Movable type

Part of a series on theHistory of printing

Woodblock printing 200Movable type 1040Printing press c. 1440Etching c. 1515Mezzotint 1642Aquatint 1772Lithography 1796Chromolithography 1837Rotary press 1843Hectograph 1869Offset printing 1875Hot metal typesetting 1884Mimeograph 1886Photostat and Rectigraph 1907Screen printing 1910Spirit duplicator 1923Xerography 1938Phototypesetting 1949Inkjet printing 1951Dye-sublimation 1957Dot matrix printing 1968Laser printing 1969Thermal printing c. 19723D printing 1984Digital press 1993

v · t · e

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the weblog software, see Movable Type.

Movable type is the system of printing and typography that uses movable components toreproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation).

The world's first known movable type system for printing was made of ceramic materials andcreated in China around A.D 1040 by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Northern SongDynasty (960–1127).[1] When this technology spread to Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty in1234, they made the metal movable-type system for printing. This led to the printing of theJikjisim Sutra in 1377, the oldest extant movable metal print book. The diffusion of bothmovable-type systems was, however, limited.[2] They were expensive, and required anenormous amount of labour involved in manipulating the thousands of ceramic tablets, or inthe case of Korea, metal tablets, required for scripts based on the Chinese writing system,which have thousands of characters.

Around 1450 Johannes Gutenberg made a mechanical metal movable-type printing press inEurope, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. Themore limited number of characters needed for European languages was an importantfactor.[3] Gutenberg was the first to create his type pieces from an alloy of lead, tin, andantimony—the same components still used today.[4]

For alphabetic scripts, movable-type page setting was quicker than woodblock printing. Themetal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform, leading totypography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible(1455) established the superiority of movable type in Europe and the use of printingpresses spread rapidly. The printing press may be regarded as one of the key factorsfostering the Renaissance[5] and due to its effectiveness, its use spread around the globe.

The 19th-century invention of hot metal typesetting and its successors caused movable typeto decline in the 20th century.

Contents [hide]

1 Precursors to movable type1.1 Letter punch and coins1.2 Seals and stamps1.3 Woodblock printing

2 History of movable type2.1 Ceramic movable type in China2.2 Wooden movable type in China2.3 Metal movable type in China2.4 Metal movable type in Korea2.5 Metal movable type in Europe

3 Type-founding4 Typesetting5 Metal type combined with other methods6 See also7 References8 Further reading9 External links

Precursors to movable type [edit]

Letter punch and coins [edit]

The technique of imprinting multiple copies of symbols or glyphs with a master type punch made of hard metal first developedaround 3000 BC in ancient Sumer. These metal punch types can be seen as precursors of the letter punches adapted inlater millennia to printing with movable metal type. Cylinder seals were used in Mesopotamia to create an impression on asurface by rolling the seal on wet clay.[6] They were used to "sign" documents and mark objects as the owner's property.

Article Talk Read Edit More Search

Edit links

Main pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikipedia store

InteractionHelpAbout WikipediaCommunity portalRecent changesContact page

ToolsWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationWikidata itemCite this page

Print/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable version

LanguagesBân-lâm-gú

یسرافItalianoMagyar日本語

РусскийWinaray中文

Create account Log in

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

Movable type traces itsorigins to the punches usedto make coins: the reverseface of a Tetradrachm Greekcoin from Athens, 5th centuryBC, featuring various lettersand the owl symbol ofAthena.

Brick "stamp mold" for the King ofLarsa, Sin-Iddinam. (for Sun God, Utu,foundation deposit of temple)

A replica of the Phaistos Disc

The intricate frontispiece of theDiamond Sutra from Tang DynastyChina, an early woodblock-printedbook, AD 868 (British Museum)

Cylinder seals were a related form of early typography capable of printing small page designsin relief (cameo) on wax or clay—a miniature forerunner of rotogravure printing used bywealthy individuals to seal and certify documents. By 650 BC the ancient Greeks were usinglarger diameter punches to imprint small page images onto coins and tokens.

