motivation and emotion original content copyright by holt mcdougal. additions and changes to the...

Motivation and Emotion

Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

Chapter 13: Motivation and Emotion

Case Study: The Happiness of Nations

Section 1: The Psychology of Motivation

Section 2: Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger

Section 3: Psychological Needs

Section 4: Emotions

Simulation: Applying What You’ve Learned



We often hear statistics about how nations rank against

each other in areas such as economy, population, or size.

But we rarely hear about how happy a nation’s people are.

One psychologist set out to learn which nation had the

happiest citizens and what made them that way. Denmark

leads the list, and the United States appears in the top 20

percent. The happiest countries shared characteristics such

as personal and political liberty, and confidence in the

honesty and efficacy of the government. Some

governments have worked to increase the happiness levels

of their nations.

Case Study: The Happiness of Nations



What do you think?

• What characteristics did the happiest countries share?

• What would it take for gross national happiness to replace gross domestic product as the chief measure of national success?



The Psychology of Motivation

• Motivations can be analyzed as needs and drives.

• Psychologists have developed several different theories of motivation, including instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, humanistic theory, and sociocultural theory.

Section 1 at a Glance



Reading Focus• What does the psychology of motivation deal with?

• What are the major theories of motivation?

Main Idea

Psychologists study motivation to explain why people behave the way they do.

The Psychology of Motivation



Confronting Fear and Failure

What makes rock climbers keep trying when they keep falling?



Motivation answers why people do the things they do. A

motive is a stimulus that moves a person to behave in

ways designed to accomplish a specific goal.

• Need: a condition in which we require something we lack

• Biological needs: filled to survive; oxygen, food, sleep

• Psychological needs: not necessarily based on deprivation and can be learned; achievement, self-esteem

Needs

Motivation

• Needs give rise to drives: forces that motivate an organism to take action

• Biological need for water gives rise to the thirst drive

• Biological drives are experienced as psychological

Drives



Answer: biological and psychological

Identify Supporting Details

What are the two types of needs?

Reading Check



Drive-reduction Theory• People and animals experience a drive arising for a need as an

unpleasant tension. They learn to do whatever will reduce that tension, such as eating to reduce the hunger drive.

• Homeostasis: tendency to maintain an internal state of equilibrium

• Drive-reduction theory does not explain all motivation.

Instinct Theory• Instinct: behavior patterns genetically transmitted from generation to

generation

• Also called “fixed-action patterns”

• Not all animal behavior is purely instinctive, some is learned.

• Psychologists once believed all human action was instinctual, but today most do not.

Theories of Motivation



Sociocultural Theory• Even if basic drives such as hunger are inborn, cultural experiences

and factors influence the behavior that people use to satisfy those drives.

Humanistic Theory• Humanists argue that humans are also motivated by the conscious

desire for personal growth and artistic fulfillment. In fact, they may outweigh our drive to meet more basic needs.

• Self-actualization: the need to become what one believes he or she is capable of being

• Maslow believed that striving to become or do something meaningful is as essential to human well-being as food. He created a hierarchy of needs, from basic physiological to self-actualization.

• Critics argue the hierarchy does not apply to everyone.

Theories of Motivation



Answer: They suggest human behavior is mechanical, directed only toward surviving and reducing tension, and do not consider the conscious desire for personal growth and fulfillment.

Compare

According to humanistic psychology, what is wrong with instinct theory and drive-

reduction theory?

Reading Check



Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger

• Biological needs such as hunger involve both physiological and psychological factors.

• Obesity has many causes but also many solutions.




Reading Focus• What are the components of the hunger drive?

• What causes obesity?

Main Idea

Biological needs such as hunger involve both physiological and psychological factors.

Biological Needs: Focus on Hunger



Why do people keep eating junk food?



Biological needs are based mainly on body tissue needs,

such as the needs for food, water, air, temperature

regulation, and pain avoidance. They can be complex

because they also involve psychological factors.

• The acts of chewing and swallowing provide certain sensations that help satisfy the hunger drive.

• The hunger drive is usually fully satisfied when the body digests food.

The Role of the Mouth

The Hunger Drive

• It was once believed that hunger pangs were the cause of hunger.

• Now researchers know that hunger pangs play a role in hunger but are not the main factor in signaling hunger.

The Role of the Stomach



The Hypothalamus

• The level of sugar in the blood and the hypothalamus are key influences on feelings of hunger.

• The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that regulates body temperature and various aspects of psychological motivation and emotion.

• Different parts of the hypothalamus control the urge to begin eating and to stop eating.

Psychological Influences

• In human beings, psychological as well as biological factors affect feelings of hunger.

• Learning that certain amounts of food or drink will produce a feeling of well-being and relaxation can cause people to eat and drink when they feel upset.



Answer: You will eat more food than your body needs.

Identify Cause and Effect

What happens when you keep eating until you feel totally full?

Reading Check



Click on the image to play the Interactive.



• More than 6 out of 10 adult Americans are overweight, while 3 out of 10 are obese: weighing more than 30 percent greater than their recommended weight.

