Mount Everest

“Everest”redirects here. For other uses, see Everest(disambiguation).

Aerial photo from the south, behind Nuptse and Lhotse

Mount Everest from space

Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas above 1600 m in colour-topography.*[6]*[7]

Mount Everest, also known in Nepal as Sagarmāthāand in Tibet as Chomolungma, is Earth's highest moun-tain. It is located in the Mahalangur section of theHimalayas. Its peak is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above

Mount Everest and the snow-capped Himalayas from orbit

sea level.*[1] It is not the furthest summit from the centreof the Earth. That honour goes to Mount Chimborazo, inthe Andes.*[8] The international border between Chinaand Nepal runs across Everest's precise summit point.Its massif includes neighbouring peaks Lhotse, 8,516 m(27,940 ft); Nuptse, 7,855 m (25,771 ft) and Changtse,7,580 m (24,870 ft).In 1856, the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India estab-lished the first published height of Everest, then knownas Peak XV, at 29,002 ft (8,840 m). The current offi-cial height of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) as recognised by Chinaand Nepal was established by a 1955 Indian survey andsubsequently confirmed by a Chinese survey in 1975. In1865, Everest was given its official English name by theRoyal Geographical Society upon a recommendation byAndrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India.Waugh named the mountain after his predecessor in thepost, Sir George Everest, arguing that there were manylocal names, against the opinion of Everest.*[9]Mount Everest attracts many highly experienced moun-taineers as well as capable climbers willing to hire pro-fessional guides. There are two main climbing routes,one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal(known as the standard route) and the other from thenorth in Tibet. While not posing substantial techni-cal climbing challenges on the standard route, Everestpresents dangers such as altitude sickness, weather, windas well as significant objective hazards from avalanches

1

2 1 DISCOVERY

and the Khumbu Icefall.The first recorded efforts to reach Everest's summit weremade by British mountaineers. With Nepal not allowingforeigners into the country at the time, the British madeseveral attempts on the north ridge route from the Tibetanside. After the first reconnaissance expedition by theBritish in 1921 reached 7,000 m (22,970 ft) on the NorthCol, the 1922 expedition pushed the North ridge route upto 8,320m (27,300 ft) marking the first time a human hadclimbed above 8,000 m (26,247 ft). Tragedy struck onthe descent from the North col when seven porters werekilled in an avalanche. The 1924 expedition resulted inthe greatest mystery on Everest to this day: George Mal-lory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt onJune 8 but never returned, sparking debate as to whetherthey were the first to reach the top. They had been spot-ted high on the mountain that day but disappeared in theclouds, never to be seen again until Mallory's body wasfound in 1999 at 8,155 m (26,755 ft) on the North face.Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first offi-cial ascent of Everest in 1953 using the southeast ridgeroute. Tenzing had reached 8,595 m (28,199 ft) the pre-vious year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition.

1 Discovery

A map showing the triangles and transects used in the GreatTrigonometric Survey of India, this map produced in 1870. TheGreat Trigonometrical Survey of India was started in April 1802

Location on EarthIn 1802, the British began the Great Trigonometric

Mount Everest relief map

Morning view of Mount Everest from its southern side

From Kalar Patar

Survey of India to determine the location and namesof the world's highest mountains. Starting in southern

3

India, the survey teams moved northward using gianttheodolites, each weighing 500 kg (1,100 lb) and requir-ing 12 men to carry, to measure heights as accuratelyas possible. They reached the Himalayan foothills bythe 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the Britishto enter the country because of suspicions of politicalaggression and possible annexation. Several requests bythe surveyors to enter Nepal were turned down.*[10]The British were forced to continue their observationsfrom Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel tothe Himalayas. Conditions in Terai were difficult becauseof torrential rains and malaria. Three survey officers diedfrom malaria while two others had to retire because offailing health.*[10]Nonetheless, in 1847, the British continued the GreatTrigonometric survey and began detailed observations ofthe Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 240km (150 mi) away. Weather restricted work to the lastthree months of the year. In November 1847, AndrewWaugh, the British Surveyor General of India made sev-eral observations from the Sawajpore station located inthe eastern end of the Himalayas. Kangchenjunga wasthen considered the highest peak in the world, and withinterest he noted a peak beyond it, about 230 km (140mi)away. John Armstrong, one of Waugh's officials, also sawthe peak from a location farther west and called it peak“b”. Waugh would later write that the observations in-dicated that peak“b”was higher than Kangchenjunga,but given the great distance of the observations, closer ob-servations were required for verification. The followingyear, Waugh sent a survey official back to Terai to makecloser observations of peak“b”, but clouds thwarted allattempts.*[10]In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area,who made two observations from Jirol, 190 km (120mi) away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite andheaded east, obtaining over 30 observations from five dif-ferent locations, with the closest being 174 km (108 mi)from the peak.*[10]Nicolson retreated to Patna on the Ganges to perform thenecessary calculations based on his observations. His rawdata gave an average height of 9,200 m (30,200 ft) forpeak“b”, but this did not consider light refraction, whichdistorts heights. However, the number clearly indicated,that peak “b”was higher than Kangchenjunga. Then,Nicolson contracted malaria and was forced to returnhome without finishing his calculations. Michael Hen-nessy, one of Waugh's assistants, had begun designatingpeaks based on Roman numerals, with Kangchenjunganamed Peak IX, while peak“b”now became known asPeak XV.*[10]In 1852, stationed at the survey headquarters inDehradun, Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematicianand surveyor from Bengal, was the first to identify Ever-est as the world's highest peak, using trigonometric calcu-lations based on Nicolson's measurements.*[11] An of-

ficial announcement that Peak XV was the highest wasdelayed for several years as the calculations were repeat-edly verified. Waugh began work on Nicolson's data in1854, and along with his staff spent almost two yearsworking on the calculations, having to deal with the prob-lems of light refraction, barometric pressure, and temper-ature over the vast distances of the observations. Finally,in March 1856 he announced his findings in a letter tohis deputy in Calcutta. Kangchenjunga was declared tobe 28,156 ft (8,582 m), while Peak XV was given theheight of 29,002 ft (8,840 m). Waugh concluded thatPeak XV was“most probably the highest in the world”.*[10] Peak XV (measured in feet) was calculated to beexactly 29,000 ft (8,839.2 m) high, but was publicly de-clared to be 29,002 ft (8,839.8 m) in order to avoid theimpression that an exact height of 29,000 feet (8,839.2m)was nothing more than a rounded estimate.*[12] Waughis therefore wittily credited with being“the first personto put two feet on top of Mount Everest”.

2 Name

While the survey wanted to preserve local names if possi-ble (e.g. Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri), Waugh arguedthat he could not find any commonly used local name.Waugh's search for a local name was hampered by Nepaland Tibet's exclusion of foreigners. Many local namesexisted, including“Deodungha”(“Holy Mountain”) inDarjeeling*[17] and the Tibetan“Chomolungma”, whichappeared on a 1733 map published in Paris by the Frenchgeographer D'Anville. In the late 19th century, many Eu-ropean cartographers further believed (incorrectly) that anative name for the mountain was“Gaurisankar”.*[18](Gauri Sankar is a mountain between Kathmandu andEverest.)Waugh argued that because there were many local names,it would be difficult to favour one name over all oth-ers, so he decided that Peak XV should be named afterWelsh surveyor George Everest, his predecessor as Sur-veyor General of India.*[10]*[19]*[20]George Everest opposed the name suggested by Waughand told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 thatEverest could not be written in Hindi nor pronouncedby“the native of India”. Waugh's proposed name pre-vailed despite the objections, and in 1865, the Royal Ge-ographical Society officially adopted Mount Everest asthe name for the highest mountain in the world.*[10] Themodern pronunciation of Everest /ˈɛvərɨst, ˈɛvrɨst/*[21] isdifferent from Sir George's pronunciation of his surname,which was /ˈiːvrɨst/ (EEV-rist).*[22]The Tibetan name for Mount Everest is ཇོ་མོ་ང་མ (IPA:[tɕ͡ʰòmòlɑ́ŋmɑ̀], lit. “Holy Mother”), whose offi-cial pinyin romanization is Qomolangma. It is alsopopularly romanised as Chomolungma and (in Wylie)as Jo-mo-glang-ma or Jomo Langma.*[23] The official

4 3 SURVEYS

Chinese transcription is simplified Chinese: 珠穆朗玛峰; traditional Chinese: 珠穆朗瑪峰 whose pinyin formis Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng (“Chomolungma Peak”).*[28]It is also infrequently simply translated into Chinese asShèngmǔ Fēng (圣母峰;聖母峰;“HolyMother Peak”).In 2002, the Chinese People's Daily newspaper publishedan article making a case against the use of“Mount Ever-est”for the mountain in English, insisting that it should bereferred to as“Mount Qomolangma”,*[28] based on thelocal Tibetan name. The article argued that British colo-nialists did not“first discover”the mountain, as it hadbeen known to the Tibetans and mapped by the Chineseas“Qomolangma”since at least 1719.*[29]In the early 1960s, the Nepalese government coined aNepali name for Mount Everest, Sagarmāthā or Sagar-Matha*[30] (सगरमाथा*[31]), allegedly to supplant theTibetan name among the locals, which the Nepali gov-ernment felt was“not acceptable”.

3 Surveys

Published by the Survey of Nepal, this is Map 50 of the 57 mapset at 1:50,000 scale“attached to the main text on the First JointInspection Survey, 1979–80, Nepal-China border.”In the topcenter, note the boundary line, identified as separating“China”and“Nepal”, passing exactly through the summit contour. Theboundary here and for much of the China-Nepal border followsthe main Himalayan watershed divide.

The 8,848 m (29,029 ft) height given is officially recog-nised by Nepal and China,*[32] although Nepal is plan-ning a new survey.*[33]In 1856, AndrewWaugh announced Everest (then knownas Peak XV) as 29,002 ft (8,840 m) high, after severalyears of calculations based on observations made by theGreat Trigonometric Survey.The elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) was first determinedby an Indian survey in 1955, made closer to the mountain,also using theodolites. It was subsequently reaffirmed bya 1975 Chinese measurement of 8,848.13 m (29,029.30ft).*[34] In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head,was measured. In May 1999 an American Everest Expe-dition, directed by Bradford Washburn, anchored a GPSunit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of

8,850 m (29,035 ft), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft)higher, were obtained via this device.*[35] Although ithas not been officially recognised by Nepal,*[36] this fig-ure is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt uponthe accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 surveys.A detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000)of the Khumbu region, including the south side of MountEverest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also at-tempted Lhotse. An even more detailed topographic mapof the Everest area was made in the late 1980s under thedirection of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerialphotography.*[37]On 9 October 2005, after several months of measure-ment and calculation, the Chinese Academy of Sciencesand State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping officially an-nounced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m (29,017.16ft) with accuracy of ±0.21 m (0.69 ft). They claimedit was the most accurate and precise measurement todate.*[38] This height is based on the actual highest pointof rock and not on the snow and ice covering it. The Chi-nese team also measured a snow/ice depth of 3.5 m (11ft),*[34] which is in agreement with a net elevation of8,848 m (29,029 ft). The snow and ice thickness variesover time, making a definitive height of the snow cap im-possible to determine.

2004 photo mosaic the Himalayas with Makalu andMount Everest from the International Space Station,Expedition 8.