The designs of the artists who made the first coin punches were stylized with a degree of skillthat could not be mistaken for common handiwork—salient and very specific types designed tobe reproduced ad infinitum. Unlike the first typefaces used to print books in the 13th century,coin types were neither combined nor printed with ink on paper, but "published" in metal—amore durable medium—and survived in substantial numbers. As the portable face of rulingauthority, coins were a compact form of standardized knowledge issued in large editions, anearly mass medium that stabilized trade and civilization throughout the Mediterranean world ofantiquity.

Seals and stamps [edit]Main articles: Mudbrick stamp, Cylinder seal and Phaistos Disc

Seals and stamps may have been precursors to movable type. The uneven spacingof the impressions on brick stamps found in the Mesopotamian cities of Uruk andLarsa, dating from the 2nd millennium BC, has been conjectured by somearchaeologists as evidence that the stamps were made using movable type.[7] Theenigmatic Minoan Phaistos Disc of 1800–1600 BC has been considered by onescholar as an early example of a body of text being reproduced with reusablecharacters: it may have been produced by pressing pre-formed hieroglyphic "seals"into the soft clay. A few authors even view the disc as technically meeting alldefinitional criteria to represent an early incidence of movable-type printing.[8][9]

Recently it has been alleged by Jerome Eisenberg that the disk is a forgery.[10]

Woodblock printing [edit]Main article: Woodblock printing

Following the invention of paper in the 2nd century AD during the Chinese HanDynasty, writing materials became more portable and economical than the bones,shells, bamboo slips, metal or stone tablets, silk, etc. previously used. Yet copyingbooks by hand was still labour-consuming. Not until the Xiping Era (172-178 AD),towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty did sealing print and monotype appear. Itwas soon used for printing designs on fabrics, and later for printing texts.

Woodblock printing, invented by about the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty,worked as follows. First, the neat hand-copied script was stuck on a relatively thickand smooth board, with the front of the paper, which was so thin that it was nearlytransparent, sticking to the board, and characters showing in opposite, so distinctlythat every stroke could be easily recognized. Then, carvers cut the parts with nocharacter off the board with knives, so that the characters were cut in relief,completely different from those cut in intaglio. When printing, the bulging characterswould have some ink spread on them and be covered by paper. With workers’ handsmoving on the back of paper gently, characters would be printed on the paper. By theSong Dynasty, woodblock printing came to its heyday. Although woodblock printingplayed an influential role in spreading culture, there remained some apparentdrawbacks. Firstly, carving the printing plate required considerable time, labour andmaterials; secondly, it was not convenient to store these plates; and finally, it wasdifficult to correct mistakes.

With woodblock printing, one printing plate could be used for tens of hundreds ofbooks, playing a magnificent role in spreading culture. Yet carving the plate was timeand labour consuming. Huge books cost years of effort. The plates needed a lot ofstorage space, and were often damaged by deformation, worms and corrosion. Ifbooks had a small print run, and were not reprinted, the printing plates would become nothing but waste; and worse, if amistake was found, it was difficult to correct it without discarding the whole plate.

History of movable type [edit]

Further information: History of printing in East Asia

Prior to the development of metal movable type, most printing was done using blocks carved from wood. Woodblock printingwas used extensively in East Asia, and created the world's first print culture.

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

A revolving typecase for woodentype in China, from Wang Zhen's bookpublished in 1313

Ceramic movable type in China [edit]

Bi Sheng (毕昇) (990–1051) developed the first known movable-type system for printing in China around 1040 AD during theNorthern Song dynasty, using ceramic materials.[11][12] As described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo (沈括) (1031–1095):

When he wished to print, he took an iron frame and set it on the iron plate. In this he placed the types, set closetogether. When the frame was full, the whole made one solid block of type. He then placed it near the fire towarm it. When the paste [at the back] was slightly melted, he took a smooth board and pressed it over thesurface, so that the block of type became as even as a whetstone.

