motivation and emotion -...
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Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion
I. What is Motivation
II. How Does Motivation Affect Behavior?
III. What is Emotion?
IV. How Does Emotion Affect Behavior?
What is Motivation?
A condition that initiates, activates, or maintains
an organism’s goal-directed behavior.
– Usually an internal condition
• Can not be directly observed
– Inferred from external behaviors
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Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary
• Behavior is motivated by instincts
– Fixed behavioral patterns
– Occur throughout a species
– Inborn, rather than learned
• Humans have more instincts than other
animals
Evolutionary Theories
Motivation and emotion are inseparable
Motivation pushes us towards a number of
behaviors (goals)
Emotion sets priorities for behaviors
Behaviors that result in pleasure or pain will be
motivating
• Feelings relate to survival
• Evolutionary psychologists focus on
universal motivations and emotions
Drive Theory
Assumes an organism is motivated to act
because of a need to attain, maintain, or
reestablish a goal
A drive is an internal aroused condition
• Directs an organism to satisfy a need
– A state of physiological imbalance
» Usually accompanied by arousal
• An organism motivated by a need is in a
drive state
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Drive Theory
The ultimate goal is homeostasis
Maintenance of a constant state of internal
balance (equilibrium)
• Behaviors that reduce biological needs are
reinforced
– Behaviors that reduce drives are
especially likely to recur
• The goal that satisfies a need is an incentive
– Can pull us toward some behaviors and
away from others
Drive Theory
When drives motivate two or more competing
behaviors, conflict results
Three types (Miller, 1944, 1959)
a. Approach–Approach Conflict
Distress is usually tolerable because
both choices are pleasant
Drive Theory
b. Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict
c. Approach–Avoidance Conflict
– Occurs when a choice has both pleasant
and unpleasant aspects simultaneously
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Arousal Theory
Focuses on the connection between physical
arousal and behavior.
• Yerkes–Dodson Principle
– Suggests that task performance is related to
arousal level
• Hebb suggested that there is optimal arousal
level
Cognitive Theories of Motivation
Focus on our goals and mental processes
Expectancy Theories
• Focuses on our expectations of achieving
a goal an on the value of that goal
• Expectations are based on experience
– Some are based on social needs
» A need to feel good about oneself and
to establish and maintain relationships
» E.g., needs for achievement and
affiliation
Cognitive Theories
Extrinsic Motivation: Comes from the external
environment in the form of rewards and threats
of punishment
Intrinsic Motivation: Arises from our internal
processes
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Humanistic Theory
– Emphasizes the entirety of life, rather than
individual components of behavior
– Focuses on human dignity, individual choice,
and self-worth
– Incorporates elements of other theories
– Believes behavior must be viewed within the
framework of a person’s environment and
values
Humanistic Theory
Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)
– Assumed people are essentially good
– Believed people are naturally motivated
toward self-actualization
• One of the highest level of psychological
development
• Involves striving to achieve everything one
is capable of
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow organized a hierarchy of motives
– As lower-level needs are satisfied,
higher-level needs become more
motivating
– Believed only a small portion of
people attain self-actualization
Problems with Maslow’s theory
– Too global to be tested
experimentally
– Strongly tied to Western values
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II. How Does Motivation Affect
Behavior?Hunger: A Physiological Need
– Hunger is influenced by
physiology, learning and
culture
The Physiological Determinants
of Hunger
– Focused on homeostasis
– A balance of energy intake
and output that results in a
stable weight
The Physiological Determinants of
Hunger
Weight stability is consistent with the idea of a set
point
A predetermined weight that the body maintains
Several possible mechanisms (fat cells, hormones)
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The Physiological Determinants of
Hunger
The hypothalamus is important in processing signals
from these hormones
Surgery alters eating patterns
• Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus leads to
extreme overeating
• Damage to the lateral hypothalamus leads to
extreme undereating
Environmental and Cultural Influences
on Hunger
Hunger is often not a factor in eating
People eat tasty food, even if not hungry
People who are full will also sometimes eat if a
different food is presented
– Suggests variety is a factor in eating
Is the variety of food available in the United States
a factor in overeating?