It is thought that the plate tectonics of the area are addingto the height and moving the summit northeastwards.Two accounts suggest the rates of change are 4 mm (0.16in) per year (upwards) and 3 to 6 mm (0.12 to 0.24 in)per year (northeastwards),*[35]*[39] but another accountmentions more lateral movement (27 mm or 1.1 in),*[40]and even shrinkage has been suggested.*[41]

3.1 Comparisons

The summit of Everest is the point at which Earth's sur-face reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Sev-

5

eral other mountains are sometimes claimed as alterna-tive“tallest mountains on Earth”. Mauna Kea in Hawaiiis tallest when measured from its base;*[42] it rises over10,200 m (33,464.6 ft) when measured from its base onthe mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft)above sea level.By the same measure of base to summit, Denali, inAlaska, formerly known asMountMcKinley, is also tallerthan Everest.*[42] Despite its height above sea level ofonly 6,190 m (20,308 ft), Denali sits atop a sloping plainwith elevations from 300 to 900 m (980 to 2,950 ft),yielding a height above base in the range of 5,300 to5,900 m (17,400 to 19,400 ft); a commonly quoted figureis 5,600 m (18,400 ft).*[43]*[44] By comparison, rea-sonable base elevations for Everest range from 4,200 m(13,800 ft) on the south side to 5,200 m (17,100 ft) onthe Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in therange of 3,650 to 4,650 m (11,980 to 15,260 ft).*[37]The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2,168m (7,113ft) farther from Earth's centre (6,384.4 km (3,967.1 mi))than that of Everest (6,382.3 km (3,965.8 mi)), becauseEarth bulges at the Equator.*[8] This is despite Chimbo-razo having a peak 6,268 m (20,564.3 ft) above sea levelversus Mount Everest's 8,848 m (29,028.9 ft).

4 Geology

Mount Everest with snow melted, showing upper geologic layersin bands. The“yellow band”can be seen stretching across theMountain.

Mount Everest lit up with sunshine at the peak. This is the a viewof the north face

Geologists have subdivided the rocks comprising MountEverest into three units called "formations".*[45]*[46]Each formation is separated from the other by low-anglefaults, called "detachments", along which they have beenthrust southward over each other. From the summit ofMount Everest to its base these rock units are the Qo-molangma Formation, the North Col Formation, and theRongbuk Formation.From its summit to the top of the Yellow Band, about8,600 m (28,200 ft) above sea level, the top of MountEverest consists of the Qomolangma Formation, whichhas also been designated as either the Everest Forma-tion or Jolmo Lungama Formation. It consists of gray-ish to dark gray or white, parallel laminated and bed-ded, Ordovician limestone inter layered with subordi-nate beds of recrystallised dolomite with argillaceouslaminae and siltstone. Gansser first reported finding mi-croscopic fragments of crinoids in this limestone.*[47]Later petrographic analysis of samples of the limestonefrom near the summit revealed them to be composedof carbonate pellets and finely fragmented remains oftrilobites, crinoids, and ostracods. Other samples wereso badly sheared and recrystallised that their originalconstituents could not be determined. A thick, white-weathering thrombolite bed that is 60 m (200 ft) thickcomprises the foot of the “Third Step”, and base ofthe summit pyramid of Everest. This bed, which cropsout starting about 70 m (230 ft) below the summit ofMount Everest, consists of sediments trapped, bound,and cemented by the biofilms of micro-organisms, espe-cially cyanobacteria, in shallow marine waters. The Qo-molangma Formation is broken up by several high-anglefaults that terminate at the low angle normal fault, theQomolangma Detachment. This detachment separates itfrom the underlying Yellow Band. The lower five metersof the Qomolangma Formation overlying this detachment

6 5 FLORA AND FAUNA

are very highly deformed.*[45]*[46]*[48]The bulk of Mount Everest, between 7,000 and 8,600m (23,000 and 28,200 ft), consists of the North ColFormation, of which the Yellow Band forms its upperpart between 8,200 to 8,600 m (26,900 to 28,200 ft).The Yellow Band consists of intercalated beds of Mid-dle Cambrian diopside-epidote-bearing marble, whichweathers a distinctive yellowish brown, and muscovite-biotite phyllite and semischist. Petrographic analysis ofmarble collected from about 8,300 m (27,200 ft) foundit to consist as much as five percent of the ghosts of re-crystallised crinoid ossicles. The upper five meters of theYellow Band lying adjacent to the Qomolangma Detach-ment is badly deformed. A 5–40 cm (2.0–15.7 in) thickfault breccia separates it from the overlying QomolangmaFormation.*[45]*[46]*[48]The remainder of the North Col Formation, exposed be-tween 7,000 to 8,200 m (23,000 to 26,900 ft) on MountEverest, consists of interlayered and deformed schist,phyllite, and minor marble. Between 7,600 and 8,200 m(24,900 and 26,900 ft), the North Col Formation consistschiefly of biotite-quartz phyllite and chlorite-biotite phyl-lite intercalated with minor amounts of biotite-sericite-quartz schist. Between 7,000 and 7,600 m (23,000 and24,900 ft), the lower part of the North Col Formationconsists of biotite-quartz schist intercalated with epidote-quartz schist, biotite-calcite-quartz schist, and thin lay-ers of quartzose marble. These metamorphic rocks ap-pear to be the result of the metamorphism of Middle toEarly Cambrian deep sea flysch composed of interbed-ded, mudstone, shale, clayey sandstone, calcareous sand-stone, graywacke, and sandy limestone. The base of theNorth Col Formation is a regional low-angle normal faultcalled the“Lhotse detachment”.*[45]*[46]*[48]Below 7,000 m (23,000 ft), the Rongbuk Formation un-derlies the North Col Formation and forms the baseof Mount Everest. It consists of sillimanite-K-feldspargrade schist and gneiss intruded by numerous sills anddikes of leucogranite ranging in thickness from 1 cm to1,500 m (0.4 in to 4,900 ft).*[46]*[49] These leucogran-ites are part of a belt of Late Oligocene–Miocene intru-sive rocks known as the Higher Himalayan leucogran-ite. They formed as the result of partial melting ofPaleoproterozoic to Ordovician high-grade metasedi-mentary rocks of the Higher Himalayan Sequence about20 to 24 million years ago during the subduction of theIndian Plate.*[50]Mount Everest consists of sedimentary and metamorphicrocks that have been faulted southward over continen-tal crust composed of Archean granulites of the IndianPlate during the Cenozoic collision of India with Asia.Current interpretations argue that the Qomolangma andNorth Col formations consist of marine sediments thataccumulated within the continental shelf of the north-ern, passive continental margin of India prior to its col-lision with Asia. The Cenozoic collision of India with

Everest, Khumbu Glacier, Kumbu Icefall

Asia subsequently deformed and metamorphosed thesestrata as it thrust them southward and upward.*[51]*[52]The Rongbuk Formation consists of a sequence of high-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks that were derivedfrom the alteration of high-grade metasedimentary rocks.During the collision of India with Asia, these rocks werethrust downward and to the north as they were overrid-den by other strata; heated, metamorphosed, and partiallymelted at depths of over 15 to 20 kilometres (9.3 to 12.4mi) below sea level; and then forced upward to surface bythrusting towards the south between two major detach-ments.*[53]

5 Flora and fauna

See also: Organisms at high altitudeThere is a moss that grows at 6,480 metres (21,260 ft) on

A Yak at around 4790 m (15715 ft) altitude

Mount Everest.*[54] It may be the highest altitude plantspecies.*[54] An alpine cushion plant called Arenaria isknown to grow below 18,000 feet in the region.*[55]Euophrys omnisuperstes, a minute black jumping spider,has been found at elevations as high as 6,700 metres(22,000 ft), possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. It lurks in

7

crevices and may feed on frozen insects that have beenblown there by the wind. It should be noted that thereis a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher al-titudes.*[56] Birds, such as the Bar-headed Goose, havebeen seen flying at the higher altitudes of the mountain,while others, such as the Chough, have been spotted ashigh as the South Col at 7,920 metres (25,980 ft).*[57]The Yellow-billed choughs have been seen as high as26,000 feet and the aforementioned bar-head geese mi-grate over the Himalayas.*[58] As early as 1953, GeorgeLowe on the famous expedition of Tenzing and Hillarynoted seeing the geese fly over Mount Everest.*[59]Yaks are often used to haul gear for Mount Everestclimbs, a species which can haul 100 kg (220 pounds),and has thick fur and big lungs.*[60] One common pieceof advice for those in the Everest region is to be on higherground when around yaks and other animals, as they canknock people off themountain if standing on the downhilledge of a trail.*[61] Other animals in the region includethe Himalayan tahr which is sometimes eaten by the SnowLeopard.*[62] The Himalayan Black Bear can be foundup to about 14,000 feet and the Red Panda is also in theregion.*[63] One science expedition found a surprisingrange of species in the region including a Pika that eatsits own feces and ten new species of ants.*[64]

6 Environment

In 2008, a new weather station at about 8000 m altitude(26,246 feet) went online.*[68] The station's first data inMay 2008 were air temperature −17 °C, relative humid-ity 41.3%, atmospheric pressure 382.1 hPa (38.21 kPa),wind direction 262.8°, wind speed 12.8 m/s (28.6 mph),global solar radiation 711.9 watts/m2, solar UVA radi-ation 30.4 W/m2.*[68] The project was orchestrated byStations at High Altitude for Research on the Environ-ment (SHARE), who also placed the Mount Everest we-bcam in 2011.*[68]*[69] The weather station is locatedon the South Col and is solar powered.*[70]One of the issues facing climbers is the high-speedwinds.*[71] The peak of Mount Everest extends intoupper troposphere and penetrates the stratosphere,*[72]which can expose it to the fast and freezing wind of the jetstream.*[73] In February 2004 a wind speed of 175 mphwas recorded at the summit and winds over 100 mph arecommon.*[71] These winds can blow climbers off Ever-est. Climbers typically aim for the 7 to 10 day windows inthe spring and fall when the Asian monsoon season is ei-ther starting up or ending and the winds are lighter. Theair pressure at the summit is about one-third what it isat sea level, and the winds can lower the pressure fur-ther, causing an additional 14% reduction in oxygen toclimbers.*[73] The reduction in oxygen comes from thereduced pressure not a reduction in the ratio of oxygen toother gases.*[74]

Looking at Everest and Lhotse from the south

In the summer, the Indian monsoon brings warm wet airfrom the Indian ocean to Everest's south side. Duringthe winter the West/South-West flowing jet stream shiftssouth and blows on the peak.*[75]

7 History of expeditions

Climbers pass by the Yellow Band

Because Mount Everest is the highest mountain in theworld, it has attracted considerable attention and climb-ing attempts. A set of climbing routes has been estab-lished over several decades of climbing expeditions to themountain. Whether the mountain was climbed in ancienttimes is unknown; it may have been climbed in 1924.

