morsy, maya salzburg presentation

The Future We Want

Rights and Empowerment

United Nations Development Programme

Prepared by : Maya Morsy, Ph.D.

Gender Team Leader, Regional Centre in Cairo

Regional Bureau of Arab States

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

“The fulfillment of women’s and men’s

civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights

are central to the UNDP human development

framework and is vital to achieving sustainable

development.”

The Film

http://beijing20.unwomen.org

/en/infographic/beijing-at-20

Status of Arab Women

• Population Dynamics and Demography

� Women make up almost half the total population of the Arab region (48% women, of the region whose total population is 373 million)

� In the Arab region, the burden of raising children is on women. Despite the drop in the child dependency ratio in some countries like Tunisia and Egypt, it continues to be high in other countries. The highest is in Somali (93.4), followed by Comoros (75.8), Sudan (73), Mauritania (70.1), Iraq (69.3), and Yemen (69).


• Population Dynamics and Demography

�Arab women are expected to live longer. In 2014, life expectancy at birth was higher for Arab female (at 72.8) compared to 69.2 for Arab male.

�Migration: In 2014, 36.4% of the migrants were women in the Arab region, i.e. 9 million women have migrated to other countries

• Education, Employment and Labour Market

� Adult female literacy rate in 2010 (regional avg only available for 2010): 67.9% compared to 84.1 for male.

� In 2012, female primary school enrollment (% gross) reached 96.7% compared to 104.3% for male.

� In 2012, female secondary school enrollment (% gross) drops down to 69.9 compared to 74% for male. For Arab female, this is a significant improve from the 56.7% in 2000.

� 24.3 % Arab women participation in the labor force (Half of the global rate) in 2012, compared to 22.1% in 2000.



• Education, Employment and Labour Market

�Female unemployment in 2013 reached 17.8% compared to a male unemployment rate of 8.4%, i.e. female unemployment more than double that of male

�Female youth unemployment (15-24) amounted to 33.1% in 2012 compared to 21.% for male of the same age group.


• 0%-1.8% Average number of women on boards of business

• 14.9 % proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments( world’s lowest regional average)

• 7.4 is the proportion of women in ministerial positions

• 33.2% women who reported experiencing some form of violence in their life time.

• Human poverty stands at around 31.6 % for

women compared to only 19 % for men.

• High maternal mortality rates (270/100,000

live births; 1400 in Somalia)

• High HIV infection rates (40 % of the

estimated 470,000 PLWIH are Women)


1. Arab Women are living either Under conflict, Protracted conflict, Political transition, Structural Reform

2. Gender-based inequalities and discrimination, are rooted

3. Existing Patriarchal (Personal status and family laws)

4. Sexual and Gender Based Violence significant challenge for women in some Arab Countries

5. Peace-Advocates and Women Rights Defenders are frequently under attack

Context Setting

6. Rising Trend of Conservative Political Powers -Misconceived public perception on Women’s Rights - Imbalance of Power Dynamics

7. Personal Insecurities

8. Religious misconceptions on women’s status, gender equality, gender roles, and on harmful practices to women and girls

9. Limited role of Absence in the political Transition,

Peace negotiations and National Dialogues - Biasness against women in decision making positions

Context Setting

Challenges

1. Lower control of social, economic and political resources and opportunities

2. Cultural and social reproduction of women’s and girls’ subordinate status

3. Persistence of Gender-Based Violence

4. Discriminatory institutional and legislative frameworks (Laws, Policies ,Practices)

1: Lower control of social, economic and

political resources and opportunities

• Women in the Arab Region are living under conflict,protracted conflict, political transition, orstructural reform with challenging political, social,economic and legal conditions, affecting them morethan men.

• The uprising of strong conservative currents.

• Women have limited employment opportunities aswell as limited control over resources due to lackof access to land, credit, networks, marketing andinformation.

• The majority of working-age women are active inunpaid care work, the agriculture sector, or theinformal sector.

2: Cultural and social reproduction of women

and girls’ subordinate status

• Gender-based inequalities and discriminationrooted in society, linked to norms, traditionalpractices, and long-standing values.

• Prevalence of stereotypical images of obedient,emotional and dependent women, and attitudesof patriarchy, hamper women from realizing theirfull potential.

• Women's lack of control over their own bodies,and limited access to information related tosexual and reproductive health.

3: Gender-based violence

• Sexual and gender-based violence in

both private and public spaces

continues.

• Harmful traditional practices limit

women’s choices and control over their

own bodies:

• Female genital mutilation/cutting

• Early marriage

• Limited access to education.

• Sons Preference

4: Discriminatory institutional and legislative

frameworks

• Gender-based inequalities and discrimination in

legislation: property rights, access to justice, family law.

• Gender equality in legal frameworks is circumscribed by

prevailing inadequate

laws(customary/juridical/Religious) or lack of their

implementation

• Limited acceptance of temporary special measures for

women in Parliament and decision-making positions.

4: Discriminatory institutional and legislative

frameworks

• Gender-blind policies and procedures influenced by

narrow interpretations of Islamic Sharia.