For each character there were several types, and for certain common characters there were twenty or moretypes each, in order to be prepared for the repetition of characters on the same page. When the characterswere not in use he had them arranged with paper labels, one label for each rhyme-group, and kept them inwooden cases.

If one were to print only two or three copies, this method would be neither simple nor easy. But for printinghundreds or thousands of copies, it was marvelously quick. As a rule he kept two forms going. While theimpression was being made from the one form, the type was being put in place on the other. When the printing ofthe one form was finished, the other was then ready. In this way the two forms alternated and the printing wasdone with great rapidity.[11]

In 1193, Zhou Bida, an officer of Southern Song Dynasty, made a set of clay movable-type method according to the methoddescribed by Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays, and printed his book Notes of The Jade Hall (《玉堂杂记》).[13]

The claim that Bi Sheng's clay types were "fragile" and "not practical for large-scale printing" and "short lived"[14] was refutedby facts and experiments. Bao Shicheng (1775–1885) wrote that baked clay moveable type was "as hard and tough as horn";experiments show that clay type, after being baked in an oven, becomes hard and difficult to break, such that it remains intactafter being dropped from a height of two metres onto a marble floor. Korea could have tried clay movable type, but with littlesuccess, probably due to misinterpration of Shen Kua's description "as thin as coin", which likely referred to the depth of thecharacter matrix, not the total length of the moveable type body. The length of clay movable types in China was 1 to 2centimetres, not 2mm, thus hard as horn.

There has been an ongoing debate regarding the success of ceramic printing technology as there have been no printedmaterials found with ceramic movable types. However, it is historically recorded to have been used as late as 1844 in Chinafrom the Song dynasty through the Qing dynasty.[13][15]

Wooden movable type in China [edit]

Bi Sheng (990–1051) also pioneered the use of wooden movable type around 1040 AD, as described by the Chinese scholarShen Kuo (1031–1095). However, this technology was abandoned in favour of clay movable types due to the presence ofwood grains and the unevenness of the wooden type after being soaked in ink.[11][16]

In 1298, Wang Zhen (王祯/王禎), a Yuan dynasty governmental official of JingdeCounty, Anhui Province, China, re-invented a method of making movable woodentypes. He made more than 30,000 wooden movable types and printed 100 copies ofRecords of Jingde County (《旌德县志》), a book of more than 60,000 Chinesecharacters. Soon afterwards, he summarized his invention in his book A method ofmaking moveable wooden types for printing books. Although the wooden type wasmore durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore thecharacter faces down, and the types could only be replaced by carving new pieces.This system was later enhanced by pressing wooden blocks into sand and castingmetal types from the depression in copper, bronze, iron or tin. This new methodovercame many of the shortcomings of woodblock printing. Rather than manuallycarving an individual block to print a single page, movable type printing allowed forthe quick assembly of a page of text. Furthermore, these new, more compact typefonts could be reused and stored.[11][12] The set of wafer-like metal stamp types couldbe assembled to form pages, inked, and page impressions taken from rubbings oncloth or paper.[12] In 1322，a Fenghua county officer Ma Chengde (马称德) in Zhejiang, made 100,000 wooded movable typesand printed 43 volume Daxue Yanyi (《大学衍义》). Wooden movable types were used continually in China. Even as late as1733, a 2300-volume Wuying Palace Collected Gems Edition (《武英殿聚珍版丛书》) was printed with 253500 wooden movabletype on order of the Yongzheng Emperor, and completed in one year.