7.1 Overview

It was finally known to have been summited by 1953,but it remained a difficult peak for decades.*[76] Despite

8 7 HISTORY OF EXPEDITIONS

the effort and attention poured into expeditions, it wasonly summited by about 200 people by 1987.*[76] Ever-est showed itself to be a difficult place for decades, evenfor serious attempts such as the 1970 Japanese expedi-tion.*[77] Despite a staff of over hundred people and adecade of planning work, the expedition suffered 8 deathsand failed to summit.*[77] However, Japanese expedi-tions did enjoy some successes, such as Yuichiro Miura'sbecoming the first man known to ski down Everest, aswell as Junko Tabei's becoming the first woman knownto summit.*[77]By March 2012, Everest had been climbed 5,656 timeswith 223 deaths.*[78] Although shorter mountains can belonger or steeper climbs, Everest is so high the jet streamcan hit it. Climbers can be faced with winds beyond 200mph when the weather shifts.*[79] At certain times ofthe year the jet stream shifts north, providing periods ofrelative calm at the mountain.*[80] Other dangers includeblizzards and avalanches.*[80]By 2013, the Himalayan database recorded 6,871 sum-mits by 4,042 different people.*[81]

7.2 Early attempts

In 1885, Clinton Thomas Dent, president of the AlpineClub, suggested that climbingMount Everest was possiblein his book Above the Snow Line.*[82]The northern approach to the mountain was discoveredby George Mallory and Guy Bullock on the initial 1921British Reconnaissance Expedition. It was an exploratoryexpedition not equipped for a serious attempt to climb themountain. With Mallory leading (and thus becoming thefirst European to set foot on Everest's flanks) they climbedthe North Col to an altitude of 7,005 metres (22,982 ft).From there, Mallory espied a route to the top, but theparty was unprepared for the great task of climbing anyfurther and descended.The British returned for a 1922 expedition. George Finch(“The other George”) climbed using oxygen for the firsttime. He ascended at a remarkable speed—290 metres(951 ft) per hour, and reached an altitude of 8,320 m(27,300 ft), the first time a human climbed higher than8,000 m. This feat was entirely lost on the British climb-ing establishment—except for its“unsporting”nature.Mallory and Col. Felix Norton made a second unsuccess-ful attempt. Mallory was faulted for leading a group downfrom the North Col which got caught in an avalanche.Mallory was pulled down too, but seven native porterswere killed.The next expedition was in 1924. The initial attempt byMallory and Geoffrey Bruce was aborted when weatherconditions precluded the establishment of Camp VI. Thenext attempt was that of Norton and Somervell, whoclimbed without oxygen and in perfect weather, travers-ing the North Face into the Great Couloir. Norton man-

aged to reach 8,550 m (28,050 ft), though he ascendedonly 30 m (98 ft) or so in the last hour. Mallory rustledup oxygen equipment for a last-ditch effort. He choseyoung Andrew Irvine as his partner.

1952 documentary

On 8 June 1924, George Mallory and Andrew Irvinemade an attempt on the summit via the North Col/NorthRidge/Northeast Ridge route from which they never re-turned. On 1May 1999, the Mallory and Irvine ResearchExpedition found Mallory's body on the North Face in asnow basin below and to the west of the traditional siteof Camp VI. Controversy has raged in the mountaineer-ing community whether one or both of them reached thesummit 29 years before the confirmed ascent (and ofcourse, safe descent) of Everest by Sir Edmund Hillaryand Tenzing Norgay in 1953.In 1933, Lady Houston, a British millionairess, fundedtheHouston Everest Flight of 1933, which saw a formationof aircraft led by the Marquess of Clydesdale fly over thesummit in an effort to deploy the British Union Flag at thetop.*[83]*[84]*[85]Early expeditions—such as General Charles Bruce's inthe 1920s and Hugh Ruttledge's two unsuccessful at-tempts in 1933 and 1936—tried to make an ascent ofthe mountain from Tibet, via the north face. Access wasclosed from the north to western expeditions in 1950,after China asserted control over Tibet. In 1950, BillTilman and a small party which included Charles Hous-ton, Oscar Houston and Betsy Cowles undertook an ex-ploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the

7.4 Routes 9

route which has now become the standard approach toEverest from the south.*[86]The Swiss expedition of 1952, led by Edouard Wyss-Dunant, was granted permission to attempt a climb fromNepal. The expedition established a route through theKhumbu ice fall and ascended to the South Col at an el-evation of 7,986 m (26,201 ft). No attempt at an ascentof Everest was ever under consideration in this case.*[87]Raymond Lambert and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay were ableto reach a height of about 8,595 m (28,199 ft) on thesoutheast ridge, setting a new climbing altitude record.Tenzing's experience was useful when he was hired to bepart of the British expedition in 1953.*[88]

7.3 First successful ascent by Tenzing andHillary

Main article: 1953 British Mount Everest ExpeditionIn 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by John Hunt,

Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay

In 2015 two mountain ranges on Pluto were named for them,Norgay Montes and Hillary Montes (greyscale image)

returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs toattempt to reach the summit. The first pair (Tom Bour-dillon and Charles Evans) came within 100 m (330 ft) ofthe summit on 26 May 1953, but turned back after run-ning into oxygen problems. As planned, their work inroute finding and breaking trail and their caches of ex-tra oxygen were of great aid to the following pair. Twodays later, the expeditionmade its second and final assault

on the summit with its second climbing pair, the NewZealander Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepalisherpa climber from Darjeeling, India. They reached thesummit at 11:30 am local time on 29 May 1953 via theSouth Col Route. At the time, both acknowledged it asa team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing re-vealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot onthe summit first.*[89] They paused at the summit to takephotographs and buried a few sweets and a small cross inthe snow before descending.News of the expedition's success reached London on themorning of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation, 2 June. Re-turning to Kathmandu a few days later, Hunt (a Briton)and Hillary (a New Zealander) discovered that they hadbeen promptly knighted in the Order of the British Em-pire, a KBE, for the ascent. Tenzing, a Nepali sherpa whowas a citizen of India, was granted the George Medal bythe UK. Hunt was ultimately made a life peer in Britain,while Hillary became a founding member of the Orderof New Zealand. Hillary and Tenzing are also nationallyrecognised in Nepal, where annual ceremonies in schoolsand offices celebrate their accomplishment.*[90]The next successful ascent was on 23 May 1956 byErnst Schmied and Juerg Marmet.*[91] This was fol-lowed by Dölf Reist and Hans-Rudolf von Gunten on24 May 1957.*[91] After this, the next summiting wasnot until Jim Whittaker and Nawang Gombu on 1 May1963*[92]*[93]

7.4 Routes

Mt. Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeastridge from Nepal and the north ridge from Tibet, as wellas many other less frequently climbed routes.*[94] Of thetwo main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easierand is the more frequently used route. It was the routeused by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953and the first recognised of fifteen routes to the top by1996.*[94] This was, however, a route decision dictatedmore by politics than by design as the Chinese border wasclosed to the western world in the 1950s after the People'sRepublic of China invaded Tibet.*[95]Most attempts are made during May before the summermonsoon season. As the monsoon season approaches,a change in the jet stream at this time pushes it north-ward, thereby reducing the average wind speeds high onthe mountain.*[96]*[97] While attempts are sometimesmade after the monsoons in September and October,when the jet stream is again temporarily pushed north-ward, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons andthe less stable weather patterns (tail end of the monsoon)makes climbing extremely difficult.

10 7 HISTORY OF EXPEDITIONS

View from space showing South Col route and North Col/Ridgeroute

7.4.1 Southeast ridge

The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek toBase Camp at 5,380 m (17,700 ft) on the south sideof Everest in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly into Lukla(2,860 m) from Kathmandu and pass through NamcheBazaar. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usuallytakes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude ac-climatization in order to prevent altitude sickness.*[98]Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by yaks,dzopkyos (yak-cow hybrids) and human porters to BaseCamp on the Khumbu Glacier. When Hillary and Tenz-ing climbed Everest in 1953, the British expedition thatthey were part of (over 400 climbers, porters and sherpasat that point) started from the Kathmandu Valley, as therewere no roads further east at that time.Climbers spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, accli-matizing to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas andsome expedition climbers set up ropes and ladders in thetreacherous Khumbu Icefall. Seracs, crevasses and shift-ing blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dan-gerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sher-pas have been killed in this section. To reduce the haz-ard, climbers usually begin their ascent well before dawn,when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place.Above the icefall is Camp I at 6,065 metres (19,900 ft).From Camp I, climbers make their way up the WesternCwm to the base of the Lhotse face, where Camp II orAdvanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at 6,500 m(21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a flat, gently risingglacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the cen-tre, which prevent direct access to the upper reaches ofthe Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far rightnear the base of Nuptse to a small passageway known asthe“Nuptse corner”. The Western Cwm is also called

Climber traversing Khumbu Icefall

the “Valley of Silence”as the topography of the areagenerally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The highaltitude and a clear, windless day can make the WesternCwm unbearably hot for climbers.*[99]From ABC, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixedropes up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at 7,470 m(24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 meters to CampIV on the South Col at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From CampIII to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additionalchallenges: the Geneva Spur and the Yellow Band. TheGeneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock namedby the 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbersin scrambling over this snow-covered rock band. TheYel-low Band is a section of interlayered marble, phyllite, andsemischist, which also requires about 100 meters of ropefor traversing it.*[99]On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone.Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or threedays that they can endure at this altitude for making sum-mit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical fac-tors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. Ifweather does not cooperate within these short few days,climbers are forced to descend, many all the way backdown to Base Camp.

A view of Everest southeast ridge base camp. TheKhumbu Icefall can be seen in the left. In the center arethe remnants of a helicopter that crashed in 2003.From Camp IV, climbers begin their summit push

around midnight with hopes of reaching the summit

7.4 Routes 11

Panoramic view of Sagarmatha National Park-Gorak Shep toPheriche. Khumbu icefall and Mount Everest are on the rightside of the picture

(still another 1,000 meters above) within 10 to 12 hours.Climbers first reach“The Balcony”at 8,400 m (27,600ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze atpeaks to the south and east in the early light of dawn.Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with aseries of imposing rock steps which usually forces themto the east into waist-deep snow, a serious avalanchehazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized domeof ice and snow marks the South Summit.*[99]

Kangshung Face (the east face) as seen from orbit

From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edgesoutheast ridge along what is known as the“Cornice tra-verse”, where snow clings to intermittent rock. This isthe most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to theleft would send one 2,400 m (7,900 ft) down the south-west face, while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m(10,010 ft) Kangshung Face. At the end of this traverseis an imposing 12 m (39 ft) rock wall called the“HillaryStep”at 8,760 m (28,740 ft).*[99]Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend thisstep and they did it with primitive ice climbing equip-ment and ropes. Nowadays, climbers ascend this step us-ing fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once abovethe step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top onmoderately angled snow slopes—though the exposure onthe ridge is extreme, especially while traversing large cor-nices of snow. With increasing numbers of people climb-ing the mountain in recent years, the Step has frequentlybecome a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait signif-icant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leadingto problems in getting climbers efficiently up and downthe mountain. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must

traverse a loose and rocky section that has a large entan-glement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in badweather. Climbers typically spend less than half an hourat the summit to allow time to descend to Camp IV beforedarkness sets in, to avoid serious problems with afternoonweather, or because supplemental oxygen tanks run out.

