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TRANSCRIPT
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Basic MotivationConcepts
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61
After studying this chapter,you should be able to:
1. Outline the motivation process.
2. Describe Maslows need hierarchy.
3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y.
4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.
5. List the characteristics that high achievers
prefer in a job.
6. Summarize the types of goals that increaseperformance.
LEA
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G
OB
JEC
TIV
ES
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62
After studying this chapter,you should be able to:
7. Explain the job characteristics model.
8. State the impact of underrewarding
employees.
9. Clarify key relationships in expectancy
theory.
10. Explain how the contemporary theories of
motivation complement each other.
LEA
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S(contd)
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3
MOTIVATIONThe willingness to exerthigh levels of effort to
reach organizationalgoals, conditioned by theefforts ability to satisfysome individual need
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The Motivation Process
Unsatisfied Need
Reduction of Tension
Tension
Drives
Search Behavior
Satisfied Need
64
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65
Defining Motivation
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individualsintensity, direction, and persistence of effort towardattaining a goal.
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66
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of fiveneedsphysiological, safety,social, esteem, and self-
actualization; as each need issubstantially satisfied, the nextneed becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfiedexternally; physiologicaland safety needs.
Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied
internally; social, esteem,and self-actualization
needs.
E X H I B I T 61Source: Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, 1970.Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislikework, lack ambition, avoidresponsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees likework, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,and exercise self-direction andself-control when committed toa goal.
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Theory X and Theory Y
Theory YTheory X
Work is Natural
Self-
Direction
Seek
Responsibility
Good DecisionsWidely Dispersed
AvoidWork
Must be
Controlled
Avoid
Responsibility
Seek Security 69
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610
Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory
Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction,while extrinsic factors are associated withdissatisfaction.
Hygiene Factors
Factorssuch as company policyand administration, supervision,
and salarythat, when adequatein a job, placate workers. Whenfactors are adequate, people willnot be dissatisfied.
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611
Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led to
extreme job dissatisfactionFactors characterizing
events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction
E X H I B I T 62Source: Reprinted by permission ofHarvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, SeptemberOctober 1987. Copyright
1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
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612
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 63
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Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Achievement
Recognition
Work ItselfResponsibility
Advancement
Growth
Extremely Satisfied Neutral Extremely Dissatisfied
Supervision
Company Policy
Supervisor
Relations
Working ConditionsSalary
Peers
Personal Life
Subordinate
Relations
Status
Security
613
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614
ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
Core Needs
Existence: provision ofbasic materialrequirements.
Relatedness: desire forrelationships.
Growth: desire forpersonal development.
Concepts:
More than one need canbe operative at the sametime.
If a higher-level needcannot be fulfilled, thedesire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
ERG TheoryThere are three groups of core needs: existence,relatedness, and growth.
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615
David McClellands Theory of Needs
nAch
nPow
nAff
Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achievein relation to a set ofstandards, to strive tosucceed.
Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendlyand close personalrelationships.
Need for Power
The need to make others
behave in a way that theywould not have behavedotherwise.
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Matching High Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 64
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McClellands
Three-Needs Theory Need for Achievement (nAch) Drive to excel, strive to succeed
Want personal responsibility, feedback and an
intermediate amount of risk
Best Entreprenurs
Need for Power (nPow)
Desire to be influential
Best managers
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to be liked and accepted
617
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618
E X H I B I T 65
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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Goal-Setting TheoryThe theory that specific and difficult goals, withfeedback, lead to higher performance.
Self-Efficacy
The individuals belief that he orshe is capable of performing a task.
(Details in other ppt)
Factors influencing the goalsperformance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and
national culture.
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Implementation: Management By Objectives
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
Goals must be: Tangible Verifiable Measurable
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,more specific goals at each level oforganization.
Four common ingredients to MBO programs: Goal Specificity
Participative decision making Explicit time period Performance feedback
6-20
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Equity Theory
ReferentComparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomeswith those of others and then respond to eliminateany inequities.