A number of books printed in Tangut script during the Western Xia (1038–1227) period are known, of which the AuspiciousTantra of All-Reaching Union that was discovered in the ruins of Baisigou Square Pagoda in 1991 is believed to have beenprinted sometime during the reign of Emperor Renzong of Western Xia (1139–1193).[17] It is considered by many Chineseexperts to be the earliest extant example of a book printed using wooden movable type.[18]

The logistical problems of handling the several thousand logographs (required for full literacy in Chinese language) posed a

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

Copperplate of 1215–12165000-cash Jin dynasty (1115–1234)paper money with bronze movable typecounterfeit markers

A page from bronze movable-typebook by Hua Sui, printed in 1490

Korean movable type from 1377used for the Jikji;

particular difficulty. It was faster to carve one woodblock per page than to composit a page from so many different types.However, if one used movable type to produce multiple copies of the same document, the speed of printing would increaserelatively.[11]:201

Metal movable type in China [edit]

Bronze movable type printing was invented in China no later than the 12th century, according to at least 13 material finds inChina,[19] in large scale bronze plate printing of paper money and formal official documents issued by Jin (1115–1234) andSouthern Song (1127–1279) dynasties with embedded bronze metal types for anti counterfeit markers. Such paper moneyprinting might date back to the 11th-century jiaozi of Northern Song (960–1127) .[15]

The typical example of this kind of bronze movable type embedded copper-blockprinting is a printed "check" of Jin Dynasty with two square holes for embedding twobronze movable type characters, each selected from 1000 different characters, suchthat each printed paper money has different combination of markers. A copper blockprinted paper money dated between 1215–1216 in the collection of Luo Zhenyu'sPictorial Paper Money of the Four Dynasties, 1914, shows two special characters onecalled Ziliao, the other called Zihao for the purpose of preventing counterfeit; over theZiliao there is a small character (輶) printed with movable copper type, while over theZihao there is an empty square hole, apparently the associated copper metal typewas lost. Another sample of Song dynasty money of the same period in the collectionof Shanghai Museum has two empty square holes above Ziliao as well as Zihou, dueto lost of the two copper movable types. Song dynasty bronze block embedded withbronze metal movable type printed paper money was issued in large scale and incirculation for a long time.[20]

In the 1298 book Zao Huozi Yinshufa (《造活字印书法》/《造活字印書法》) of the Yuandynasty (1271–1368) official Wang Zhen, there is mention of tin movable type, usedprobably since the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279), but this was largelyexperimental.[21] It was unsatisfactory due to its incompatibility with the inkingprocess.[11]:217

During the Mongol Empire (1206–1405), printing using movable type spread fromChina to Central Asia.[clarification needed] The Uyghurs of Central Asia used movable type, their script type adopted from theMongol language, some with Chinese words printed between the pages, a strong evidence that the books were printed inChina.[22]

During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), Hua Sui in 1490 used bronze type in printingbooks.[11]:212 In 1574 the massive 1000 volume encyclopedia Imperial Readings of theTaiping Era (《太平御览》/《太平御覧》) were printed with bronze movable type.

In 1725, the Qing Dynasty government made 250,000 bronze movable-typecharacters and printed 64 sets of the encyclopedic Gujin Tushu Jicheng (《古今图书集成》/《古今圖書集成》, Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliestto Current Times). Each set consisted of 5040 volumes, making a total of 322,560volumes printed using movable type.[22]

Metal movable type in Korea [edit]

The transition from wood type to metal typeoccurred in 1234 during the Goryeo Dynastyof Korea and is credited to Choe Yun-ui. A setof ritual books, Sangjeong Gogeum Yemunwere printed with the movable metal type in1234.[23][24] Examples of this metal type are ondisplay in the Asian Reading Room of theLibrary of Congress in Washington, D.C.[25]

The oldest extant movable metal print book is the Jikji, printed in Korea in 1377.[26]

The techniques for bronze casting, used at the time for making coins (as well as bellsand statues) were adapted to making metal type. The following description of theKorean font casting process was recorded by the Joseon dynasty scholar SeongHyeon (성현, 成俔, 1439–1504):