7.4.2 North ridge route

See also: Three StepsThe north ridge route begins from the north side of Ever-

Mount Everest north face from Rongbuk in Tibet

est in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the Rongbuk Glacier,setting up base camp at 5,180 m (16,990 ft) on a gravelplain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbersascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacierup to the base of Changtse at around 6,100 m (20,000 ft).Camp III (ABC—Advanced Base Camp) is situated be-low the North Col at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). To reach CampIV on the north col, climbers ascend the glacier to the footof the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the NorthCol at 7,010m (23,000 ft). From the North Col, climbersascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around7,775 m (25,500 ft). The route crosses the North Face ina diagonal climb to the base of the Yellow Band reachingthe site of Camp VI at 8,230 m (27,000 ft). From CampVI, climbers make their final summit push. Climbers facea treacherous traverse from the base of the First Step: as-cending from 8,501 to 8,534 m (27,890 to 28,000 ft), tothe crux of the climb, the Second Step: ascending from8,577 to 8,626m (28,140 to 28,300 ft). (The Second Stepincludes a climbing aid called the“Chinese ladder”, ametal ladder placed semi-permanently in 1975 by a partyof Chinese climbers.*[100] It has been almost continu-ously in place since, and ladders have been used by vir-tually all climbers on the route.) Once above the SecondStep the inconsequential Third Step is clambered over:ascending from 8,690 to 8,800 m (28,510 to 28,870 ft).Once above these steps, the summit pyramid is climbedby a snow slope of 50 degrees, to the final summit ridgealong which the top is reached.*[101]

12 7 HISTORY OF EXPEDITIONS

7.5 Summit

A view from the summit of Mount Everest in May 2013

The routes usually share one spot in common, the summititself. The summit of Everest has been described as“thesize of a dining room table”.*[102] The summit is cappedwith snow over ice over rock, and the layer of snow variesyear to year.*[103] (see survey section for more on itsheight and about the Everest rock summit)Below the summit there is an area known as “rainbowvalley”, filled with dead bodies still wearing brightlycoloured winter gear.*[104] Down to about 8000 me-ters is an area commonly called the“death zone”, dueto the high danger and low oxygen because of the lowpressure.*[72] The summit penetrates the stratosphere,the next major layer in the atmosphere above the tropo-sphere.*[72]Below the summit the mountain slopes downward to thethree main sides, or faces, of Mount Everest: the NorthFace, the South-West Face, and the East/KangshungFace.*[105]

7.6 Death zone

Main article: Death zoneAt the higher regions of Mount Everest, climbers seek-

The summit of Mount Everest from the North side

ing the summit typically spend substantial time within the

death zone (altitudes higher than 8,000 metres (26,000ft)), and face significant challenges to survival. Temper-atures can dip to very low levels, resulting in frostbite ofany body part exposed to the air. Since temperatures areso low, snow is well-frozen in certain areas and death orinjury by slipping and falling can occur. High winds atthese altitudes on Everest are also a potential threat toclimbers.Another significant threat to climbers is low atmosphericpressure. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everestis about a third of sea level pressure or 0.333 standardatmospheres (337 mbar), resulting in the availability ofonly about a third as much oxygen to breathe.*[106]Debilitating effects of the death zone are so great thatit takes most climbers up to 12 hours to walk the dis-tance of 1.72 kilometres (1.07 mi) from South Col tothe summit.*[107] Achieving even this level of perfor-mance requires prolonged altitude acclimatization, whichtakes 40–60 days for a typical expedition. A sea-leveldweller exposed to the atmospheric conditions at the al-titude above 8,500 m (27,900 ft) without acclimatiza-tion would likely lose consciousness within 2 to 3 min-utes.*[108]In May 2007, the Caudwell Xtreme Everest undertooka medical study of oxygen levels in human blood at ex-treme altitude. Over 200 volunteers climbed to EverestBase Camp where various medical tests were performedto examine blood oxygen levels. A small team also per-formed tests on the way to the summit.*[109]Even at base camp, the low partial pressure of oxy-gen had direct effect on blood oxygen saturation levels.At sea level, blood oxygen saturation is generally 98–99%. At base camp, blood saturation fell to between85–87%. Blood samples taken at the summit indicatedvery low oxygen levels in the blood. A side effect of lowblood oxygen is a vastly increased breathing rate, often80–90 breaths per minute as opposed to a more typi-cal 20–30. Exhaustion can occur merely attempting tobreathe.*[110]Lack of oxygen, exhaustion, extreme cold, and climbinghazards all contribute to the death toll. An injured personwho cannot walk is in serious trouble, since rescue by he-licopter is generally impractical and carrying the personoff the mountain is very risky. People who die during theclimb are typically left behind. As of 2006, about 150bodies have never been recovered. It is not uncommon tofind corpses near the standard climbing routes.*[111]

Debilitating symptoms consistent with highaltitude cerebral oedema commonly presentduring descent from the summit of MountEverest. Profound fatigue and late times inreaching the summit are early features associ-ated with subsequent death.—Mortality on Mount Everest, 1921-

2006: descriptive study*[112]

7.7 Supplemental oxygen 13

A 2008 study noted that the “death zone”is indeedwhere most Everest deaths occur, but also noted that mostdeaths occur during descent from the summit.*[113] A2014 article in the magazine The Atlantic about deathson Everest noted that while falling is one of the greatestdangers the DZ for all 8000ers, avalanches are a morecommon cause of death at lower altitudes.*[114] How-ever, Everest climbing is more deadly than Base jump-ing, although some have combined extreme sports andEverest including a Beverage company that had someonebase-jumping off Everest in a wingsuit (they did survivethough).*[115]*[116]Despite this, Everest is safer for climbers than a num-ber of peaks by some measurements, but it depends onthe period.*[117] Some examples are Kangchenjunga,K2, Annapurna, Nanga Parbat, and the Eiger (especiallythe nordwand).*[117] Mont Blanc has more deaths eachyear than Everest, with over one hundred dying in a typ-ical year and over eight thousand killed since recordswere kept.*[118] Some factors that affect total mountainlethality include the level of popularity of the mountain,the skill of those climbing, and of course the difficulty ofthe climb.*[118]Another health hazard is retinal haemorrhages, which candamage eyesight and cause blindness.*[119] Up to a quar-ter of Everest climbers can experience retinal haemor-rhages, and although they usually heal within weeks ofreturning to lower altitudes, in one case a climber wentblind and ended up dying in the death zone.*[119]

At one o'clock in the afternoon, the Britishclimber Peter Kinloch was on the roof of theworld, in bright sunlight, taking photographsof the Himalayas below, “elated, cheery andbubbly”. But Mount Everest is now his grave,because only minutes later, he suddenly wentblind and had to be abandoned to die from thecold.—A. McSmith*[119]

7.7 Supplemental oxygen

Most expeditions use oxygen masks and tanks above8,000 m (26,000 ft).*[120] Everest can be climbed with-out supplementary oxygen, but only by the most accom-plished mountaineers and at increased risk. Humans donot think clearly with low oxygen, and the combinationof extreme weather, low temperatures, and steep slopesoften requires quick, accurate decisions. While about95% of climbers who reach the summit use bottled oxy-gen in order to reach the top, about 5% of climbershave summitted Everest without supplemental oxygen.The death rate is double for those who attempt to reachthe summit without supplemental oxygen.*[121] Trav-elling above 8,000 feet altitude is a factor in cerebralhypoxia.*[122] This decrease of oxygen to the braincan can cause dementia and brain damage, as well as

Climber at the summit wearing an oxygen mask

a host of other symptoms.*[123] One study found thatMount Everest may be the highest an acclimatised humancould go, but also found that climbers may suffer perma-nent neurological damage despite returning to lower alti-tudes.*[124]

Brain cells are extremely sensitive to a lackof oxygen. Some brain cells start dying lessthan 5 minutes after their oxygen supply dis-appears. As a result, brain hypoxia can rapidlycause severe brain damage or death.—Healthline Website*[122]

The use of bottled oxygen to ascend Mount Everesthas been controversial. It was first used on the 1922British Mount Everest Expedition by George Finch andGeoffrey Bruce who climbed up to 7,800 m (25,600 ft)at a spectacular speed of 1000 vertical feet per hour (vf/h). Pinned down by a fierce storm, they escaped deathby breathing oxygen from a jury-rigged set-up during thenight. The next day they climbed to 8,100 m (26,600ft) at 900 vf/h—nearly three times as fast as non-oxygenusers. Yet the use of oxygen was considered so unsports-manlike that none of the rest of the Alpine world recog-nised this high ascent rate. George Mallory himself de-scribed the use of such oxygen as unsportsmanlike, buthe later concluded that it would be impossible for him tosummit without it and consequently used it on his final

14 7 HISTORY OF EXPEDITIONS

attempt in 1924.*[125] When Tenzing and Hillary madethe first successful summit in 1953, they used bottled oxy-gen, with the expedition's physiologist Griffith Pugh re-ferring to the oxygen debate as a“futile controversy”,noting that oxygen “greatly increases subjective appre-ciation of the surroundings, which after all is one of thechief reasons for climbing.”*[126] For the next twenty-five years, bottled oxygen was considered standard for anysuccessful summit.

.. although an acclimatised lowlander cansurvive for a time on the summit of Everestwithout supplemental oxygen, one is so closeto the limit that even a modicum of excess ex-ertion may impair brain function.—Thomas F. Hornbein in The high-altitude

brain *[124]

Reinhold Messner was the first climber to break the bot-tled oxygen tradition and in 1978, with Peter Habeler,made the first successful climb without it. Althoughcritics alleged that he sucked mini-bottles of oxygen—a claim that Messner denied—Messner silenced themwhen he summited the mountain solo, without supple-mental oxygen or any porters or climbing partners, on themore difficult northwest route, in 1980. Once the climb-ing community was satisfied that the mountain could beclimbed without supplemental oxygen, many purists thentook the next logical step of insisting that is how it shouldbe climbed.*[127]The aftermath of the 1996 disaster further intensified thedebate. Jon Krakauer's Into Thin Air (1997) expressedthe author's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxy-gen. Krakauer wrote that the use of bottled oxygen al-lowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to sum-mit, leading to dangerous situations and more deaths.The disaster was partially caused by the sheer numberof climbers (34 on that day) attempting to ascend, caus-ing bottlenecks at the Hillary Step and delaying manyclimbers, most of whom summitted after the usual 2 pmturnaround time. He proposed banning bottled oxygenexcept for emergency cases, arguing that this would bothdecrease the growing pollution on Everest—many bot-tles have accumulated on its slopes—and keep marginallyqualified climbers off the mountain.The 1996 disaster also introduced the issue of theguide's role in using bottled oxygen.*[128] Guide AnatoliBoukreev's decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharplycriticised by Jon Krakauer. Boukreev's supporters (whoinclude G. Weston DeWalt, who co-wrote The Climb)state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of se-curity.*[129] Krakauer and his supporters point out that,without bottled oxygen, Boukreev could not directly helphis clients descend.*[130] They state that Boukreev saidthat he was going down with client Martin Adams,*[130]but just below the South Summit, Boukreev determinedthat Adams was doing fine on the descent and so de-scended at a faster pace, leaving Adams behind. Adams

states in The Climb: “For me, it was business as usual,Anatoli's going by, and I had no problems with that.”*[131]The low oxygen can cause a mental fog-like impairmentof cognitive abilities described as“delayed and lethargicthought process, clinically defined as bradypsychia”evenafter returning to lower altitudes.*[132] In severe cases,climbers can experience hallucinations. Some studieshave found that high-altitude climbers, including Everestclimbers, experience altered brain structure.*[132] Theeffects of high altitude on the brain, particularly if itcan cause permanent brain damage, continue to be stud-ied.*[132]

7.8 Selected climbing records

Main article: Timeline of climbing Mount EverestBy the end of the 2010 climbing season, there had been

The Khumbu Icefall in 2005

TheWestern Cwm (“Coom”), with Everest on the left and Lhotseto the right

5,104 ascents to the summit by about 3,142 individu-als.*[133] Some notable“firsts”by climbers include:

• 1922 – First climb to 8,000 metres (26,247 ft), byGeorge Finch and Captain Geoffrey Bruce*[134]

7.10 2006 mountaneering season 15

• 1952 – First climb to South Col by 1952 SwissMount Everest expedition

• 1953 – First ascent by Tenzing Norgay and EdmundHillary on 1953 British Mount Everest expedition

• 1975 – First female ascent, by Junko Tabei*[133]

• 1978 – First ascent without supplemental oxygen byReinhold Messner and Peter Habeler*[135]

• 1980 – First solo ascent, by ReinholdMessner*[135]

• 1980 – First winter ascent, by Leszek Cichy andKrzysztof Wielicki*[4]*[5]

• 1988 – First descent by paraglider, by Jean-MarcBoivin*[136]

• 1988 – First female ascent without supplementaloxygen by Lydia Bradey*[137]

• 1998 – Fastest to reach the summit via the south-east ridge (South Col), without supplemental oxy-gen, by Kazi Sherpa, in 20 hours and 24 min-utes.*[138]*[139]*[140]

• 2000 – First descent by ski by Davo Karničar*[141]

• 2001 - Youngest to reach to the summit, TembaTsheri (Guinness book of World Records) on May24-2001, at the age of 16 years and 14 days.

