motivation to learn in the workplace.revised 8feb15.docx · web viewwhile not directly related to...

Running Head: MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN THE WORKPLACE

Motivation to Learn in the Workplace:

Perspectives from Different Adult Populations

Vivian Awumey

Oliver Crocco

Stephanie Holder

Lisa Stern

The George Washington University

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lisa Stern, Department of Human

and Organizational Learning, The George Washington University, [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

2MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN THE WORKPLACE

Abstract

The American workforce has become increasingly diverse (Greco 1998; Beaver & Hutchings

2005; Meister & Willyerd 2010; Clark & Ghent 2010), and the field of human resource

development must be prepared to understand what motivates different populations of employees

to learn in order to engage multiple populations in ways that are creative, innovative, and

meaningful in the learning process. An initial review of the literature of motivation and adult

learning shows a dearth of research specific to motivation to learn for adults in the workplace,

particularly related to age, life stage, and life-changing experiences. While Hegarty and Del

Vecchio (2012) suggest motivation changes over the course of adulthood depending on

circumstances and recommends a Life Continuum Framework, studies of motivation to learn

related to older adults, millennials, and post-9/11 veterans are sparse. In motivating today's

human capital, organizations have to engage all employees’ minds and captivate their hearts

(Njoroge and Yazdanifard 2014). Thus, the understanding of both similar and unique motivations

to learn for different populations within a diverse workforce is critical for the engagement of

their minds and hearts.

Keywords: adults, motivation to learn, workplace learning, millennials, post-9/11

veterans, older workers


Motivation to Learn in the Workplace: Perspectives from Different Adult Populations

The American workforce has become increasingly diverse (Greco 1998; Beaver &

Hutchings 2005; Meister & Willyerd 2010; Clark & Ghent 2010), and the field of human

resource development must be prepared to understand what motivates different populations of

employees to learn in order to engage them in ways that are creative and innovative. Since the

factors that motivate employees to learn are underexplored (Vanthournout, Noyens, Gijbels &

Van den Bossche 2014), the purpose of this literature review is to understand the motivation to

learn of three populations of adult workers, each constituting a significantly growing presence in

the landscape of the American workforce: older adults, ages 50 and older; millennials, those born

between 1980 and 1995; and post-9/11 veterans, ages 18 to 50 and older. The paper presents

similarities and differences in the motivation to learn across the three populations and concludes

with implications for practice and research to create a framework of workers’ motivation to learn

that is inclusive of the multiple populations active in today’s workforce.

The research questions are: How is the motivation to learn for the targeted populations

presented in the literature? What cross-population similarities are presented regarding motivation

to learn as identified in the literature? What implications for further research emerge to

understand motivation to learn for the three populations of adults?

Methodology

The methodology for this literature-based paper uses peer-reviewed journal articles and

scholarly books found in the George Washington University research database, including

EBSCOhost, Wiley Online Library, JSTOR, Project Muse and Dissertation Abstracts Online, as

well as ALADIN and Google Scholar. Sources cited are limited to English language articles.


Search terms included adults, motivation to learn, workplace learning, millennials, post-9/11

veterans, older workers, and their combinations.

Conceptual Framework

“Anyone who fails to learn…is regarded as oku eniyan (the living dead).” This African

proverb captures how embedded and necessary learning is in today’s world (Avoseh 2001, p. 483

as cited by Merriam & Bierema 2011). The role of adult motivation to learn is important in

today’s workplace as many organizations are trying to manage a multigenerational workforce

(Cekada 2012). Merriam and Bierema (2014) define motivation as the drive and energy put into

accomplishing something that one desires to do. Gengenfutner and Vauras (2014), citing Brophy

(2010) and Stipek (1996), indicate motivation to learn is centrally important for attaining transfer

of training, even before training or learning begins. Stipek (1996) further describes motivation to

learn as being an important component for active engagement in learning by noting, with regard

to adult learners,

Students who are engaged approach challenging tasks eagerly, exert intense effort using

active problem-solving strategies, and persist in the face of difficulty. Motivated students

focus on developing understanding and mastering skills; they are enthusiastic and

optimistic; and they take pleasure in academic tasks and pride in their achievements. (p.