At first, one cuts letters in beech wood. One fills a trough level with finesandy [clay] of the reed-growing seashore. Wood-cut letters are pressedinto the sand, then the impressions become negative and form letters[molds]. At this step, placing one trough together with another, one pours

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

The Printing Revolution in the 15thcentury: Within several decades around270 European towns took up movabletype printing.[32]

European output of movable typeprinting from Gutenberg to 1800[33]

the molten bronze down into an opening. The fluid flows in, filling thesenegative molds, one by one becoming type. Lastly, one scrapes and filesoff the irregularities, and piles them up to be arranged.[23]

A potential solution to the linguistic and cultural bottleneck that held back movabletype in Korea for 200 years appeared in the early 15th century—a generation beforeGutenberg would begin working on his own movable-type invention in Europe—whenKing Sejong the Great devised a simplified alphabet of 24 characters (hangul) for useby the common people, which could have made the typecasting and compositingprocess more feasible. Adoption of the new alphabet was stifled by the Korea'scultural elite, who were "appalled at the idea of losing hanja, the badge of theirelitism."[12]

Proliferation of movable type was also obstructed by a "Confucian prohibition on thecommercialization of printing" restricted the distribution of books produced using thenew method to the government.[27] The technique was restricted to use by the royalfoundry for official state publications only, where the focus was on reprinting Chineseclassics lost in 1126 when Korea's libraries and palaces had perished in a conflictbetween dynasties.[27]

In the early 13th century, however, the Koreans invented a form of movable type thathas been described by the French scholar Henri-Jean Martin as '[extremely similar] to Gutenberg's'.[28] There is somescholarly debate and speculation as to whether Eastern movable type was spread to Europe between the late 14th centuryand early 15th century.[29][23][30][31]

Metal movable type in Europe [edit]Main articles: History of Western typography and Spread of European movable type printing

Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany is acknowledged as the first to invent a metalmovable-type printing system in Europe, the printing press. Gutenberg was agoldsmith familiar with techniques of cutting punches for making coins from moulds.Between 1436 and 1450 he developed hardware and techniques for casting lettersfrom matrices using a device called the hand mould.[29] Gutenberg's key inventionand contribution to movable-type printing in Europe, the hand mould was the firstpractical means of making cheap copies of letterpunches in the vast quantitiesneeded to print complete books, making the movable-type printing process a viableenterprise.

Before Gutenberg, books were copied out by hand on scrolls and paper, or printedfrom hand-carved wooden blocks. It was extremely time-consuming; even a small bookcould take months to complete, and the carved letters or blocks were very flimsy andthe susceptibility of wood to ink gave such blocks a limited lifespan.

Gutenberg and his associates developed oil-based inks ideally suited to printing witha press on paper, and the first Latin typefaces. His method of casting type may havebeen different from the hand mould used in subsequent decades. Detailed analysis ofthe type used in his 42-line Bible has revealed irregularities in some of the charactersthat cannot be attributed to ink spread or type wear under the pressure of the press.Scholars conjecture that the type pieces may have been cast from a series ofmatrices made with a series of individual stroke punches, producing many differentversions of the same glyph.[34] It has also been suggested that the method used byGutenberg involved using a single punch to make a mould, but the mould was suchthat the process of taking the type out disturbed the casting, creating variants andanomalies, and that the punch-matrix system came into use possibly around the1470s.[35] This raises the possibility that the development of movable type in the Westmay have been progressive rather than a single innovation.[36]

Gutenberg's movable-type printing system spread rapidly across Europe, from thesingle Mainz printing press in 1457 to 110 presses by 1480, of which 50 were in Italy. Venice quickly became the center oftypographic and printing activity. Significant were the contributions of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo, Aldus Manutius, andother printers of late 15th-century Europe.

Type-founding [edit]

Type-founding as practiced in Europe and the west consists of three stages.