• 2001 – First ascent by a blind climber, ErikWeihen-mayer*[142]

• 2004 – Fastest to reach the summit via the south-east ridge (South Col), with supplemental oxygen,by Pemba Dorje, in 8 hours and 10 minutes.*[143]

• 2007 – Fastest to reach the summit via the northeastridge, without supplemental oxygen, by ChristianStangl, in 58 hours, 45 minutes.*[144]*[145]*[146]

• 2010 – Youngest to reach the summit, by JordanRomero (13-year-old)*[147]

• 2011/2013 –Most times to reach the summit, jointlyheld by Apa Sherpa (21 times; 10 May 1990 –11 May 2011) and Phurba Tashi (21 times; 1999–2013)*[148]

7.9 1996 disaster

Main article: 1996 Mount Everest disaster

On 11 May 1996 eight climbers died after several expe-ditions were caught in a blizzard high up on the moun-tain. During the entire 1996 season, 15 people died whileclimbing onMount Everest. These were the highest deathtolls for a single event, and for a single season, until thesixteen deaths in the 2014 Mount Everest avalanche. The

disaster gained wide publicity and raised questions aboutthe commercialization of climbing Mount Everest.Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outsidemagazine, was in one of the affected parties, and after-wards published the bestseller Into Thin Air, which relatedhis experience. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide who felt im-pugned by Krakauer's book, co-authored a rebuttal bookcalledThe Climb. The dispute sparked a debate within theclimbing community. InMay 2004, KentMoore, a physi-cist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchersfrom the University of Toronto, told New Scientist maga-zine that an analysis of weather conditions on 11May sug-gested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plungeapproximately 14%.*[149]*[150]The storm's impact on climbers on the North Ridge ofMount Everest, where several climbers also died, was de-tailed in a first-hand account by British filmmaker andwriterMatt Dickinson in his book The Other Side of Ever-est. 16-year-oldMark Pfetzer was on the climb and wroteabout it in his account,Within Reach: My Everest Story.A feature film titled Everest based on the actual eventsof this disaster is currently in production with directorBaltasar Kormákur for 2015 release.*[151]

7.10 2006 mountaneering season

A small avalanche on Everest, 2006

In 2006 12 people died onMount Everest, but one in par-ticular triggered an international debate and years of dis-cussion about climbing ethics.*[152]*[153] However, itwas also remembered for the rescue of Lincoln Hall whohad been left by his climbing team and declared dead, butwas later discovered alive and survived being helped offthe mountain

7.10.1 David Sharp ethics controversy

There was an international controversy about the deathof a solo British climber David Sharp, who attemptedto climb Mount Everest in 2006 but died in his at-

16 7 HISTORY OF EXPEDITIONS

tempt.*[158] The story broke out of the mountaineer-ing community into popular media, with a snow-ballingseries of interviews, allegations, critiques, and peace-making.*[158] The question was whether climbers thatseason had left a man to die, and whether he could havebeen saved.*[158] It seemed to be clear that he had puthimself in a very dangerous situation—he was said tohave attempted to summit Mount Everest by himself withno Sherpa or guide and fewer oxygen bottles than con-sidered normal.*[158] He went with a low-budget Nepaliguide firm that only provides support up to Base Camp,after which climbers go as a “loose group”, offeringa high degree of independence.*[159] The manager atSharp's guide support said Sharp did not take enough oxy-gen for his summit attempt and did not have a Sherpaguide.*[159] It less clear who knew Sharp was in trou-ble, and if they did know, whether they were qualified orcapable of helping him.*[158] Double-amputee climberMark Inglis revealed in an interview with the press on 23May 2006, that his climbing party, and many others, hadpassed Sharp, on 15 May, sheltering under a rock over-hang 450 metres (1,480 ft) below the summit, withoutattempting a rescue.*[160] Inglis had said 40 people hadpassed by Sharp, but he was not aware that some Turk-ish climbers had tried to help him despite being in theprocess of helping an injured woman down (a Turkishlady named Burçak Poçan).*[161] There has also beensome discussion about the Himex in the commentary onInglis and Sharp.*[161] In regards to the Inglis's initialcomments, he later revised certain details because he hadbeen interviewed while was "..physically and mentally ex-hausted, and in a lot of pain. He had suffered severefrostbite – he later had five fingertips amputated..”*[161]When they went through Sharp's possession they found areceipt for $7,490USD, believed to be the whole finan-cial cost.*[161] Comparatively, most expeditions are be-tween 30 to one hundred thousandUSD plus an additionaltwenty thousand in other expenses that range from gearto bonuses.*[162] It was estimated on May 14 that DavidSharp summited Mount Everest and began his descentdown, but May 15 he was in trouble but being passed byclimbers on their way up and down.*[163] On May 15,2006 it is believed he was suffering from hypoxia, andwas about 1000 feet from the summit on the North Sideroute.*[163]

“Dawa from Arun Treks also gave oxygento David and tried to help him move, repeat-edly, for perhaps an hour. But he could not getDavid to stand alone or even stand resting onhis shoulders, and crying, Dawa had to leavehim too. Even with two Sherpas it was not go-ing to be possible to get David down the trickysections below.”—Jamie McGuiness *[164]

Some climbers who left him said that the rescue ef-forts would have been useless and only have caused more

deaths. Beck Weathers of the 1996 Mount Everest dis-aster said that those who are dying are often left be-hind, and that he himself had been left for dead twicebut was able to keep walking.*[165] The Tribune of In-dia quoted someone who described what happened toSharp as“the most shameful act in the history of moun-taineering”.*[166] In addition to David's death, at leastnine other climbers perished that year, including multipleSherpas working for various guiding companies.*[167]

“You are never on your own. There areclimbers everywhere.”—David Sharp*[168]

Much of this controversy was captured by the DiscoveryChannel while filming the television program Everest: Be-yond the Limit. A crucial decision affecting the fate ofSharp is shown in the program, where an early returningclimber Lebanese adventurer Maxim Chaya is descend-ing from the summit and radios to his base campmanager(Russell Brice) that he has found a frostbitten and un-conscious climber in distress. Maxim Chaya is unable toidentify Sharp, who had chosen to climb solo without anysupport and so did not identify himself to other climbers.The base camp manager assumes that Sharp is part of agroup that has already calculated that they must abandonhim, and informs his lone climber that there is no chanceof him being able to help Sharp by himself. As Sharp'scondition deteriorates through the day and other descend-ing climbers pass him, his opportunities for rescue dimin-ish: his legs and feet curl from frostbite, preventing himfrom walking; the later descending climbers are lower onoxygen and lack the strength to offer aid; time runs outfor any Sherpas to return and rescue him. Most impor-tantly, Sharp's decision to climb without support left himwith no margin for recovery.David Sharp's body remains just below the summit on theChinese side next to another corpse nicknamed "GreenBoots"; they share space in a small rock cave that has be-come an ad hoc tomb for them.*[163]

7.10.2 Lincoln Hall rescue

As the Sharp debate kicked off, on 26 May 2006 Aus-tralian climber Lincoln Hall was found alive, after beingdeclared dead the day before. He was found by a partyof four climbers (Dan Mazur, Andrew Brash, Myles Os-borne and Jangbu Sherpa) who, giving up their own sum-mit attempt, stayed with Hall and descended with himand a party of 11 Sherpas sent up to carry him down.Hall later fully recovered. Similar actions have beenrecorded since, including on 21 May 2007, when Cana-dian climber Meagan McGrath initiated the successfulhigh-altitude rescue of Nepali Usha Bista. Recognizingher heroic rescue, Major Meagan McGrath was selectedas a 2011 recipient of the Sir Edmund Hillary Founda-tion of Canada Humanitarian Award, which recognises

7.12 2012 mountaineering season 17

a Canadian who has personally or administratively con-tributed a significant service or act in the Himalayan Re-gion of Nepal.*[169]

7.11 Ascent statistics up to 2010 season

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Ascents of Mount Everest by year through 2010

The sun rising on Everest in 2011

By the end of the 2010 climbing season, there had been5,104 ascents to the summit by about 3,142 individu-als, with 77% of these ascents being accomplished since2000.*[133] The summit was achieved in 7 of the 22years from 1953 to 1974, and has not been missed since1975.*[133] In 2007, the record number of 633 ascentswas recorded, by 350 climbers and 253 sherpas.*[133]A remarkable illustration of the explosion of popularityof Everest is provided by the numbers of daily ascents.Analysis of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster shows thatpart of the blame was on the bottleneck caused by thelarge number of climbers (33 to 36) attempting to sum-mit on the same day; this was considered unusually high atthe time. By comparison, on 23May 2010, the summit ofMount Everest was reached by 169 climbers – more sum-mits in a single day than in the cumulative 31 years fromthe first successful summit in 1953 through 1983.*[133]

There have been 219 fatalities recorded onMount Everestfrom the 1922 British Mount Everest Expedition throughthe end of 2010, a rate of 4.3 fatalities for every 100 sum-mits (this is a general rate, and includes fatalities amongstsupport climbers, those who turned back before the peak,those who died en route to the peak and those who diedwhile descending from the peak). Of the 219 fatalities,58 (26.5%) were climbers who had summited but did notcomplete their descent.*[133] Though the rate of fatali-ties has decreased since the year 2000 (1.4 fatalities forevery 100 summits, with 3938 summits since 2000), thesignificant increase in the total number of climbers stillmeans 54 fatalities since 2000: 33 on the northeast ridge,17 on the southeast ridge, 2 on southwest face, and 2 onnorth face.*[133]Nearly all attempts at the summit are done using one ofthe two main routes. The traffic seen by each route variesfrom year to year. In 2005–07, more than half of allclimbers elected to use the more challenging, but cheapernortheast route. In 2008, the northeast route was closedby the Chinese government for the entire climbing sea-son, and the only people able to reach the summit fromthe north that year were athletes responsible for carryingthe Olympic torch for the 2008 Summer Olympics.*[170]The route was closed to foreigners once again in 2009 inthe run-up to the 50th anniversary of the Dalai Lama'sexile.*[171] These closures led to declining interest inthe north route, and, in 2010, two-thirds of the climbersreached the summit from the south.*[133]

7.12 2012 mountaineering season

Everest from Gokyo Ri, 2012

In 2012 Montana State University conducted a scien-tific expedition to Everest.*[172] The Everest EducationExpedition studied the geology of the Everest massifwhich includes Everest-Nuptse-Lhotse-Khumbutse, andadvanced the state of minerlogy, strain, and predictedrock ages.*[172] Of interest was the fossil-bearing lime-stone that crowns Mount Everest, the nature and impactof ice in the region (such as the icefall), and the over-all stratigraphy (including limestone, metamorphic rocks,