85)

Houle’s 1960’s theory of self-directed learning is viewed as a key feature of motivation

to learn. In fact, Merriam and Bierema (2011) write that the exploration of motivation in adult

learning was initiated by Houle’s (1961) publication of The Inquiring Mind. Houle (1961)

identified three types of learning orientations in his analysis: goal-orientation, activity-

orientation, and learning-orientation; and stated, “motivation is fluid and our motivations toward


learning activities can include multiple goals or change” as cited by Merriam and Bierema

(2011).

Merriam and Bierema (2011) highlight the work of Wlodkowski (2008) who offers

critical assumptions of learning and motivation: “if something can be learned, it can be learned in

a motivating manner…every instructional plan also needs to be a motivational plan” (p. 46-47).

In Wlodkowski’s (2008) view, instructors in formal settings who motivate learners exhibit

expertise, enthusiasm, charity, and cultural responsiveness. In Enhancing Adult Motivation to

Learn, Wlodkowski (2008) cites four intersecting motivational conditions essential to attend to

when teaching adults including: establishing inclusion, developing attitude, enhancing meaning,

and engendering confidence. As organizations try to capture what motivates different

populations of employees to learn, these conditions might be important considerations when

creating learning environments and planning opportunities to learn.

Ahl’s (2006) critical assessment of adult learning motivation literature shows how

motivation theory stigmatizes people regarded as unmotivated because motivation problems are

only attributed to the individual. Ahl (2006) contends, however, adult learners do not have

motivational problems, but rather the problem lies in the relationship between the learner and

those providing the learning opportunities.

McClusky’s Theory of Margin (1963) posits that motivation to learn is a function of how

adults are able to balance the load of life by offsetting it with power or resources, a ratio known

as Margin in Life (Merriam & Bierema 2011). This balance may be an important factor for all

three populations, many of whom have additional family responsibilities, are adjusting to work,

or continuing educational goals while simultaneously actively engaged in the U.S. workforce.


As working adults age, the question may be posed, “Is there a decline in motivation to

learn?” This question was answered in part through a meta-analysis conducted by Gegenfutner

and Vauras (2011). While their results presented some practical value regarding adult continuing

education and training, they did not find any evidence for age-related decline in motivation. This

may be of interest in light of the demographic focus of this literature review. Referring to Vauras

and Kinnumen (2008) and Carstensen (2006), Gegenfutner and Vauras (2011) concluded training

programs (or learning opportunities) should offer the possibility for social interaction because the

expectation of contact with peers seems to be emotionally meaningful, especially for older

employees. This may be of importance to certain groups with common life experiences.

According to Gegenfutner and Vauras (2011) citing Hakkarainen, Palonen, Paavola, and

Lehtinen (2004), older employees tend to enjoy a higher number of network relations and

network centrality at work when compared with younger employees. They suggest the

relationship between motivation to learn and transfer of knowledge as weaker among younger

employees. The authors recommend increasing the number of network ties for employees and

redesigning work to encourage new learning opportunities for younger employees.

Motivation to Learn of Older Workers

Older workers make up a growing percentage of the population, hence the collective

workforce of most industrialized countries (OECD, 2006). Keeping sufficient numbers of older

workers employed is critical to economic development. As baby boomers retire, governments

must use revenue from decreasing tax bases to provide them with financial security and services.

Employers must scramble to replace retiring workers from smaller pools of qualified candidates.

In the United States, where slightly more than 60 percent of adults aged 50 to 65 years are

working, the growth of the workforce has slowed (OECD, 2006).


