MotivationMotivation

„„Why do people choose particular goals?“Why do people choose particular goals?“

„„What specific motives drives behavior?“What specific motives drives behavior?“

„„What individual differences in motivation What individual differences in motivation account for the variability of people account for the variability of people

behavior?“behavior?“

„„How we can motivate people to behave in How we can motivate people to behave in certain ways – eating certain foods, certain ways – eating certain foods,

shopping?“ shopping?“

DefinitionDefinition

MotivationMotivation refers to the causes of refers to the causes of behavior – to external and internal behavior – to external and internal forces, that move person to behave in forces, that move person to behave in particular way at particular time.particular way at particular time.

MotivationMotivation refers to the factors that refers to the factors that direct and energize behavior. These direct and energize behavior. These factors underlie behavior and are factors underlie behavior and are called called motives.motives.

Explaining motivationExplaining motivation

1.1. Instinct approaches: Innate motivationInstinct approaches: Innate motivation

2.2. Drive reduction approaches: HomeostasisDrive reduction approaches: Homeostasis

3.3. Incentive approaches: Motivation´s pullIncentive approaches: Motivation´s pull

4.4. Arousal approaches: Excitement seekingArousal approaches: Excitement seeking

5.5. Cognitive approaches: Thoughts behindCognitive approaches: Thoughts behind

6.6. Humanistic approach: Self-actualisationHumanistic approach: Self-actualisation

1.1. Instinct approaches: Innate Instinct approaches: Innate motivationmotivation

Motivation is the result of Motivation is the result of instinctsinstincts - inborn - inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically patterns of behavior that are biologically determined, not learned.determined, not learned.

InstinctsInstincts are preprogrammed sets of are preprogrammed sets of behavior essential to our survival.behavior essential to our survival.

Cons: Human behavior is very complex and Cons: Human behavior is very complex and instinctual theories cannot explain this instinctual theories cannot explain this complexity. complexity.

2. Drive-reduction approaches: 2. Drive-reduction approaches: HomeostasisHomeostasis

DriveDrive is inner motivational tension, that is inner motivational tension, that energises behavior in order to fulfill the energises behavior in order to fulfill the need.need.

DrivesDrives push us to obtain our basic push us to obtain our basic biological requirements.biological requirements.

We distinguish primary and secondary We distinguish primary and secondary drives (achievement need).drives (achievement need).

Homeostasis is the maintenance of Homeostasis is the maintenance of optimal level of internal biological optimal level of internal biological balance.balance.

3. Incentive approaches: 3. Incentive approaches: Motivation´s pullMotivation´s pull

The theory explaining motivation in The theory explaining motivation in term of external stimuli.term of external stimuli.

Incentive is the external stimulus Incentive is the external stimulus that acts as an anticipated reward that acts as an anticipated reward (we are drawn to food).(we are drawn to food).

Internal motives (drives) work in Internal motives (drives) work in „tandem“ with external motives „tandem“ with external motives (incentives). (incentives).

4. Arousal approaches: 4. Arousal approaches: Excitement seekingExcitement seeking

One explanation of motivation – we One explanation of motivation – we behave in certain way to maintain a behave in certain way to maintain a certain preffered level of arrousal. certain preffered level of arrousal.

Every person has individual level of Every person has individual level of stimulation and activity which is stimulation and activity which is optimal for him.optimal for him.

Some people actively seek for Some people actively seek for challenging and dangerous situations. challenging and dangerous situations.

5. Cognitive approaches: 5. Cognitive approaches: Thoughts behindThoughts behind

Cognitive approaches focuses on the Cognitive approaches focuses on the role of our thoughts, expectations role of our thoughts, expectations and understanding of the world.and understanding of the world.– Intrinsic motivation – we perform certain Intrinsic motivation – we perform certain

activity for our own enjoyment.activity for our own enjoyment.– Extrinsic motivation – we participate in Extrinsic motivation – we participate in

activity for a reward (money, social activity for a reward (money, social agreement).agreement).

6. Humanistic approach: Self-6. Humanistic approach: Self-actualisationactualisation

Our needs are hierarchically ordered Our needs are hierarchically ordered from most fundamental biological from most fundamental biological needs to higher-order ones.needs to higher-order ones.

In Maslow theory the highest needs In Maslow theory the highest needs are self-actualisation and are self-actualisation and transcendence.transcendence.

Without having lower needs fulfilled, Without having lower needs fulfilled, we cannot think of self-actualisation.we cannot think of self-actualisation.

Maslow´s HierarchyMaslow´s Hierarchy 1) 1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.; Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;

2) Safety/security: out of danger; 2) Safety/security: out of danger;

3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; 3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted;

4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore; 5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;

6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty; 6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;

7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's 7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and potential; and

8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to 8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.

..

Self-actualized peopleSelf-actualized people being problem-focused being problem-focused incorporating an ongoing freshness incorporating an ongoing freshness

of appreciation of lifeof appreciation of life a concern about personal growtha concern about personal growth the ability to have peak experiencesthe ability to have peak experiences

The first four layers of the pyramid are The first four layers of the pyramid are what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "D-needs": the individual does not feel "D-needs": the individual does not feel anything if they are met, but feels anxious anything if they are met, but feels anxious if they are not met. The deficiency needs if they are not met. The deficiency needs are:are:

Physiological needsPhysiological needs The physiological needs of the The physiological needs of the organism

(those enabling (those enabling homeostasis) take first ) take first precedence. These consist mainly of:precedence. These consist mainly of:

ExcretionExcretion, , EatingEating, , DrinkingDrinking, , SleepingSleeping, , SexSex, , ShelterShelter, , WarmthWarmth

– If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's physiological If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's physiological needs take the highest priority. Physiological needs can needs take the highest priority. Physiological needs can control thoughts and behaviors, and can cause people to control thoughts and behaviors, and can cause people to feel sickness, pain, and discomfort.feel sickness, pain, and discomfort.