18 7 HISTORY OF EXPEDITIONS

pelites, and quartzites) *[172]In 2012 the oldest female to reach the summit up tothat time was achieved by Tamae Watanabe at 73 yearsold*[173] She broke her own record from 2002, whenshe climbed it at the age of 63.*[174] The retired of-fice worker lives at the base of Mount Fuji, and had alsoclimbed many other peaks including Denali, the Eiger,and Lhotse.*[174] She climbed with a group of four, andbeat a competing 72-year-old woman who was trying forthe same record.*[174]A Canadian woman's death in 2012 on Everest trig-gered numerous headlines and triggered a debate aboutinexperienced climbers making summiting attempts onMount Everest, as well as if lower-budget guide firms sup-ply enough oxygen.*[175]*[176] Although she did man-age to summit she did not make it back down success-fully.*[176]*[177] Francys Arsentiev died on descent in1998 despite the efforts of her husband and a team fromUzbekistan that ran low of bottled oxygen.*[178] In 1979,another woman named Hannelore Schmatz successfullysummited, but like the other two, became exhausted andran out of oxygen despite the efforts of her climbinggroup to save her.*[179] Ray Genet, in her climbing partydied also, but the two Sherpas survived.*[179] In 1984Yogendra Bahadur Thapa and Ang Dorje died trying re-trieve her corpse.*[104] Schmatz remained frozen on themountain, with her eyes frozen open and hair left to blowin the wind, to the emotional disturbance of later climbersin the 1980s and 1990s.*[104]Between 1922 and 2012 it is recorded that at least 233died climbing Mount Everest.*[153] With hundreds ofclimbers on the most popular route on the most popu-lar days, deaths have become almost too routine as manyclimbers have accepted that some are just not going tomake it, even though they are left with a lingering moralquestion of if they should have done more to save thosein trouble.*[153]

“Aswe passed he raised his arm and lookedat us,”she said.“He didn't know anyone wasthere. He was almost dead. He was dead whenwe came back down.”—Leanna Shuttleworth*[153]

National Geographic says that 547 people summited in2012.*[180] Of those that attempted the summit, thiswas a 57 percent success rate and a higher rate than theyear 2000's 24% success rate.*[180] The number of sum-miters has grown also, withNational Geographic compar-ing the 72 summits in 1990, 145 summits in 2000, and theaforementioned 547 summits in 2012.*[180]The Guinness Book of World Records records that 234climbers summited in one day in 2012.*[181] However,it was one of the deadliest seasons since 1996, with 11climbers dying on Everest in the spring.*[182]

7.13 2013 mountaineering season

Look up at Everest from the South Col, 2013

In 2013, about 340 permits to climb Everest weregranted.*[183] Since Tenzig and Hillary climbed in the1950s, about 4,000 people had climbed Everest in theyears leading up to 2013.*[183] That year, three climberswere attacked by a mob of 100 Sherpas at 21,000 feetaltitude.*[184] The event was noted as an aberration inthe otherwise decades long spirit of teamwork and friend-ship on the mountain.*[184] Dangers other than the ele-ments are not unknown to climbers, though; for example,in 2014 11 climbers were murdered in their base camp innearby Pakistan while at the 8000er Nanga Parbat.*[185]In 2013 a group of Sherpas attacked one climber and at-tempted to murder him after he returned to camp.*[186]Events including swinging an ice pick at him as heclimbed the Lhotse face, making physical contact with hisclimbing partner, verbal threats, the throwing of a knifewhich impacted but did not penetrate his skin, and otherattacks.*[186] This was only preliminary, and one partof the attack was described by the climber as“they toldus,“Now we kill you. Now we kill you.”One of themthrew a big stone into Ueli Steck's face, and he startedto bleed. Then they were punching my face, and thenkicks and punches and kicks and punches. And stonesand so on.”*[186] The climber was upset because heconsidered himself a friend of the Sherpa community,had built a school for nearly 400 Sherpa children, andalso had funded free evacuations via helicopters for Sher-pas.*[186] The Nepalese government said if climberswere attacked, actions would be taken against the aggres-sors.*[183]On the other hand, in 2013 the oldest person yet toreach the summit, Yuichiro Miura, at 80 years old, wasachieved.*[187] Also, a Eurocopter AS350 B3 flown byM. Folini achieved a record breaking rescue at 7,800 m(25,590 ft), by retrieving fallen climber Sudarshan Gau-tam between Camps III & IV in Everest's Yellow Band onthe morning of 20 May 2013.*[188]*[189]*[190]*[191]Gautam has no arms or prosthetics but reached the sum-mit on May 20, 2013.*[192]

7.16 Mountain re-opens 19

The updated 2013 Himalayan database recorded 658summits, which brought the total number of summits to6,871 by 4,042 different people.*[81] In comparison, ittook 41 years after Tenzig and Hillary to achieve the samenumber of climbs.*[193] This is also greater than 2007's633 summiters.*[194]

7.14 2014 avalanche and season

Main article: 2014 Mount Everest avalanche

On 18 April 2014, an avalanche hit the area just belowthe Base Camp 2 at around 0100 UTC (0630 local time)and at an elevation of about 5,900 metres.*[195] Sixteenpeople were killed in the avalanche (all Nepalese guides)and nine more were injured.*[196] Sadly, this was notthe only tragedy in the region with over 43 killed in the2014 Nepal snowstorm disaster, and they were not evensummiting but rather trekking the Annapurna Circuit.One positive to come out of the season was that a 13-year-old girl managed to climb Mount Everest, breakingthe record for youngest female to summit.*[197] Addi-tionally, one team used a helicopter to fly from Southbase camp to Camp 2 to avoid the Khumbu Icefall, thenreached the Everest summit. This team had to use thesouth side because the Chinese had denied them a per-mit to climb. Nepal turned Chinese reluctance into anincredible success for the country, with the executive do-nating tens of thousands of dollars to local hospitals andachieving a new hybrid aviation/mountaneering style—they awarded her the Nepalese International Mountaineerof the Year.*[198]Over 100 people summitted Everest from China (Tibetregion), and six from Nepal in the 2014 season.*[199]

7.15 2015 avalanche, earthquake, season

Main article: 2015 Mount Everest avalanches

2015 was set to be record breaking season of climbs,with hundreds of permits issued in Nepal and many ad-ditional permits in Tibet (China); however, a magnitude7.8 earthquake effectively shut down the Everest climb-ing season.*[200] 2015 was the first time since 1974 withno spring summits, as all climbing teams pulled out afterthe quakes and avalanche.*[201]*[202] One of the rea-sons for this is the high probability (over 50% accordingto the USGS) of aftershocks.*[203] Indeed, just weeksafter the first quake, the region was rattled by a 7.3 mag-nitude quake and there was also many considerable after-shocks.*[204] See also list of aftershocks of April 2015Nepal earthquakeOn 25 April 2015, an earthquake measuring 7.8 Mw trig-gered an avalanche that hit Everest Base Camp.*[205] 18bodies were recovered from Mount Everest by the Indian

army mountaineering team.*[206] The avalanche beganon Pumori,*[207] moved through the Khumbu Icefall onthe southwest side of Mount Everest, and slammed intothe South Base Camp.*[208]The quakes trapped hundreds of climbers above theKhumbu icefall, and they had to be evacuated by he-licopter as they ran low on supplies.*[209] The quakeshifted the route through the icefall making it essen-tially unpassable to the climbers.*[209] Bad weather alsomade helicopter evacuation difficult.*[209] The Everesttragedy was small compared the impact overall on Nepal,with almost 9 thousand dead in Nepal*[210]*[211] andabout 22 thousand injured.*[210] In Tibet (China) byApril 28 it was identified that at least 25 had died and 117were injured.*[212] By April 29, 2015, the Tibet Moun-taineering Association (North/Chinese side) closed Ever-est and other peaks to climbing, stranding 25 teams andabout 300 people on the north side of Everest.*[213] Onthe south side helicopters evacuated 180 people trappedat Camps 1 and 2.*[214]

7.16 Mountain re-opens

On August 24, 2015 Nepal re-opened Everest to tourismincluding mountain climbers.*[215] The first climberpermit of the fall season was awarded to Japanese climberNobukazu Kuriki, who has tried four times to summitEverest but not been successful, and is making his fifthattempt in the Fall 2015 climbing season.*[216] Kurkinoted the dangers of climbing it, himself surviving be-ing stuck in a freezing snow-hole for two days near thetop of Everest.*[217] It did come at the cost of all hisfinger tips and this thumb, lost to frostbite, which addsfurther difficulty to his climb.*[217] However, summit-ing Everest with disabilities like amputations and diseaseshas become quite popular in 21st century, with famousstories like Sudarshan Gautam, a man with no arms whomade it to the top in 2013.*[218] A teenager with down-syndrome made it to Base camp, which itself has be-come a sort of substitute for even more extreme record-breaking in some ways because it is much easier than go-ing to the top but carries many of same thrills includ-ing the trip to the Himalaya's and rustic scenery.*[219]Danger lurks even at base camp though, which was thesite where dozens were killed in the 2015 Mount Everestavalanches. Others that have climbed Everest with am-putations include Mark Inglis (no legs), Paul Hockey (1arm only), and Arunima Sinha (1 leg). Perhaps one of themost incredible stories was a man with an Ostomy pouch-ing system who climbed Everest, giving new meaning tophrase“no guts, no glory”as he only made it to the southSummit.*[220]Some sections of the trail from Lukla to Everest BaseCamp (Nepal) were damaged in the earthquakes earlierin the year and needed repairs to handle trekkers.*[221]

20 9 EVEREST AND AVIATION

8 Autumn climbing

Although generally less popular than spring, Mount Ever-est has also been climbed in the autumn (also called the“post-monsoon season”).*[222]*[223] For example, in2010 Eric Larsen and five Nepali guides summited Ever-est in the autumn for the first time in ten years.*[223] Thefirst mainland British ascent of Mount Everest (Hillarywas from New Zealand), lead by Chris Bonnington, wasan autumn ascent in 1975.*[224] The autumn season,when the monsoon ends, is regarded as more dangerousbecause there is typically a lot of new snow which can beunstable.*[225] However, this increased snow can makeit more popular with certain winter sports like skiing andsnow boarding.*[222] Two Japanese summited in Octo-ber 1973 also.*[226] Chris Chandler and Bob Cormacksummited Everest in October 1976 as part of the Amer-ican Bicentennial Everest Expedition that year, the firstAmericans to make an autumn ascent of Mt. Everestaccording to the Lost Angeles Times.*[227] By the 21stcentury, summer and autumn can be more popular withskiing and snowboard attempts on Mount Everest.*[228]During the 1980s, climbing in autumn was actually morepopular than in spring.*[229]The mountain has also been climbed in the winter, butthat is not popular because of the combination of coldhigh winds and shorter days.*[230] The peak is batteredby 170 mph winds and the average temperature of thesummit in January is usually −33 °F (−36 °C) *[222]

Sunset lights up the peak of Everest's North face

9 Everest and aviation

9.1 1988: First climb and glide

On 26 September 1988, having climbed the mountainvia the south-east ridge, Jean-Marc Boivin made the firstparaglider descent of Everest,*[231] in the process creat-ing the record for the fastest descent of the mountain andthe highest paraglider flight. Boivin said: “I was tiredwhen I reached the top because I had broken much of thetrail, and to run at this altitude was quite hard.”*[232]Boivin ran 60 ft (18 m) from below the summit on 40-degree slopes to launch his paraglider, reaching Camp IIat 19,400 ft (5,900 m) in 12 minutes (some sources say11 minutes).*[232]*[233]

9.2 1991: Hot air balloon flyover

In 1991 four men in two balloons achieved the first hot-air balloon flight over Mount Everest.*[234] In one bal-loon was Andy Elson and Eric Jones (cameraman), andin the other balloon Chris Dewhirst and Leo Dickinson(cameraman).*[235] Leo went on to write a book aboutthe adventure called Ballooning Over Everest.*[235] Thehot-air balloons were modified to function at up 40,000feet altitude.*[235] Richard Messner called one of Leo'spanoramic views of Everest, captured on the now discon-tinued Kodak Kodachrome film, the“best snap on Earth”, according to UK newspaper The Telegraph.*[236] De-whirst has offered to take passengers on a repeat of thisfeat for 2.6 million USD per passenger.*[234]