Keeping older adults in the workplace is of significant economic importance. So much so

that the American government has increased the age at which retirees receive full Social Security

benefits (U.S. Social Security Administration). Making it unattractive to retire is only half of the

equation. Nearly 70 percent of American workers expect to retire between the ages of 64 and 69.

Twenty percent expect to work past the age of 70 (Benz et al, 2013).

Kooji, de Lange, Jansen and Dikkers (2008) describe motivating older workers as the

most pressing management issue of the decade. They suggest a motivational framework for older

adults founded on five types of age-related factors associated with individuals and their specific

job settings, believing that no one definition is sufficient to describe the multifaceted way in

which human beings experience and react to age. For example, chronological age is associated

with offers of early retirement, pensions, etc. that induce older workers to leave their

employment. Biological age is often associated with declining health and changing psychological

needs which make some job functions more difficult or less interesting, although generative tasks

like teaching and mentoring may become more attractive. Psychosocial age can lead to older

workers becoming the victims of age stereotyping and lack of opportunities, like promotions.

Organizational age, length of tenure with an organization, both encourages and discourages older

workers to remain employed – on one hand, their skills might become obsolete; on the other they

are relatively better paid than their younger colleagues. Lifespan age tends to increase the

preference for leisure time and deference to partners who might encourage the worker to retire

(Kooij, de Lange, Jansen, & Dikkers 2008).

Robson, Hansson, Abalos and Booth (2006), identify elements of work meaningful to

older adults such as adaptability and health, positive relationships, occupational growth, personal

security and continued focus and achievement of personal goals. The ability to navigate these


successfully varies greatly across individuals because of psychological make-up, health,

continued competence, etc., and also because of personal values and desires, which with age,

tend to be increasingly related to non-work roles and relationships.

While the general perception is that older workers are coasting toward the end of their

careers, findings indicate that older workers continue to crave engagement and interest in their

jobs as well as an individual’s level of learning, self-efficacy, or proactively seeking needed

information remains fairly constant for life (Armstrong-Stassen 2008). However, Kanfer and

Ackerman (2011) found that older workers are less motivated to learn things that require fluid

intelligence, first because fluid intelligence diminishes with age and because they are not

motivated by the extrinsic factors that usually necessitate this kind of learning. Older workers,

though, may be more motivated by intrinsic considerations than their younger colleagues and

may compensate for decreasing fluid intelligence by developing and using crystallized

intelligence (Kanfer & Ackerman 2011; Locke & Latham 2004).

Bertolino, Truxillo and Fraccaroli (2011) found older and younger workers to be equally

proactive in the workplace, but this may look different within each of the two populations. They

believe that younger people focus on training related to career development, while older people

look more toward generative roles, like mentoring and relationships with coworkers. They did

not find that older workers were less interested in training, but rather that they expected fewer

benefits to their careers from training.

However, Behaghel, Caroli and Roger (2013) point to findings showing that there is a

strong positive correlation between training and older adults remaining employed. With the rise

of information and communications technology (ICT) and innovative work practices, there is a

bias toward younger workers because of the high obsolescence of required knowledge and


because more time has elapsed since older employees left school. The authors found training

may mitigate discrimination against older workers (Behaghel et al. 2013). Work-related training

for older adults might be more beneficial for employers too, since tenure after training tends to

be longer than those of younger workers (Park 2012).

A 2008 Canadian Access and Support to Education and Training survey found older

employees participated in work-related training at a lower rate than younger workers, but that

this gap was narrowing (Park 2012.) Data from the survey suggested that socioeconomic status,

job classification, education level, hierarchical level, and job sector all affected access of older

adults to training (Park 2012).

Deborah Sussman (2002) categorizes barriers to training as situational (related to life

circumstances like lack of money, inability to find child care, too little time, distance from

training venue, etc.), institutional (high tuition, entrance exams, etc.) and dispositional

(psychological makeup, confidence, etc.).