Eating and Obesity
Four factors that contribute to overeating
Food is readily available
Portion sizes are increasing
The average diet is higher in fat
Most children and adults do not engage in regular
exercise
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Eating and Obesity
Dieting is more common than being overweight
Women are especially susceptible to the “thin ideal”
However, eating disorders are increasing for men
Dieting is usually unsuccessful and often unhealthy
Brain of People with Eating
Disorders
Sexual Behavior
Sex Hormones
– Hormones are important
• Both males and females produce
androgens (“male” hormones) and
estrogens (“female” hormones)
– In males, the testes are the principle
producers of androgens
– In females, the ovaries are the principle
producers of estrogens
• Release of these hormones triggers
secondary sex characteristics at puberty
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Sexual Dysfunctions
• Refers to impairment either in
– The desire for sexual gratification
– The ability to achieve it
• The human sexual response has four phases:
– Desire phase
– Excitement phase
– Orgasm
– Resolution
Sexual Response Cycle
Masters and Johnson (1970)
Sexual Response Cycle
• Desire: Fantasies and desires about sexual activity.
• Excitement: Sexual pleasure and accompanying physiological changes. Heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration increase
– Vasocongestion is characteristic
– Engorgement of blood vessels in the genital area
• Plateau Phase: Physical arousal continues to increase as the body prepares for orgasm
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Sexual Response Cycle
• Orgasm: Peaking of sexual pleasure, with the
release of sexual tension and rhythmic contraction
of muscles and organs.
• Resolution or Refractory Period: Muscular
Relaxation and general well-being. Body returns
to its normal, resting state. Takes one to several
minutes. Time varies considerably from person to
person. Men are usually unable to achieve an
erection
Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire
• Hypoactive sexual desire disorder : a person shows little or no sex drive or interest
• Sexual aversion disorder : Person shows extreme aversion to, and avoidance of, all genital sexual contact with a partner
• Sexual desire disorder appears to be the most common female sexual dysfunction
Sexual Dysfunctions
• Characterized by a disturbance in the
processes that characterize the sexual
response cycle or by pain associated with
sexual intercourse
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Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal
• Male erectile disorder
– Effects half the male population on at least a
temporary basis
– May be based on
• Anxiety about sexual performance
• Physiological dysfunction
• Female sexual arousal disorder is in many
ways the female counterpart of erectile
disorder
Orgasmic Disorders• Premature ejaculation: persistent and
recurrent onset of ejaculation with minimal
sexual stimulation
• Male orgasmic disorder: persistent inability to
ejaculate during intercourse
• Female orgasmic disorder: Persistent or
recurrent delay in or absence of orgasm
following a normal sexual excitement phase
Dysfunctions Involving Sexual
Pain
• Vaginismus: An involuntary spasm of the
muscles at the entrance of the vagina (not
due to physical disorder) that prevents
penetration and sexual intercourse
• Painful coitus, or dyspareunia, can occur in
men but is far more common in women
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Sexual Desire Disorders
• Deficiency or absence of sexual fantasies
and desire for sexual activity
• The disturbance must cause marked distress
or interpersonal difficulty
• Not due to a general medical condition
• Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder
• Sexual Aversion Disorder
Sexual Arousal Disorders
• Persistent or reoccurring inability to attain
or maintain sexual activity.
• Female Sexual Arousal Disorder
• Male Erectile Disorder
Orgasmic Disorder
• Persistent or recurrent delay in, or absence
of, orgasm following normal sexual
excitement phase.
• Female Orgasmic Disorder
• Male Orgasmic Disorder
• Premature Ejaculation
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Sexual Pain Disorder
• Pain during sexual intercourse.
• Dyspareunia (not due to a General Medical
Condition)
• Vaginismus (not due to a General Medical
Condition)
Sexual Dysfunction NOS
• NOS: Not Otherwise Specified
• This category includes sexual dysfunctions
that do not meet criteria for any specific
Sexual Dysfunction
Sexual and Gender Variants:
The Paraphilias
• The paraphilias are a group of persistent
sexual behavior patterns in which unusual
objects, rituals, or situations are required to
fulfill sexual satisfaction
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The Paraphilias
• Fetishism
• Transvestic fetishism
• Voyeurism
• Exhibitionism
• Sadism
• Masochism
The Paraphilias
• Mostly male
• Have more than one paraphilia
• Usually do not seek treatment
Sexual Dysfunction NOS
• Paraphilias
• Exhibitionism
• Fetishism
• Frotteurism
• Pedophilia
• Sexual Masochism
• Sexual Sadism
• Transvestic Fetishism
• Voyeurism
• Paraphilia NOS
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Therapy for Sexual Disorders
• Senate Focus: Masters and Johnson (1970)
– Technique used with couples to focus on their sensory experience during sexual activity.
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy:
– Combines behavioral exercises (those suggested by Masters and Johnson,1970) with therapy techniques that emphasize thought patterns or cognitive factors
– Cognitive Restructuring: The therapist tries to change people’s inappropriate negative thoughts about some aspect of sexuality.