9.3 2005: Pilot summits Everest with heli-copter

Photo of a Eurocopter AS350 B3“Squirrel”

In May 2005, pilot Didier Delsalle of France landed aEurocopter AS350 B3 helicopter on the summit ofMountEverest.*[237] He needed to land for two minutes to setthe Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) officialrecord, but he stayed for about four minutes, twice.*[237]

21

In this type of landing the rotors stay engaged, whichavoids relying on the snow to fully support the aircraft.The flight set rotorcraft world records, for highest of bothlanding and take-off.*[238]Some press reports suggested that the report of the sum-mit landing was a misunderstanding of a South Col land-ing, but he had also landed on South Col two daysearlier,*[239] with this landing and the Everest recordsconfirmed by the FAI.*[238] Delsalle also rescued twoJapanese climbers at 16,000 ft (4,880 m) while he wasthere. One climber noted that the new record meant abetter chance of rescue.*[237]

9.4 2013: Helicopter assisted ascent

In 2013 one team used a helicopter to fly from Southbase camp to Camp 2 to avoid the Khumbu Icefall, thenreached the Everest summit. This team had to use thesouth side because the Chinese had denied them a per-mit to climb. Nepal turned Chinese reluctance into anincredible success for the country, with the executive do-nating tens of thousands of dollars to local hospitals andachieving a new hybrid aviation/mountaneering style—they awarded her the Nepalese International Mountaineerof the Year.*[198]

10 Cost of guided climbs

Going with a“celebrity guide”, usually a well-knownmountaineer typically with decades of climbing experi-ence and perhaps multiple Everest summits, can cost over£100,000 as of 2015.*[240] On the other hand, a limitedsupport service, offering only some meals at base campand bureaucratic overhead like a permit, can be as littleas 7,000 USD.*[161] There are issues with the manage-ment of guiding firms in Nepal, and one Canadian womanwas left begging for help when her guide firm, whichshe had paid 40,000 dollars to couldn't stop her fromdying in 2012.*[241] She ran out of bottled oxygen af-ter climbing for 27 hours straight.*[241] Despite decadesof concern over inexperienced climbers, neither she northe guide firm had summited Everest before.*[241] Thecommunist-controlled Tibetan/Chinese side does not of-fer much reprieve from the chaos, with it being describedas “out of control”due to multiple reports of thefts,threats, etc.*[242]

11 Commercial climbing

ClimbingMount Everest can be a relatively expensive un-dertaking for climbers. Climbing gear required to reachthe summit may cost in excess of US$8,000, and mostclimbers also use bottled oxygen, which adds aroundUS$3,000. The permit to enter the Everest area from the

An Everest base camp

Gorak Shep is about a three-hour walk to South EBC (EverestBase Camp)*[243]

south via Nepal costs US$10,000 to US$25,000 per per-son, depending on the size of the team. The ascent typi-cally starts in one of the two base camps near the moun-tain, both of which are approximately 100 kilometres (60mi) from Kathmandu and 300 kilometres (190 mi) fromLhasa (the two nearest cities with major airports); trans-ferring one's equipment from the airport to the base campmay add as much as US$2,000.Beyond this point, costs may vary widely. It is technicallypossible to reach the summit with minimal additional ex-penses, and there are“budget”travel agencies which offerlogistical support for such trips. However, this is consid-ered difficult and dangerous (as illustrated by the case ofDavid Sharp). Many climbers hire“full service”guidecompanies, which provide a wide spectrum of services,including acquisition of permits, transportation to/frombase camp, food, tents, fixed ropes,*[244] medical assis-tance while on themountain, an experiencedmountaineerguide, and even personal porters to carry one's backpackand cook one's meals. The cost of such a guide servicemay range from $40,000 to $80,000 per person.*[245]Since most equipment is moved by Sherpas, clients offull-service guide companies can often keep their back-pack weights under 10 kilograms (22 lb), or hire a Sherpato carry their backpack for them. By contrast, climbers

22 11 COMMERCIAL CLIMBING

attempting less commercialised peaks, like Denali, areoften expected to carry backpacks over 30 kilograms (66lb) and, occasionally, to tow a sled with 35 kilograms (77lb) of gear and food.*[246]According to Jon Krakauer, the era of commercializationof Everest started in 1985, when the summit was reachedby a guided expedition led by David Breashears that in-cluded Richard Bass, a wealthy 55-year old businessmanand an amateur mountain climber with only four years ofclimbing experience.*[247] By the early 1990s, multiplecompanies were offering guided tours to the mountain.Rob Hall, one of the mountaineers who died in the 1996disaster, had successfully guided 39 clients to the summitprior to that incident.*[248]The degree of commercialization of Mount Everest is afrequent subject of criticism. Jamling Tenzing Norgay,the son of Tenzing Norgay, said in a 2003 interview thathis late father would have been shocked to discover thatrich thrill-seekers with no climbing experience were nowroutinely reaching the summit:

You still have to climb this mountainyourself with your feet. But the spirit ofadventure is not there any more. It is lost.There are people going up there who haveno idea how to put on crampons. They areclimbing because they have paid someone$65,000. It is very selfish. It endangers thelives of others.*[249]

Reinhold Messner concurred in 2004:

You could die in each climb and that meantyou were responsible for yourself. We werereal mountaineers: careful, aware and evenafraid. By climbing mountains we were notlearning how big we were. We were finding outhow breakable, how weak and how full of fearwe are. You can only get this if you exposeyourself to high danger. I have always said thata mountain without danger is not a mountain.... High-altitude alpinism has become tourismand show. These commercial trips to Everest,they are still dangerous. But the guides andorganisers tell clients, “Don't worry, it's allorganised.”The route is prepared by hundredsof Sherpas. Extra oxygen is available in allcamps, right up to the summit. People willcook for you and lay out your beds. Clientsfeel safe and don't care about the risks.*[250]

However, not all opinions on the subject among promi-nent mountaineers are strictly negative. For example,Edmund Hillary, who went on record saying that he has

not liked“the commercialization ofmountaineering, par-ticularly ofMt. Everest”*[251] and claimed that“Havingpeople pay $65,000 and then be led up the mountain by acouple of experienced guides ... isn't really mountaineer-ing at all”,*[252] nevertheless noted that he was pleasedby the changes brought to Everest area by theWesterners:

I don't have any regrets because I workedvery hard indeed to improve the condition forthe local people. When we first went in therethey didn't have any schools, they didn't haveany medical facilities, all over the years wehave established 27 schools, we have two hos-pitals and a dozen medical clinics and thenwe've built bridges over wild mountain riversand put in fresh water pipelines so in coopera-tion with the Sherpas we've done a lot to benefitthem.—Edmund Hillary*[253]

One of the early guided summiters, Richard Bass (ofSeven summits fame) responded in an interview aboutEverest climbers and what it took to survive there:*[254]

Climbers should have high altitude experi-ence before they attempt the really big moun-tains. People don’t realise the difference be-tween a 20,000-foot mountain and 29,000 feet.It’s not just arithmetic. The reduction of oxy-gen in the air is proportionate to the altitudealright, but the effect on the human body isdisproportionate–an exponential curve. Peo-ple climb Denali [20,320 feet] or Aconcagua[22,834 feet] and think,“Heck, I feel great uphere, I’m going to try Everest.”But it’s notlike that.—Richard Bass*[254]

11.1 Law and order struggles

Some climbers have reported life-threatening thefts fromsupply caches. Vitor Negrete, the first Brazilian to climbEverest without oxygen and part of David Sharp's party,died during his descent, and theft from his high-altitudecamp may have contributed.*[255]*[256]

“Several members were bullied, gear wasstolen, and threats were made against me andmy climbing partner, Michael Kodas, makingan already stressful situation even more dire.”—Anne Parmenter*[257]

In addition to theft, Michael Kodas describes in his bookHigh Crimes: The Fate of Everest in an Age of Greed(2008),*[258] unethical guides and Sherpas, prostitutionand gambling at the Tibet Base Camp, fraud related to

23

the sale of oxygen bottles, and climbers collecting do-nations under the pretense of removing trash from themountain.*[259]*[260]The Chinese side of the Everest in Tibet was called“outof countrol”after one Candadian had all his gear stolenand was abandoned by his Sherpa.*[242] Another sherpahelped him get off themountain safely and gave him somespare gear. Other climbers have also noted missing oxy-gen bottles, which can be worth hundreds of dollars each.One of the problems is that there are hundreds of climberspassing by people's tents, although the weather can alsodamage or even blow people's equipment away.*[242]

12 2014 Sherpa strike

On 18 April 2014, in of the worst disasters to ever hit theEverest climbing community up to that time, 16 Sher-pas died in Nepal due to the avalanche that swept themoff Mount Everest. In response to the tragedy numer-ous Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job and mostclimbing companies pulled out in respect for the Sherpapeople mourning the loss.*[261]*[262] Some still wantedto climb but there was really toomuch controversy to con-tinue that year.*[261] One of the issues that was triggeredwas pre-existing resentment that had been building overunreasonable client requests during climbs.*[261] As badas it was, the death toll was surpassed later that year bythe 2014 Nepal snowstorm disaster.

13 Extreme sports at Mount Ever-est

Mount Everest has been host to other winter sportsand adventuring besides mountaineering, including snow-boarding, skiing, paragliding, and BASE jumping.Yuichiro Miura become the first man known to ski downEverest in the 1970s.*[77] Stefan Gatt andMarco Siffredisnowboarded Mount Everest in 2001.*[263] (see alsoList of ski descents of Eight-Thousanders) Other fa-mous Everest skiers include Davo Karničar of Slove-nia, who completed a top to south base camp descent in2000, Hans Kammerlander of Italy in 1996 on the northside,*[264] and Kit DesLauriers of the United Statesin 2006.*[265] In 2006 Tomas Olsson planned to skidown the North face, but his anchor broke while he wasrappelling down a cliff in theNorton couloir at about 8500meters, resulting in his death from a two and a half kilo-meter fall.*[266]Various types of gliding descents have slowly becomemore popular, and are noted for their rapid descents tolower camps. In 1986 Steve McKinney led an expedi-tion toMount Everest,*[267] during which he became thefirst person to fly a hang-glider off the mountain.*[268]

Frenchman Jean-Marc Boivin made the first paragliderdescent of Everest in September 1988, descending inminutes from the south-east ridge to a lower camp.*[231]In 2011, two Nepalese made a gliding descent from theEverest summit down 16,400 feet in 45 minutes.*[269]On 5 May 2013, the beverage company Red Bull spon-sored Valery Rozov, who successfully BASE jumpedoff of the mountain while wearing a wingsuit, settinga record for world's highest BASE jump in the pro-cess.*[115]*[116]*[270]

14 Everest and religion

The Rongphu Monastery, with Mt. Everest in the background

The southern part of Mt. Everest is regarded as oneof several “hidden valleys”of refuge designated byPadmasambhava, a ninth-century "lotus-born" Buddhistsaint.*[271]Near the base of the north side of Mt. Everest liesRongbuk Monastery, which has been called the“sacredthreshold toMount Everest, with the most dramatic viewsof the world.”*[272] For Sherpas living on the slopesof Everest in the Khumbu region of Nepal, RongbukMonastery was an important pilgrimage site, accessed ina few days of travel across the Himalaya through NangpaLa.*[273]Miyolangsangma, a Tibetan Buddhist "Goddess of Inex-haustible Giving", is believed to have lived at the top ofMt. Everest. According to Sherpa Buddhist monks, Mt.Everest is Miyolangsangma's palace and playground, andall climbers are only partially welcome guests, having ar-rived without invitation.*[271]The Sherpa people also believe that Mt. Everest and itsflanks are blessed with spiritual energy, and one shouldshow reverence when passing through this sacred land-scape. Here, the karmic effects of one's actions are mag-nified, and impure thoughts are best avoided.*[271]

24 17 TERRAIN ANIMATION

15 Debris management

Former long-time Everest guide and climber Apa Sherpanoted the increased amount of items left by expedi-tions.*[148] Apa organised an expedition to remove4,000 kg (8,800 lb) of rubbish from the lower part of themountain and another 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) from higher ar-eas.*[148] Removal of things from Everest can be quitedangerous, and in one mission two died trying to removea single corpse, actually increasing the number of deadbodies on Everest.*[104]

16 Maps

Southern and northern climbing routes as seen from theInternational Space Station. (The names on the photoare links to corresponding pages.)