A review of the literature reveals that context is important when discussing the

motivation of older workers to learn and/or participate in work-related training. These contexts

include individual considerations like health, educational history, and financial status, among

others. Job sector, organizational and job variables also impact motivation.

Motivation to Learn of Millennials

Millennials, or Generation Y, include the American population born from 1978 and 1996

(Espinoza, Ukleja, & Rusch 2010) or more broadly considered those born in the 1980s and 1990s

(Weyland 2011). It is estimated that there are at least 32 million millennials in the United States

workforce today (Espinoza et al. 2010), yet there is a dearth of scholarly research regarding


millennials’ motivation to learn. Still, some information can be gleaned about this generation’s

motivation to learn in the workplace.

One study on millennials in the workforce found that it is vital for managers to

understand that a millennial “craves continued education from their colleagues” (Meier &

Crocker 2010, p. 73). Another study, discussing training in multigenerational contexts, described

millennials as independent learners (Cekada 2012). Perhaps the most applicable study directly

related to this research was conducted by Weyland (2011), in which the author discusses learning

and development of millennials. Weyland (2011) writes of millennials that “[t]heir own

development is very important to them” and that motivating millennials to learn involves

“approaches that will support their individualism, provide variety and be meaningful” (p. 443).

Motivation to learn seems intrinsically valuable to many millennials, and creating “a continuous

learning environment where skills are developed at a steady pace” seems the best strategy for

preserving that motivation (Weyland 2011, p. 444).

In a popular book about managing millennials, Espinoza, Ukleja, and Rusch (2010)

conducted extensive research on millennials in the workplace. Espinoza et al. (2010) studied

manager’s perceptions of millennials and juxtaposed those with what they termed as nine

“millennial intrinsic values” (p. 36). The nine intrinsic values of millennials include work-life

balance, reward, self-expression, attention, achievement, informality, simplicity, multitasking,

and meaning (Espinoza et al. 2010). While not directly related to motivation to learn in the

workplace, the idea of autonomy in work-life balance is applicable (Espinoza et al. 2010).

Millennials expect “career counseling and development” from their managers (Espinoza et al.

2010, p. 55) and do not want to be in static work situations. This value of autonomy can be

leveraged to support learning and the motivation to learn. This is also in line with Daniel Pink’s


(2011) book on motivation, Drive, in which he talks about mastery, autonomy, and purpose as

valuable for fostering intrinsic motivation.

According to the existing literature, it appears clear that individualism, meaning, and

autonomy are very important aspects of millennials’ motivation to learn in the workplace.

However, one important finding of this paper is that the human resource development (HRD)

and adult learning literature lacks empirical research regarding millennials’ motivation to learn in

the workplace, and much of the available research tends to be conceptual.

Motivation to Learn of Post 9/11 Veterans

Each generation has unique characteristics, influences, work ethics, core values, and

respect and tolerance for others that affect how its members interact, communicate and learn in

the workplace (Cekada 2012). Citing Brown (2010), Cekada (2012) highlights how different

generations learn, comparing the Silent Generation (veterans), Baby Boomers, Generation X, and

Generation Y, by attributing to some characteristic generalizations about the generations. While

Post 9/11 veterans were not included in this extrapolation, it would likely have been difficult to

generate a conclusion since the age range of today’s U.S. military veterans spans from 18 to over

50 years of age. Thus, using age as a factor in determining motivation to learn for this population

would be quite difficult, if not impossible.

Rather, examining the personality traits and characteristics of Post 9/11 veterans, as one

might examine culture, might be considered a more accurate method of viewing this population,

thus offering better insight into what motivates them to learn. Military culture is one rich in

beliefs, core values, and attitudes, with common elements across all branches. Leaving military

service, a culture that promotes unit cohesion, a common mission, and purpose, can be quite

challenging – especially when entering a civilian workforce where expectations and learning


opportunities are not consistent. Examining the characteristics and traits of an all-volunteer force,

a military very different than the military of years past, might shed light on the needs of this

population as they become motivated to learn and thrive in today’s workforce. In addition, those

who end their military service are leaving more than just a job; they are leaving a way of looking

at themselves in the world, and all that that entails, good and bad (Jones 2013), which might

likely impact their sense of identity, and thus challenge or change motivation to learn in a

different context, especially one that appears “foreign” or new, such as the civilian workforce.

