer digital information to people as they move through cities opens up exciting possibilities for services that alleviate some of the issues that dense urban centers face. This chapter examines the potential for one such service – named FriendFreight – to reduce some of the negative effects of goods transportation in cities. FriendFreight operates through exploiting the real-time location information of people and goods and the ability for members of a community to deliver items for others while moving through the city themselves. It aims to lower the number of ‘unnecessary trips’ that people make to obtain some small goods - groceries, books, documents and dry-cleaning - and reduce what the authors define as travel demand in the city. However, the success of such a service relies not only on accessing real time location information but also on an understanding of how and why people might deliver goods for each other. Thus, this chapter explores two things: how incentives, trust and reciprocity can be built in services that harness digital information; and how the feasibility of a service like FriendFreight can be established given a particular real world context - Copenhagen and bicycles. Through this, the authors show that access to real-time location and movement information can open up innovative ways of tackling problems in cities from the ‘bottom-up’ but that essential to this is the nurturing of trust between users of the service. They also demonstrate that it is possible to achieve a significant reduction in travel demand through using FriendFreight for certain types of goods in the context of Copenhagen.

Chapter 12Attribute Hierarchies to Tally Fish ...................................................................................................... 195

Andreas Mitrakas, European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA)

This chapter presents a model that addresses some shortcomings associated with limitations in the way that electronic identities are used in an application environment. This model, Snowflake, allows the exchange of validation data in order to establish trust when identity attributes are used in applications. Snowflake leverages upon groups of validation authorities as electronic intermediaries to facilitate ap-plication interoperation. The application area of choice is the electronic reporting of fish catches by a vessel’s master in line with the European Union legal framework. Grouping together the services of multiple validation authorities maximises the utilisation of resources available especially in environ-ments that do not shy out in sharing resources and data such and the electronic fish logbook provides a good platform in this respect.

Section 4Selected Readings

Chapter 13Video-Based Motion Capture for Measuring Human Movement ....................................................... 209

Chee Kwang Quah, Republic Polytechnic, SingaporeMichael Koh, Republic Polytechnic, SingaporeAlex Ong, Republic Polytechnic, SingaporeHock Soon Seah, Nanyang Technological University, SingaporeAndre Gagalowicz, INRIA, Le Chesnay, France

Through the advancement of electronics technologies, human motion analysis applications span many domains. Existing commercially available magnetic, mechanical and optical systems for motion capture and analyses are far from being able to operate in natural scenarios and environments. The current shortcoming of requiring the subject to wear sensors and markers on the body has prompted development directed towards a marker-less setup using computer vision approaches. However, there are still many challenges and problems in computer vision methods such as inconsistency of illumination, occlusion and lack of understanding and representation of its operating scenario. The authors present a video-based marker-less motion capture method that has the potential to operate in natural scenarios such as occlusive and cluttered scenes. In specific applications in sports biomechanics and education, which are stimulated by the usage of interactive digital media and augmented reality, accurate and reliable capture of human motion are essential.

Chapter 14Navigating a Speckled World: Interacting with Wireless Sensor Networks ....................................... 229

Matthew Leach, Napier University, UKDavid Benyon, Napier University, UK

The Speckled Computing project is a large multisite research project based in Scotland, UK. The aim of the project is to investigate, prototype, and produce tiny (1mm3) computational devices, called Specks, that can be configured into wireless sensor networks, called SpeckNets. Our particular interest is in how people might interact in such environments, what interaction tools they require, and what characteristics are required to be provided by the operating system of the Specks. Interaction in these environments places the human physically inside an information space. At one time, the human may be interacting with one Speck, at another with a hundred, and at another with several thousand. Moreover, the Specks themselves have no input method, apart from their sensors, and no output display. We explore these issues through taking some theories of distributed information spaces, some design principles from information visualization, and report on some empirical studies of prototypes and simulations that have been developed.

Chapter 15Modelling Pedestrian Movement to Measure On-Street Crime Risk ................................................. 243

Spencer Chainey, UCL Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science, UKJake Desyllas, Intelligent Space Partnership, UK

This chapter presents results for the first large-scale analysis of street crime rates that utilizes accurate on-street pedestrian population estimates. Pedestrian counts were generated at the street segment level for an area in central London (UK) using a modeling process that utilized key indicators of pedestrian movement and sample observations. Geocoded street crime positioned on street segments then allowed for street crime rates to be calculated for the entire central London study area’s street network. These street crime rate measures were then compared against street crime volume patterns (e.g., hotspot maps of street crime density) and street crime rate statistics and maps that were generated from using the residential population as the denominator. The research demonstrates the utility of pedestrian modeling for generating better and more realistic measures for street crime rates, suggesting that if the residential population is used as a denominator for local level street crime analysis it may only misinform and mislead the interpretation and understanding of on- to pedestrians. The research also highlights the importance of crime rate analysis for understanding and explaining crime patterns, and suggests that with accurate analysis of crime rates, policing, and crime prevention initiatives can be improved.

Chapter 16A Framework for Data Warehousing and Mining in Sensor Stream Application Domains ............... 264

Nan Jiang, Cedarville University, USA

The recent advances in sensor technologies have made these small, tiny devices much cheaper and convenient to use in many different applications, for example, the weather and environmental monitor-ing applications, the hospital and factory operation sites, sensor devices on the traffic road and moving vehicles and so on. The data collected from sensors forms a sensor stream and is transferred to the server to perform data warehousing and mining tasks for the end user to perform data analysis. Several data preprocessing steps are necessary to enrich the data with domain information for the data warehous-ing and mining tasks in the sensor stream applications. This chapter presents a general framework for domain-driven mining of sensor stream applications. The proposed framework is able to enrich sensor

streams with additional domain information that meets the application requirements. Experimental stud-ies of the proposed framework are performed on real data for two applications: a traffic management and an environmental monitoring site.

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 280

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 308

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 314