Punchcutting: If the glyph design includes enclosed spaces (counters) then a counterpunch is made. The counter shapes

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

A piece of cast metaltype, Garamond style long s iligature. See also: Sort(typesetting).

A case of cast metal type piecesand typeset matter in a composingstick

are transferred in relief (cameo) onto the end of a rectangular bar of mild steel using aspecialized engraving tool called a graver. The finished counterpunch is hardened by heatingand quenching (tempering), or exposure to a cyanide solution (case hardening).

The counterpunch is then struck against the end of a similar rectangular steel bar—theletterpunch—to impress the counter shapes as recessed spaces (intaglio). The outer profileof the glyph is completed by scraping away with a graver the material outside the counterspaces, leaving only the stroke or lines of the glyph. Progress toward the finished design ischecked by successive smoke proofs; temporary prints made from a thin coating of carbondeposited on the punch surface by a candle flame. The finished letter punch is finallyhardened to withstand the rigors of reproduction by striking.

One counterpunch and one letterpunch are produced for every letter or glyph making up acomplete font.

Matrix: The letterpunch is used to strike a blank die of soft metal to make a negative lettermould, called a matrix.

Casting: The matrix is inserted into the bottom of a device called a hand mould. The mould isclamped shut and molten type metal alloy consisting mostly of lead and tin, with a small amount of antimony for hardening, ispoured into a cavity from the top. Antimony has the rare property of expanding as it cools, giving the casting sharp edges.[37]

When the type metal has sufficiently cooled, the mould is unlocked and a rectangular block approximately 4 centimeters long,called a sort, is extracted. Excess casting on the end of the sort, called the tang, is later removed to make the sort the preciseheight required for printing, known as "type height".

The type-height was quite different in different countries. The Monotype Corporation Limited in London UK produced mouldsin various heights:

0.918 inches : United Kingdom, Canada, USA0.928 inches : France, Germany, Swiss and most other European Countries0.933 inches : Belgium height0.9785 inches : Dutch height

A Dutch printers manual[38] mentions a tiny difference between French and German Height:

62.027 points Didot = 23.30 mm = English height62.666 points Didot = 23.55 mm = French height62.685 points Didot = 23.56 mm = German height66.047 points Didot = 24.85 mm = Dutch Height

Tiny differences in type-height will cause quite bold images of characters.

Typesetting [edit]

Main articles: Typesetting and Type case

Modern, factory-produced movable type was available in the late 19th century. It washeld in the printing shop in a job case, a drawer about 2 inches high, a yard wide, andabout two feet deep, with many small compartments for the various letters andligatures. The most popular and accepted of the job case designs in America was theCalifornia Job Case, which took its name from the Pacific coast location of thefoundries that made the case popular.[39]

Traditionally, the capital letters were stored in a separate drawer or case that waslocated above the case that held the other letters; this is why capital letters are called"upper case" characters while the non-capitals are "lower case".[40]

Compartments also held spacers, which are blocks of blank type used to separate words and fill out a line of type, such as emand en quads (quadrats, or spaces. A quadrat is a block of type whose face is lower than the printing letters so that it doesnot itself print.). An em space was the width of a capital letter "M" – as wide as it was high – while an en space referred to aspace half the width of its height (usually the dimensions for a capital "N").

Individual letters are assembled into words and lines of text with the aid of a composing stick, and the whole assembly istightly bound together to make up a page image called a forme, where all letter faces are exactly the same height to form aflat surface of type. The forme is mounted on a printing press, a thin coating of viscous ink is applied and impressions madeon paper under great pressure in the press. "Sorts" is the term given to special characters not freely available in the typicaltype case, such as the "@" mark.