In 2012, the Institute for Veterans and Military Families at Syracuse University

conducted a cross-disciplinary review of academic research related to the abilities, attributes, and

characteristics of veterans as a consequence of today’s era of military service. For example,

those drawn to the all-volunteer force are individuals with a high need for achievement (self-

selection). Military training and socialization processes have been demonstrated to instill high

levels of self-efficacy, trust and a strong sense/comfort with autonomy and dynamic decision-

making processes. Those with prior military service have a high level of efficacy for team-

related activities, and tend to make the most of their knowledge by effectively leveraging

knowledge across disparate work-related tasks. Finally, it was noted that learning experiences

coordinated with mentorship (especially from other veterans) tended to be the most effective and

enduring with regard to professional development. While this IVMF study was focused on

supplying a research-informed logic-base for recruiting and developing military veterans in the

civilian workforce, the analysis certainly bodes well for better understanding some of the factors

that might motivate a veteran to learn and thrive in the workforce.

Additionally, when individuals face traumatic events (similar to those of veterans

deployed to a war zone) dysfunctional career thoughts can play a large role in negative career


behavior (Bullock, Braud, Andrews, & Phillips 2009). Hayne and Shepherd (2011) adopted a

multiple case study approach to explore career responses to traumatic life events. Whereas their

research focused efforts on 10 cases of U.S. military members who experienced combat trauma,

they state discontinuous career transition is a “reality faced by a large and growing population of

individuals across the globe” (Hayne & Shepherd 2011, p. 502). Hayne and Shepherd (2011)

relied on Neimeyer’s 2004 and 2006 studies on posttraumatic growth, suggesting that “self-

narratives are the very substance that is disrupted by trauma and loss” and “posttraumatic

resilience, repair, and transcendence” requires the reconstruction of self-narratives. They

characterized their findings into two types of motivations: push and pull (with a focus on

entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial opportunities). For those whose career growth, aspirations,

and fundamental assumptions of the world were shattered by trauma, self-narrative (story-telling)

was a key component in their ability to rebuild fundamental assumptions of themselves in order

to “craft and negotiate a new work identity” (Hayne & Shepherd 2011, p. 521), and thus a

motivation to learn.

The impact of war is substantial. Little is understood about the civilian-based career

development of U.S. veterans, yet establishing independent employment is absolutely crucial to a

veterans’ successful reintegration into society (Bullock, Braud, Andrews, & Phillips 2009). The

transition of a new generation of veterans to civilian life is important to consider because their

well-being and ability to acclimate may be compromised (Plach & Sells 2013). In a study of

occupational performance challenges, Plach and Sells (2013) asked veterans to identify what

motivated them to stay well and active in life. Achieving their goals (such as graduating from

higher education) was noted as a main driving force for 77% of respondents, and spending time


with loved ones (family and friends) was a motivating factor for 50%, according to a series of

2003 interviews of U.S. veterans using the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure.

A review of the literature with regard to the motivation to learn for post-9/11 veterans in

the (civilian) workforce revealed negligible empirical data. Whereas over 2.8 million veterans

have transitioned out of the military since 2001, and according to the American Council on

Education over 5 million more are expected to transition by 2020, this leave enormous

possibilities for research.

Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of this literature review was to understand the motivation to learn of three

populations of adult workers, each constituting a significantly growing presence in the landscape

of the American workforce: older adults, ages 50 and older; millennials, those born between

1980 and 1995; and post-9/11 veterans, ages 18 to 50 and older. Three research questions were

presented. How is the motivation to learn for the targeted populations presented in the literature?