Safety needsSafety needs

When physiological needs are met, the When physiological needs are met, the need for safety will emerge. When one need for safety will emerge. When one stage is fulfilled, a person naturally stage is fulfilled, a person naturally moves to the next. These include:moves to the next. These include:

Personal security from Personal security from crime.. Security as against company lay-offsSecurity as against company lay-offs Health and well-beingHealth and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and Safety net against accidents/illness and

the adverse impactsthe adverse impacts

Love/Belonging/Social Love/Belonging/Social needsneeds

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:relationships in general, such as:– friendship– sexual sexual intimacy– having a supportive and communicative familyhaving a supportive and communicative family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group (such as clubs, office culture, comes from a large social group (such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs) or religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs) or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and depression. This need for belonging can often overcome anxiety, and depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure. e.g. an anorexic ignores the need to eat and the the peer pressure. e.g. an anorexic ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of belonging.security of health for a feeling of belonging.

Esteem needsEsteem needs

All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect others. self-respect, and to respect others.

People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem, inferiority complexes. self-esteem, inferiority complexes.

People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others.

It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Growth needsGrowth needs

Though the deficiency needs may be Though the deficiency needs may be seen as "basic", and can be met and seen as "basic", and can be met and neutralized (i.e. they stop being neutralized (i.e. they stop being motivators in one's life), self-motivators in one's life), self-actualization and transcendence are actualization and transcendence are "being" or "growth needs" (also "being" or "growth needs" (also termed "B-needs"), i.e. they are termed "B-needs"), i.e. they are enduring motivations or drivers of enduring motivations or drivers of behavior.behavior.

Cognitive needsCognitive needs

Maslow believed that humans have Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their the need to increase their intelligence and thereby chase intelligence and thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs is the knowledge. Cognitive needs is the expression of the natural human expression of the natural human need to learn, explore, discover and need to learn, explore, discover and create to get a better understanding create to get a better understanding of the world around them.of the world around them.

Aesthetic needsAesthetic needs

Based on Maslow's beliefs, it is stated in the Based on Maslow's beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful hierarchy that humans need beautiful imagery or something new and imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards Self-Actualization. towards Self-Actualization.

Humans need to refresh themselves in the Humans need to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their carefully absorbing and observing their surroundings to extract the beauty that surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer.the world has to offer.

Self-actualizationSelf-actualization Self-actualization--a concept Maslow Self-actualization--a concept Maslow

attributed to Kurt Goldstein, a attributed to Kurt Goldstein, a mentor to Maslow--is the instinctual mentor to Maslow--is the instinctual need of humans to make the most of need of humans to make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the their abilities and to strive to be the best they can.best they can.

Maslow writes the following Maslow writes the following of self-actualizing people:of self-actualizing people:

They embrace the facts and realities of the world (including They embrace the facts and realities of the world (including themselves) rather than denying or avoiding them.themselves) rather than denying or avoiding them.

They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions.They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions. They are creative.They are creative. They are interested in solving problems; this often includes the They are interested in solving problems; this often includes the

problems of others. Solving these problems is often a key focus problems of others. Solving these problems is often a key focus in their lives.in their lives.

They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate life.life.

They have a system of morality that is fully internalized and They have a system of morality that is fully internalized and independent of external authority.independent of external authority.

They have discernment and are able to view all things in an They have discernment and are able to view all things in an objective manner.objective manner.

In short, self-actualization is reaching one's fullest potential.In short, self-actualization is reaching one's fullest potential.

Self-transcendenceSelf-transcendence Maslow later divided the top of the triangle to add Maslow later divided the top of the triangle to add

self-transcendence which is also sometimes referred self-transcendence which is also sometimes referred to as spiritual needs. Spiritual Needs are a little to as spiritual needs. Spiritual Needs are a little different from other needs, accessible from many different from other needs, accessible from many levels.levels.

Maslow believes that we should study and cultivate Maslow believes that we should study and cultivate peak experiences as a way of providing a route to peak experiences as a way of providing a route to achieve personal growth, integration, and fulfillment. achieve personal growth, integration, and fulfillment. Individuals most likely to have peak experiences are Individuals most likely to have peak experiences are self-actualizing, mature, healthy, and self-fulfilled. All self-actualizing, mature, healthy, and self-fulfilled. All individuals are capable of peak experiences. Those individuals are capable of peak experiences. Those who do not have them somehow suppress or deny who do not have them somehow suppress or deny them.them.

Need for achievementNeed for achievement

A stable, learned characteristic in A stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction comes from striving which satisfaction comes from striving for and achieving a level of excellence for and achieving a level of excellence either individually or in cooperation.either individually or in cooperation.– People high in achievement motivation People high in achievement motivation

choose tasks that are of intermediate choose tasks that are of intermediate difficulty.difficulty.

– People low in achievement motivation People low in achievement motivation choose tasks that are either too easy or choose tasks that are either too easy or too difficult.too difficult.

Need for affiliationNeed for affiliation

A need to establish and maintain A need to establish and maintain relationship with other people. To be in relationship with other people. To be in meaningfull relationship, fell trustwothy and meaningfull relationship, fell trustwothy and can trust, feel responsible and can be can trust, feel responsible and can be responsible. It enhance personal strenghtresponsible. It enhance personal strenght

Need for powerNeed for power A tendency to want to make an impression A tendency to want to make an impression

or have an impact on others in order to be or have an impact on others in order to be seen as a powerfull individual. To be seen as a powerfull individual. To be respected and worth of interest- authority.respected and worth of interest- authority.