• Obese people suffer more illnesses than non-obese, including heart disease, stroke, diabetes, gall bladder disease, gout, respiratory problems, and certain kinds of cancer.

• Weight control is often elusive for most obese people.

Causes of Obesity

• It seems to run in families, but is not necessarily inherited.

• Certain genes may prevent the message of having eaten enough to reach the brain.

• Genes also determine how many fat cells a person has.

• Genes determine metabolic rate.

• Psychological factors such as stress and personal circumstances such as family gathering can increase food intake.

Obesity



Losing Weight

• Psychologists and other professionals have worked to devise strategies for weight loss.

• Not everyone should lose weight.

• A sound diet is one that is sensible, realistic, and well planned.

• Eating foods that are low in fat sets a good precedent for a lifetime of healthful eating.

• Nutritional information is important.

• Exercising helps burn calories and increase metabolism.

Keeping Weight Off

• Many people who lose weight struggle not to regain weight.

• Maintaining a new, more healthy weight requires ongoing work.

• An increase in self-esteem and the adoption of a new, life-long approach to eating and exercising are important factors in keeping weight off.



Answer: Men tend to have less fat and more muscle in their bodies, and thus usually burn calories more quickly than women of the same weight.


Why do men generally find it easier to lose weight than women?

Reading Check



Psychological Needs

• All people seek sensory stimulation.

• Some people feel driven to high achievement.

• People seek to balance their beliefs, actions, and thoughts.

• Humans are motivated to be social.




Reading Focus• What are stimulus motives?

• Why doesn’t everyone have achievement motivation?

• What motivates people to make things fit?

• How does the desire for affiliation motivate people?

Main Idea

Psychological motivations include stimulus motives and achievement motivation. Several different theories attempt to explain what drives people.

Psychological Needs



Was it mutiny or a well-deserved rest?



• We experience psychological needs as well as biological needs.

• Some psychological needs motivate us to reduce tension or stimulation. Other psychological needs actually lead us to increase the amount of stimulation we experience.

• Stimulus motives: the desires for stimulation

Sensory Deprivation

• Sensory deprivation: the absence of stimulation

• Students who were placed in a situation of sensory deprivation became bored and irritable, reported hallucinations, and quit the study early.

• They reported extreme boredom and disorientation for some time.

Stimulus Motives



Exploration and Manipulation

• Most people are motivated to explore their immediate surroundings.

• Once people become sufficiently comfortable with their environment, they seek new stimulation.

• Do people and animals explore and manipulate their environment because these activities help them meet the needs for food and safety? Or do they explore simply for the sake of new stimulation?

• Many psychologists believe that exploration and manipulation are reinforcing in and of themselves.



Answer: The animal will learn about resources and dangers and learn how to change the environment to increase its chances for survival.


How might exploration and manipulation help an animal to survive?

Reading Check



Achievement motivation: the drive to get ahead, tackle challenging situations, and meet high personal standards of success

People with higher achievement motivation make better grades and make more money than others.

• Performance goals: specific goal; extrinsic rewards (good grades, good income)

• Learning goals: knowledge goal; intrinsic rewards (self-satisfaction)

Types of Goals

Achievement Motivation

• The attitude of parents and caregivers plays a crucial role.

• Parents may encourage a child to find his or her own answer, or may reward good grades and punish bad grades.

Development of Achievement Motivation



Answer: extrinsic rewards, such as good grades, a good income, and respect from others

Identify Cause and Effect

What sorts of rewards usually satisfy performance goals?

Reading Check



Cognitive Consistency• Cognitive consistency: thinking and behaving in a way that fits

what an individual believes and how others expect that individual to think and behave.

• Most people prefer that the “pieces” of their lives fit together, and feel better when the important relationships in their lives are stable and orderly.

• Many psychological needs are aimed at reducing stimulation or tension, especially in interactions with other people. These types of psychological needs are based on people’s need to maintain a balance between their personal beliefs, actions, and thoughts.

Making Things Fit



Cognitive-dissonance Theory • Cognitive-dissonance theory: people are motivated to reduce the

inconsistency of their thoughts and behaviors.

• Suggests that people having a basic disagreement may seek to reduce the dissonance by trying to pretend the differences between them are unimportant or even by denying that the differences exist

Balance Theory

• Balance theory: people need to organize their perceptions, opinions, and beliefs in a harmonious manner.

• Maintain cognitive balance by holding consistent views and having friends who hold similar views.

• When someone we care about disagrees with us, an uncomfortable state of imbalance arises.



Answer: issues such as religion, politics, or personal values

Draw Conclusions

What situation can create a state of imbalance?

Reading Check



• Affiliation: the desire to join with others and be part of something larger than oneself

• People make friends, join groups, and participate in activities with others.

• Affiliation motivation helps keep families, groups, and nations together.

• Sometimes a strong need to affiliate may be a sign of anxiety.

• The desire to affiliate with a group can lead people to disregard their own perceptions.

Affiliation



Answer: possible answer—varies with age, life situation, personality

Infer

Why doesn’t everyone feel the same amount of desire to affiliate?