Gender Identity Disorders
Two components must be present:
– Evidence of a strong and persistent cross-gender
identification, (not merely a desire for any perceived
cultural advantages of being the other sex).
– Persistent discomfort about one’s assigned sex and
sense of inappropriate in the gender role of that sex
– Significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning
• Gender Identity Disorder NOS
• Sexual Disorder NOS
Gender Identity Disorders
• Characterized by two components:
– Cross-gender identification
– Gender dysphoria– persistent discomfort about
one’s biological sex or the sense that the gender
role of that sex is inappropriate
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Sexual Orientation
Kinsey acknowledged a continuum of sexual orientations
Can not define sexual orientation solely by behavior
– Same-sex sexual experience does not make
someone homosexual
– A person may be homosexual or bisexual without
ever having a same-sex sexual experience
Exclusively
homosexual
Exclusively
heterosexualMostly
homosexual
Mostly
heterosexual
Sexual Orientation
Kinsey reported that 37% of men had had at least
one same-sex sexual experience
– Only 10% were primarily homosexual
Other researchers find different estimates
– 2.8% of men and 1.4% of women identify as
primarily homosexual
Non-heterosexuals experience discrimination in
some cultures, but not others
– In the U.S., such discrimination and violence
lead to other problems (suicide)
Social Needs
The Need for Achievement and Mastery
Directs a person to strive for excellence and
success
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Measuring Achievement Motivation
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Analyze the
thought content of imaginative stories
Four questions:
1. What is happening?
2. What has led up to this situation?
3. What are those in this situation thinking?
4. What will happen next?
Stories that stress success, getting ahead, and
competition indicate need for achievement
TAT
The TAT
The TAT has been criticized for being too subjective
– Other alternatives exist
Practice improves performance for those high in
need for achievement
– May reflect
• Constant striving for improvement
• Belief in the importance of effort
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The Need for Achievement
Those high in need for achievement also tend
to be high in self-efficacy
The belief one can successfully perform a
behavior
• Specific to a particular task (Academic
self-efficacy)
–Best predictor of college GPA
The Need for Affiliation & Belonging
Our need to establish & maintain positive
relationships with others
Some people affiliate when feeling anxious or
stressed
Social support is an effective coping strategy
III. What is Emotion?
Feelings that generally have
both physiological and cognitive elements and
that influence behavior
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The Functions of Emotions
• Preparing us for action
• Shaping our future behavior
• Helping us interact more effectively with
others
Identifying Emotions
Cross-cultural consistency
in interpretations of
facial expressions
However, emotional
expression is not the
same as emotional
experience
There are cultural
differences in emotional
interpretation and
expression
Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include:
HappinessAnger Fear SadnessDisgust
Facial Feedback Theory
Suggests that sensations from the face help us
determine what emotions we are experiencing.
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Theories of Emotion
Physiological Theories: Physical changes that
accompany emotions
James–Lange Theory: Proposes that we experience
emotions as a result of physiological changes
that produce specific sensations; and the brain
interprets these sensations as specific kinds of
emotional experiences
“My heart is racing, I must be scared!”
Cannon-Bard Theory
Assumes that both physiological arousal and
the emotional experience are produced
simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus,
which emanates from the thalamus in the
brain
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James-Lange and Cannon-Bard
Theories
Figure 2 of Module 26
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The Roots of Emotions
• The Schachter-Singer Theory
– Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are
experiencing by observing our environment and
comparing ourselves with others
– Supports a cognitive view of emotions
Evolutionary Theories
Emphasizes the role of a series of modules that
are activated by specific situations
Humans seem programmed to fear some things
more than others
– Heights, snakes, insects
– All may be dangerous, so fear responses are
adaptive
• Less adaptive in today’s safer world
IV. How Does Emotion Affect
Behavior?
Culture and Emotion
– Most emotions are expressed in most
cultures
– Expressions vary in degree and especially
the circumstances under which they occur
– Greatest cultural differences come from
evaluations of the events that provoke
emotions
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Gender & Emotion
In Western society, it is widely believed that women
are more emotional than men
– Ignores some emotions (men and anger)
– Shaped by stereotypes
– We remember stereotype-consistent
examples
– We ignore stereotype inconsistencies as
exceptions
– We interpret ambiguous situations in terms
of stereotypes
Gender & Emotion
“Men are more angry than women”
– Stereotype focuses on expression, not
experience, of anger
– Research shows few gender differences in
feelings of anger
• Behavioral expressions do differ
• Physiological reactions are similar
Gender and Emotion
Different display rules
– In most cultures, men display emotions
related to power (anger)
– Women display emotions related to
powerlessness (sadness, fear)