16.1 From China (Tibet region)

Northern panoramic view of Everest from below theGyatso La on the Friendship Highway between Lhatseand Shelkar

16.2 From Gokyo Ri

Annotated image of Everest and surroundings as seenfrom Gokyo Ri.Changtse, Nirekha, Everest, Lobuche West, Cho La,Nuptse, Lhotse, Lobuche, Island Peak

17 Terrain animation

Animation of terrain around Everest and climbing routes by theDLR (Attribution: DLR, CC-BY 3.0)

25

18 See also• Geology of the Himalaya

• List of people who died climbing Mount Everest

• List of Mount Everest records

• List of tallest mountains in the Solar System

• Qomolangma National Park

• Sagarmatha National Park

• Timeline of climbing Mount Everest

19 References[1] Based on the 1999 and 2005 surveys of elevation of snow

cap, not rock head. For more details, see Surveys.

[2] The position of the summit of Everest on the internationalborder is clearly shown on detailed topographic mapping,including official Nepalese mapping.

[3] The WGS84 coordinates given here were calculated us-ing detailed topographic mapping and are in agreementwith adventurestats. They are unlikely to be in error bymore than 2”. Coordinates showing Everest to be morethan a minute further east that appeared on this page un-til recently, and still appear in Wikipedia in several otherlanguages, are incorrect.

[4] Starr, Daniel (18 March 2011). “Golden Decade: TheBirth of 8000m Winter Climbing”. Alpinist.com. Re-trieved 28 May 2013.

[5] “Mt Everest History and facts”. Mnteverest.net. Re-trieved 29 May 2013.

[6] National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global LandOne-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings,D. and P.K. Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center,NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: 2015-03-16]

[7] Amante, C. and B.W. Eakins, 2009. ETOPO1 1 Arc-Minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sourcesand Analysis. NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDISNGDC-24. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA.doi:10.7289/V5C8276M [access date: 2015-03-18].

[8] Robert Krulwich (7 April 2007).“The“Highest”Spoton Earth?". NPR.org.

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[261] McCarthy, Julie (24 April 2014).“SherpasWalk Off TheJob After Deadly Avalanche”. NPR. Retrieved 26 April2014.

[262] TheAssociated Press (21April 2014).“Sherpas ConsiderBoycott After Everest Disaster”. NPR. Retrieved 26April2014.

[263] Mount Everest Snowboard Controversy Solved

[264] “Kammerlander”.

[265] Salisbury, Richard (2004). The Himalayan database theexpedition archives of Elizabeth Hawley. Golden, Colo.:American Alphine Club Press. ISBN 0930410998.

[266] Tomas Olsson found dead - Skiing down from the Northside of Mount Everest ended in tradegy!

[267] Unsworth, Walt, Everest: The Mountaineering History,[London, UK: The Mountaineers, 2000], p.626

[268] http://www.flymicro.com/everest/index.cfm?page=docs%2FHistory%2FHang_gliders_and_Paragliders.htm#_1986

[269] Dream Trip: Make the Ultimate Descent

[270] Cooper, Tarquin (28 May 2013). “Valery Rozov BASEJumps From Mt Everest”. Red Bull.

[271] Coburn, Broughton.“Mount Everest Fight Raises Ques-tions About Sherpas”. National Geographic (magazine).Retrieved 14 September 2013.

[272] Gilbert, Jeanne-Marie. “Rongbuk Monastery”. PBS.Retrieved 14 September 2013.

[273] Tenzing Norgay and James Ramsey Ullman,Man of Ever-est (1955, also published as Tiger of the Snows)

20 Further reading

For 1924 Mount Everest expedition, see 1924 BritishMount Everest expedition#Bibliography.For first ascent of Mount Everest, see 1953 BritishMount Everest expedition#Further reading.

• Astill, Tony (2005). Mount Everest: The Reconnais-sance 1935.

• Boukreev, Anatoli; DeWalt, G. Weston (1997). TheClimb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest. Saint Martin'sPress. ISBN 0312168144.

• Hillary, Edmund (1953). High Adventure. London:Hodder & Stoughton.

• Krakauer, Jon (1997). Into Thin Air: A Personal Ac-count of the Mt. Everest Disaster. New York: Vil-lard. ISBN 0-679-45752-6.

• Messner, Reinhold (1989). The Crystal Horizon:Everest – the first solo ascent. Seattle: The Moun-taineers. ISBN 0-89886-207-8.

• Murray, W. H. (1953). The Story of Everest, 1921–1952. London: J. M. Dent & Sons.

• Norgay, Tenzing; Ullman, Ramsey James (1955).Tiger of the Snows. New York: Putnam.

• Tilman, H. W. (1952). Nepal Himalaya. Cam-bridge University Press.

21 External links• Mount Everest on Himalaya-Info.org (German)

• 360 panorama view from top of Mount Everest –large dimension drawing

• National Geographic site on Mt. Everest

• NOVA site on Mt. Everest

• Imaging Everest, a collection of photographs

• Panoramas:

• North

32 21 EXTERNAL LINKS

• South

• Interactive climb of Everest from Discovery Chan-nel

• Mount Everest on Summitpost

• Full list of all ascents of Everest up to and including2008 (in pdf format)

• Summits and deaths per year

• Mount Everest panorama, Mount Everest interactivepanorama (QuickTime format), Virtual panoramas

• National Geographic, 2015 article with info-graphicon climbing routes

33

22 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

22.1 Text• Mount Everest Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest?oldid=680887979 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Vicki

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22.2 Images 35

22.2 Images• File:1870_Index_Chart_to_GTS_India-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/1870_Index_Chart_to_

GTS_India-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Survey of India Original artist: Survey of India• File:AS7-07-1748.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/AS7-07-1748.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/apollo7/html/as7-07-1748.html Original artist: NASA

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• File:CH-NP_79-80_Bdy_Map50.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/CH-NP_79-80_Bdy_Map50.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Boundary treaty maps held at UN Treaty Office Original artist: Survey of Nepal

• File:Climbing_through_the_Yellow_Band,_Mt._Everest,_-May_2007_a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Climbing_through_the_Yellow_Band%2C_Mt._Everest%2C_-May_2007_a.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Brian-Everest photos Photo 44 of 51 Original artist: Lloyd Smith

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Condor_Films_1952.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Condor_Films_1952.jpg License: CCBY-SA 3.0 Contributors: User:Joggingjack Original artist: Condor Films

• File:Eurocopter_AS-350B-3_Ecureuil_AN0980259.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Eurocopter_AS-350B-3_Ecureuil_AN0980259.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors:

• Gallery page http://www.airliners.net/photo/Eurocopter-AS-350B-3-Ecureuil/0980259/L Original artist: Andre Wadman• File:Everest-fromKalarPatar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Everest-fromKalarPatar.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Uwe Gille (talk · contribs)

• File:EverestAscents.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/EverestAscents.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work , Data taken from http://www.8000ers.com/cms/download.html?func=startdown&id=153. Plot rendered usinggnuplot 4.4 and minimally modified script from File:Dirac_distribution_CDF.svg. Original artist: Itinerant1 (talk)

• File:EverestMosaic.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/EverestMosaic.jpg License: Public domainCon-tributors: From the mosaic used in the video Finding Mt. Everest From Space. Original artist: NASA.

• File:Everest_Peace_Project_-_Everest_summit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Everest_Peace_Project_-_Everest_summit.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 us Contributors: Lance Trumbull - EverestPeaceProject.org Original artist: LanceTrumbull - EverestPeaceProject.org

• File:Everest_ali_2011298.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/20/Everest_ali_2011298.jpg License: PD Contribu-tors:from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82578 Original artist: ?

• File:Everest_base_camp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Everest_base_camp.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: English Wikipedia Original artist: Nuno Nogueira (Nmnogueira)

• File:Everest_kalapatthar_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Everest_kalapatthar_crop.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Cropped and scaled down from Image:Everest kalapatthar.jpg. Original artist: Photo by Pavel Novak

• File:EverestfromKalarPatarcrop.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/21/EverestfromKalarPatarcrop.JPG Li-cense: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:own photograph --Uwe Gille 11:54, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC) Original 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• File:Everestpanoram.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Everestpanoram.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Wmase at en.wikipedia

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• File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domainCon-tributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999

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36 22 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

• -xfi-'s file• -xfi-'s code• Zirland's codes of colors

Original artist:(of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-.

• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:ISS004E8852_everest.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/ISS004E8852_everest.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory Original artist: Dan Bursch, NASA Astronaut.

• File:Inside_Khumbu-Icefall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Inside_Khumbu-Icefall.jpg License:CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Iván_Ernesto_Gómez_Carrasco_en_la_cima_del_Monte_Everest.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Iv%C3%A1n_Ernesto_G%C3%B3mez_Carrasco_en_la_cima_del_Monte_Everest.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Igomezc

• File:Kathmandu_,_Nepal_,_Himalayas_,Everest_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Kathmandu_%2C_Nepal_%2C_Himalayas_%2CEverest_2.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Kathmandu , Nepal , Himalayas ,Everest Originalartist: ilker ender from Toronto, Canada

• File:KhumbuIcefall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/KhumbuIcefall.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Khumbu_glacier_in_relation_to_everest.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Khumbu_glacier_in_relation_to_everest.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/PaintedGlaciers/?src=features-recent Original artist: NASA

• File:Mount-Everest.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Mount-Everest.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/joehastings/538538099/in/photolist-PA9BD-6e9mNF-KZFwM-KYKy6-66ZiD7-KYqcG-aQiEoD-4Ns87y-4Nserf-k2SBS-54Dvv6-4NnWf8-PfJe2-9vDwgE-4NsbtY-4PZBGk-4NnXyZ-aSqQdM-aCnihY-4NsaMC-4Nsbeh-4NnXSv-4NsbJ1-4NsaFy-bwhryJ-4NsaUW-b3Sz84-4Ns9oq-4Ns9xu-4NnYTk-b5BAJ6-4NnYu4-4Ns8W1-4Nsbkh-4NnXEM-4Nsb3m-4NsaYo-4Ns8sE-4Ns7j9-4NnZPe-4NsbCo-4NnV7i-bStsfM-Pfc9C-2PzCCz-k1U8Q-6VfVus-298BX-4WLbHu-4WFUZHOriginal artist: Joe Hastings

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• File:Mount_Everest_North_Face.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Mount_Everest_North_Face.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Carsten.nebel

• File:Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: This file was derived from MountEverest as seen from Drukair2.jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg'class='image'><img alt='Mount Everest as seen from Drukair2.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg/50px-Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg' width='50' height='29' src-set='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg/75px-Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg/100px-Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg 2x' data-file-width='2998' data-file-height='1710' /></a>Original artist: Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2.jpg: shrimpo1967

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