Metal type combined with other methods [edit]

Sometimes it is erroneously stated that printing with metal type replaced the earlier methods. In the industrial era printing

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

Ceramic type from the collections ofUniversity of Reading.

methods would be chosen to suit the purpose. For example, when printing large scaleletters in posters etc. the metal type would have proved too heavy and economicallyunviable. Thus, large scale type was made as carved wood blocks as well as ceramicsplates.[41] Also in many cases where large scale text was required, it was simpler tohand the job to a sign painter than a printer. Images could be printed together withmovable type if they were made as woodcuts or wood engravings as long as theblocks were made to the same type height. If intaglio methods, such as copper plates,were used for the images, then images and the text would have required separateprint runs on different machines.

See also [edit]

History of printing in East AsiaHistory of Western typographyOdhecaton — the first sheet music printed with movable typeSpread of European movable type printingType foundryTypesetting

References [edit]

1. ^ Needham, Joseph (1994). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 14.ISBN 9780521329958. "Bi Sheng... who first devised, about 1045, the art of printing with movable type"

2. ^ Zhou He (1994): "Diffusion of Movable Type in China and Europe: Why Were There Two Fates?", in: InternationalCommunication Gazette, Vol. 53, pp. 153–173

3. ^ Beck with, Christopher I., Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present, PrincetonUniversity Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-691-15034-5

4. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved November 27, 2006, from Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite DVD—entry'printing'

5. ^ Eisenstein, Elizabeth L., The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge University Press, 19836. ^ Busic-Snyder, Cynthia (2012). A Typographic Workbook: A Primer to History, Techniques, and Artistry . John Wiley & Sons.

p. 4. ISBN 978-1-118-39988-0.7. ^ Marzahn, Joachim (2010). Aramaic and Figural Stamp Impressions on Bricks of the Sixth Century B.C. from Babylon.

Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 11, 20, 160. ISBN 978-3-447-06184-1. ""the latter has cuneiform signs that look as if made with amovable type, and impressions from Assur display the same phenomenon"

8. ^ Herbert E. Brekle, "Das typographische Prinzip", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, Vol. 72 (1997), pp.58–63 (60f.)9. ^ "C.Michael Hogan, Knossos Fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian (2007)" . Themodernantiquarian.com. Retrieved 2012-08-15.

10. ^ Alberge, Dalya (2008-07-12). "Phaistos Disc declared as fake by scholar" . Times Online. Retrieved 2008-09-01.11. ̂a b c d e f g Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing. Needham, Joseph Science and Civilization in China. vol. 5 part 1.

Cambridge University Press. pp. 201–217. ISBN 0-521-08690-6.; also published in Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986.12. ̂a b c d Man, John. The Gutenberg Revolution: The story of a genius that changed the world (c) 2002 Headline Book Publishing, a

division of Hodder Headline, London. ISBN 0-7472-4504-5. A detailed examination of Gutenberg's life and invention, interwoven withthe underlying social and religious upheaval of Medieval Europe on the eve of the Renaissance.

13. ̂a b Xu Yinong, Moveable Type Books (徐忆农《活字本》) ISBN 7-80643-795-914. ^ Sohn, Pow-Key, "Early Korean Printing," Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 79, No. 2 (April -June , 1959), pp. 96-

103 (100).15. ̂a b Pan Jixing, A history of movable metal type printing technique in China 2001, p2216. ^ Shen Kuo. Dream Pool Essays.17. ^ Zhang Yuzhen (张玉珍) (2003). "世界上现存最早的木活字印本—宁夏贺兰山方塔出土西夏文佛经《吉祥遍至口和本续》介绍" [The

world's oldest extant book printed with wooden movable type] . Library and Information (《图书与情报》) (1). ISSN 1003-6938 .18. ^ Hou Jianmei (侯健美); Tong Shuquan (童曙泉) (20 December 2004). "《大夏寻踪》今展国博" ['In the Footsteps of the Great Xia'

now exhibiting at the National Museum]. Beijing Daily (《北京日报》).19. ^ 韩国剽窃活字印刷发明权只是第一步20. ^ A History of Moveable Type Printing in China, by Pan Jixing, Professor of the Institude for History of Science, Academy of