What cross-population similarities are present regarding motivation to learn as identified in the

research? What implications for further research emerge to better understanding motivation to

learn for the three populations of adults?

While sparse literature could be found specifically highlighting each targeted

population’s motivation to learn in the workforce, research does exist on training a

multigenerational workforce. Similarities in motivation to learn, in general, across these

populations included a desire for choice, opportunities for connectedness, a need to continue to

grow and develop, and the importance of learning for a purpose. While the literature identifies

many motivational factors and suggests the nature of the impact some of these have,

recommendations for future research include more empirical studies to identify and test any


significant interrelationships between them. Additionally, cross-population comparisons might

help employers devise strategies for offering meaningful opportunities to learn for employees

that transcend broad demographic classifications.

Hence, the implications of this literature review include: 1) recommendations for practice

to create more inclusive and effective workplaces by addressing the factors unique to a

significant cross-section of today’s American workforce with regard to motivation to learn in the

workplace: older workers, millennials, and post-9/11 veterans; and 2) recommendations for

future research designed to create a working framework of workers’ motivation to learn,

inclusive of the multiple populations active in today’s workforce.

Learning is a lifelong process that should be embraced by all workers. Increasing interest

is being placed on companies as learning organizations in which the employees collectively

contribute to the improvement of the workplace enterprise, however modest attention has been

paid to the ways by which people learn in their work (Gerber 1998), or are motivated to learn at

work. Gerber (1998) proposes, “the extent to which people maximize their learning in different

contexts varies with the individual’s priorities and the extent to which businesses or

organizations seek to separate or integrate work, community and private life” (p. 168). This

paper implies the importance of providing all employees with access to learning by ensuring

choice and various methods of engagement. By incorporating options for independent learning,

social interaction, contact with peers, and the opportunity to mentor and/or be mentored, most

employees, regardless of population or category, will have the possibility not only to succeed at

work, but also to thrive.

While literature does exist to support training a multigenerational workforce, research

focused specifically on motivating distinct populations to learn, either individually or in cross-


population workforce settings, is nearly nonexistent. However, since the literature suggests

similarities among the three populations, as identified in this review, there certainly exists an

implication for future research and practice. Potential future research questions include: Does

motivation to learn change as workers age or experience various life circumstances? How do

choice, connectedness and the need for purposeful learning at work impact the motivation to

learn for one or multiple populations of working age adults?

Insight regarding how motivation to learn changes as individual workers age and

encounter various life experiences could be achieved by a longitudinal study design. As

millennials emerge as a growing population in the workforce, research should look at the role

individualism, meaning and autonomy play in their motivation for workplace learning. Finally,

examining the use of mentorships as a catalyst for motivation to learn in the civilian workforce

for post 9/11 veterans.

More observation and research specific to the varied experiences of different populations

of workers in the workplace may help employers design programs that offer more equitable

learning experiences, thus providing opportunities for motivation to learn across populations. In

practice, employers might design learning environments that bring workers together in ways that

acknowledges these commonalities, while taking advantage of differences that might enhance

learning across populations. For example, older employees, with their experience in a field or

organization can provide the context of learning to younger employees. Younger employees can

help older workers, and veterans returning to civilian work, gain and apply up-to-date work

skills. This also applies to sub-groups within populations of millennials, veterans and older

adults. For example, do ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, educational achievement, and

job classification affect motivation to learn among workers within these broader populations?


In conclusion, the literature suggests common basic elements that drive motivation for

the three identified populations highlighted in this review to learn in the workplace. Older adults

(ages 50 and older), millennials (those born between 1980 and 1995) and post-9/11 veterans

(ages 18 to 50 and older) represent a significantly growing presence in today’s workforce and the

workforce of tomorrow. Identifying future research to pinpoint what motivates them to learn at

work – both individually and collectively – would be a significant contribution to the field of

human resource development.


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