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Equity Theorys Relevant Others
Can be four different situations:
Self-Inside The persons experience in a different job in the
same organization
Self-Outside The persons experience in a different job in a
different organization
Other-Inside Another individual or group within the organization
Other-Outside Another individual or group outside of the
organization
6-22
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Equity Theory (contd)
E X H I B I T 67
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624
Equity Theory (contd)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person6. Leave the field (quit the job)
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625
Equity Theory (contd)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded hourly employees producemore than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employeesproduce less, but do higher quality piecework.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees producelower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce largerquantities of lower-quality piece work thanequitably rewarded employees
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626
Equity Theory (contd)
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of theamount and allocation ofrewards among individuals.
Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of
the process to determinethe distribution ofrewards.
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Justice and Equity Theory
Organizational Justice
Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
Made up of:
Distributive Justice
Fairness of outcome
Procedural Justice
Fairness of outcome process
Interactional Justice
Being treated with dignity and respect
Exhibit 6-8
6-27
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Lessons in Equity Theory
Pay attention to what employees perceiveto be fair and equitable
Allow employees to have a voice
Employees should have opportunity to
appeal
Organizational changes, promoting
cooperation, etc. can come easier with
equitable outcomesFailure to achieve equity could be costly
Climate of justice
628
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Vrooms Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that
the act will be followed by a given outcome and
on the attractiveness of the outcome to the
individual.
Important linkages:
Expectancy of performance success
Instrumentality of success in getting reward
Valuation of the reward in employees eyes
Exhibit 6-9
6-29
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630
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain waydepends on the strength of an expectation that theact will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
E X H I B I T 68
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631
Expectancy Theory Relationships
EffortPerformance Relationship The probability that exerting a given amount of effort
will lead to performance.
PerformanceReward Relationship
The belief that performing at a particular level will leadto the attainment of a desired outcome.
RewardsPersonal Goals Relationship
The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy anindividuals goals or needs and the attractiveness ofpotential rewards for the individual.
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Expectancy:Belief that effort leads to aspecific level of performance
Instrumentality:A performance outcomeperception.
Valence:The Value of a reward or outcome
Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Concepts
632
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6-33
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
figure 6.2
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Process Perspectives on Motivation (contd)
Elements of Expectancy Theory (contd)
Valence An index of how much an individual values a particular
outcome.
It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractiveoutcomes have negative valences.
Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zerovalences.
For motivated behavior to occur: Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-
to-outcome expectancy probabilities must be greaterthan zero.
The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.
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Figure 16.4: The Expectancy Model of
Motivation
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6-36
The Porter-Lawler Model
figure 6.3
The model predicts that satisfaction isdetermined by the perceived equity of
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for
high-level performance.
Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E.
Lawler, Managerial Att i tud es and Performan ce. Copyright
1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
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1637
Process Perspectives on Motivation (contd)
The Porter-Lawler Extension ofExpectancy Theory
Assumptions: If performance results in equitable and fair rewards,
people will be more satisfied.
High performance can lead to rewards and highsatisfaction.
Types of rewards: Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by
external parties (e.g., pay and promotions).
Intrinsic rewards are outcomes internal to the individual(e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).
Fi 16 5 Th P t L l
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Figure 16.5: The Porter-Lawler
Extension of Expectancy Theory
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6-39
Evaluation and Implications
Research studies have confirmed:
The association of both kinds of expectancies andvalences with performance and outcomes.
That motivated behavior by people arises from theirvaluing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to
performance, and that performance will lead to desiredrewards.
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6-40
Guidelines for the Use of
Expectancy Theory
Practical use of the theory by managers:
Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
Decide what levels and kinds of performance are
needed to meet organizational goals. Make sure the desired levels of performance are
possible.
Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
Make sure the rewards are large enough.
Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
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Determine the outcomes employees value.
Identify good performance so appropriatebehaviors can be rewarded.
Make sure employees can achieve targetedperformance levels.
Link desired outcomes to targeted levels ofperformance.
Make sure changes in outcomes are large
enough to motivate high effort. Monitor the reward system for inequities.
Managerial Implications of
Expectancy Theory
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Reward people for desired performance,and do not keep pay decisions secret.
Design challenging jobs.
Tie some rewards to groupaccomplishments to build teamwork andencourage cooperation.
Reward managers for creating, monitoring,and maintaining expectancies,
instrumentalities, and oucomes that lead tohigh effort and goal attainment.
Monitor employee motivation throughinterviews or anonymous questionnaires.
Accommodate individual differences by
Organizational Implications of
Expectancy Theory