Science, Beijing, China, English Abstract, p27321. ^ Wang Zhen (1298). Zao Huozi Yinshufa (《造活字印書法》). "近世又铸锡作字, 以铁条贯之 (rendering: In the modern times,

there's melten Tin Movable type, and linked them with iron bar)"22. ̂a b Chinese Paper and Printing, A Cultural History, by Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin23. ̂a b c Thomas Christensen (2007). "Did East Asian Printing Traditions Influence the European Renaissance?" . Arts of Asia

Magazine (to appear). Retrieved 2006-10-18.24. ^ Sohn, Pow-Key (Summer 1993). "Printing Since the 8th Century in Korea". Koreana 7 (2): 4–9.25. ^ World Treasures of the Library of Congress . Retrieved 26 December 2006.26. ^ Michael Twyman, The British Library Guide to Printing: History and Techniques, London: The British Library, 1998 online27. ̂a b Burke

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com

Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Mobile view

This page was last modified on 15 April 2015, at 03:46.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use andPrivacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Editing with movable metal - cca. 1920

[show]v · t · e

[show]v · t · e

28. ^ Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter (2002) A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp.15-23,61-73.

29. ̂a b Polenz, Peter von. (1991). Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart: I. Einführung, Grundbegriffe,Deutsch in der frühbürgerlichen Zeit. (in German). New York/Berlin: Gruyter, Walter de GmbH.

30. ^ Juan González de Mendoza (1585). Historia de las cosas más notables, ritos y costumbres del gran reyno de la China (inSpanish).

31. ^ Thomas Franklin Carter, The Invention of Printing in China and its Spread Westward, The Ronald Press, NY 2nd ed. 1955, pp.176–178

32. ^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue" . British Library. Retrieved 2 March 2011.33. ^ Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the “Rise of the West”: Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-

Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (417, table 2)

34. ^

Agüera y Arcas, Blaise; Paul Needham (November 2002). "Computational analyticalbibliography". Proceedings Bibliopolis Conference The future history of the book. TheHague (Netherlands): Koninklijke Bibliotheek.

35. ^ "What Did Gutenberg Invent?—Discovery" . BBC / Open University. 2006. Retrieved2006-10-25.[dead link]

36. ^ James L. Adams (1991). Flying Buttresses, Entropy and O-Rings: the World of anEngineer. Harvard University Press.

37. ^ "Answers.com page on antimony" . McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science andTechnology. McGraw-Hill. 2005-01-01. Retrieved 2009-06-30.

38. ^ Blankenstein A.H.G., Wetser Ad: Zetten, uitgebreide leerstof, deel 1, p.26, Edecea, Hoorn, The Netherlands, 5th edition,(~1952)

39. ^ National Amateur Press Association , Monthly Bundle Sample, Campane 194, The California Typecase by Lewis A. Pryor(Edited)

40. ^ Glossary of Typesetting Terms , by Richard Eckersley, Charles Ellerston, Richard Hendel, Page 1841. ^ Meggs, Philip B., Purvis, Alston W. "Graphic Design and the Industrial Revolution" History of Graphic Design. Hoboken, N.J:

Wiley, 2006. p.139.

Further reading [edit]

Nesbitt, Alexander. The History and Technique of Lettering (c) 1957, Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-40281-9, Libraryof Congress Catalogue Card Number: 57-13116. The Dover edition is an abridged and corrected republication of the workoriginally published in 1950 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. under the title Lettering: The History and Technique of Lettering asDesign.The classic manual of hand-press technology is

Moxon, Joseph (1683–84). "Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing" (ed. Herbert Davies & Harry Carter. NewYork: Dover Publications, 1962, reprint ed.).

External links [edit]

Media related to Printing letters at Wikimedia CommonsInternational Printing Museum Web site

Typography terminology

Letterpress printing

Categories: Book arts Chinese inventions Typography Relief printing

converted by Web2PDFConvert.com