Reading Check



Emotions

• Emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavioral components.

• Facial expressions of emotion are the same around the world.

• Psychologists have developed several different theories of emotion.




Reading Focus• What is the nature of emotion?

• How do facial expressions differ across different cultures?

• What are the major theories of emotion?

Main Idea

Emotions are states of feeling that influence thoughts and behaviors. Facial expressions reflect our emotions.

Emotions



What happens when a person becomes perfectly rational?



• Emotions: states of feeling

• Positive emotions such as happiness and love make life worth living,

while negative emotions such as fear and sadness can make life

difficult.

• Some emotions arise in response to a situation.

• Emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavioral components.

• Theories try to group emotions into different categories or determine

how many emotions there are.

The Nature of Emotions



Anger • A common response to an insult or attack, it can make a person seem

out of control.

• Most people get angry at an alleged offense, especially those that seem deliberate or thoughtless.

• Small annoyances such as a loud noise or bad odor can cause anger.

• Being assertive instead of hostile can diffuse anger.

Happiness

• James said that the motive behind everything that people do is “how to gain, how to keep, how to recover happiness.”

• People who are happy think the world is a happier, safer place, make decisions more readily, and report greater satisfaction with their lives.

• Happier people are more likely to help others.



Answer: two: anxiety and elation

Find the Main Idea

How many emotions do all psychologists agree on?

Reading Check



• People can “read” other people’s faces and tell what emotions they are feeling by their expressions.

• Cross-cultural evidence suggest that facial expressions are probably inborn.

• Certain facial expressions seem to suggest the same emotions in all people.

• Smiling appears to be a universal sign of friendliness and approval, while baring the teeth may be a universal sign of anger.

• Darwin believed that the universal recognition of facial expressions had survival value by communicating motivation.

Facial Expressions



Answer: People in different cultures identified the same emotions when shown the same set of facial expressions.


Why do psychologists believe that facial expressions are universal?

Reading Check



The Commonsense Approach• A person quickly interprets a situation, and the interpretation triggers

body sensations that signal a feeling, or emotion. The emotion, in turn, triggers a behavior.

• Most psychologists agree that thoughts (the appraisal of a situation) come before feelings and behavior.

• Three important theories of emotion are the James-Lange theory, the Cannon-Bard theory, and the theory of cognitive appraisal.

The Opponent-process Theory• Opponent-process theory: emotions often come in pairs, with one

emotion being followed by its opposite.

• Extreme sadness may follow extreme happiness.

Theories of Emotion



The James-Lange Theory

• People’s emotions follow, rather than cause, behavioral reactions.

• Certain situations trigger reactions, called instinctive bodily response patterns.

• Suggests people can change their feelings by changing behaviors.

The Cannon-Bard Theory

• Emotions accompany the bodily responses that are aroused by an external stimulus.

• Situations trigger both behaviors and emotions at the same time.

The Theory of Cognitive Appraisal

• All emotions have similar bodily response patterns.

• Maintains that the way people label an emotion depends on their cognitive appraisal of the situation.



• The theories of emotion are quite different from each other.

• It is possible that a behavioral reaction pattern could come before, along with, or after an emotional response.

• The truth may lie in a combination of theories.

• In short, people are complex, thinking beings who evaluate information both from their personal situations and from their bodily responses to those situations.

Evaluation of the Theories



Answer: James-Lange theory

Summarize

What theory suggests that emotions happen after an instinctive bodily response?

Reading Check



Evolutionary Psychology

Psychologists have studied what makes us do and feel the way we do. Recent

studies look at this question in reference to human evolution. Evolutionary

psychology studies how our behaviors might have helped our ancestors

survive.

Current Research in Psychology

• Psychological traits that helped humans survive and procreate got passed down to future generations.

• Fear of the dark, taste in food, and affection for children are examples.

• Play is so common that it must have some evolutionary advantage.

• Play helps the young develop both mentally and physically.

• Among social animals, play helps teach rules and establish hierarchies.

• Play does not end with childhood.

• Emotions may help people make the right decisions.



Thinking Critically• How does natural selection work?

• What are some other psychological traits that might have had evolutionary advantages?



Identifying Motivations and Emotions

What can you learn about motivation and emotion through

developing fictional characters?

• In this simulation, you will work in small groups to develop four different characters.

• Then you will bring each character to life in a skit performed for the class.

1. Introduction

Simulation: Applying What You’ve Learned

• The main character is a student named Mark.

• Secondary characters are Mark’s parents.

• The fourth character is a college admissions officer.

2. Defining the Characters and Their Feelings



• Divide into three groups, each representing different characters.

• Each group will brainstorm to understand their characters better.

• Improvise the listed scenes using different actors each time.

3. Acting Out the Scenarios

Simulation (cont'd.)

• As a class, discuss the following:

• What motives can be identified?

• What needs can be identified?

• What drives can be identified?

• How and where do the arguments in the scenario fit into Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

• Identify intrinsic and extrinsic rewards from each scenario.

4. Discussion

motivation and emotion original content copyright by holt mcdougal. additions and changes to the...

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