• Lack of comprehensive legislation for Violence Against

Women

• Shortage of sex-disaggregated data, and gender-

responsive planning and budgeting.

• Vulnerable civil society with constrained ability to

advocate and provide meaningful support to women at a

large scale.

Arab women priorities in time of political

transitions were calling for

“Dignity, Social Justice, Freedom, Equality”

but were faced mostly with

conservative backlash seeing their rightful gains

and freedoms threatened;

Women Demands in Transition

• First Demand: The Representation of Women

• Second Demand: International Conventions

• Third Demand: Economic and Social Rights

• Fourth Demand: Legislation

• Fifth Demand: The National Women Machinery

• Sixth Demand: Media and Women

Gender Concepts

Gender Equality

a Strategy

For

Inclusion and Sensitization

DEVELOPMENT

GENDER NEGATIVE

GENDER NEUTRAL

+

GENDER SENSITIVE AND TRANSFORMATIVE

Empowerment

WID and GAD Approaches: The

paradigm shift

Gender Characteristics

Gender is a culture-specific construct : The widely

shared expectations and norms about appropriate maleand female being but across cultures there aredifferences between women’s and men’s roles

Gender refers to the economic and social attributesand opportunities associated with being male or femalein a particular social setting at a particular point intime.

�Talking about “social construction ofgender” refers to the socially prescribed

roles to women and men which oftendetermine their opportunities andpotential, needs and rights, access toand control over resources.

Social Construction of Gender

Women’s Triple Role

• Productive Role

• Reproductive Role

• Community Role

Practical Gender Needs

• Practical gender needs are the concrete and practical needs womenand men have for survival and economic advancement, which donot challenge the existing sexual division of labour, legalinequalities, or other aspects of discrimination due to cultural andsocial practices.

• Meeting practical gender needs in development programmes mayinclude the provision of services such as clean water, shelter andhealth care, as well as income generating opportunities.

• If women are involved in decision making and training in new areas,strategic interests may also be addressed through such practicalprojects

Strategic Gender Interests

• Strategic gender interests refer to the relative status of women tomen. They seek to bring about greater equality between men andwomen, and to eliminate various forms of sexual discrimination.

• Strategic interests may include legal rights, protection fromdomestic violence, increased decision making and increasingwomen’s control over their bodies.

• Practical needs and strategic interests are complementary. Forexample, programmes that only target practical needs may not besustainable unless strategic interests are also taken into account.

Practical Gender Needs and

Strategic Interests

GENDER EQUALITY GENDER EQUALITY GENDER EQUALITY GENDER EQUALITY � Equality does does does does notnotnotnot mean that mean that mean that mean that women and men will become women and men will become women and men will become women and men will become the samethe samethe samethe same, but that women and men have equal access to have equal access to have equal access to have equal access to opportunities and achieve opportunities and achieve opportunities and achieve opportunities and achieve equal resultsequal resultsequal resultsequal results

� Gender equality is Gender equality is Gender equality is Gender equality is notnotnotnot a a a a women’s issue, women’s issue, women’s issue, women’s issue, but should concern and engage men as well as women

GENDER EQUALITY GENDER EQUALITY GENDER EQUALITY GENDER EQUALITY ---- SUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARY� Gender equality implies a society in which women and men enjoy the enjoy the enjoy the enjoy the same opportunities, outcomes, same opportunities, outcomes, same opportunities, outcomes, same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligationsrights and obligationsrights and obligationsrights and obligations in all spheres of life

� Equality between men and women exists when both sexes are able to share equally in the distribution of share equally in the distribution of share equally in the distribution of share equally in the distribution of power and influence; have equal power and influence; have equal power and influence; have equal power and influence; have equal access to resources, have equal access to resources, have equal access to resources, have equal access to resources, have equal opportunities and achieve equal opportunities and achieve equal opportunities and achieve equal opportunities and achieve equal resultsresultsresultsresults

What is Gender Equality?

Gender equality is defined in many different ways. One way to approach this concept is by breaking it down into five main components:

�Rights�Opportunities�Value�Situation and outcome�Agency

Rights

Gender equality means that both men and women should have the same rights, and be equal beforethe law.

De jure,” or formal gender equality

Opportunities

While the provision of equal rights can establish “de jure” (legal) equality between men and women,true gender equality requires more than legal guarantees. In order to ensure “de facto” (practical)equality between men and women, these laws need to be put into practice. Equality of opportunity

“de facto” (practical) gender equality

Value

Gender equality also means that men’s and women’s contributions to the family, society, and community should be valued equally, even though those contributions may be different

Increasing the value of “women’s work” will primarily require a shift in attitude.

Situation and Outcome

If men and women have the same rights and opportunities, they may not make the samechoices, and therefore it is wrong to expect that the end result for men and women should bethe same

Barriers to gender equality of situation are complex and often hidden

Agency

Gender equality is something that men and women can claim through their actions and voice.

Under the lawNO

Discrimination

OpportunityACCESS

ResultsACHIEVED

compared to Men Gender

Equality

GenderEquality

Agency Value

Gender Equality

• Gender equality, centered in human rights, is

critical to achieving the Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development

Goals (SDGs) of the Post MDG Agenda.

• By advancing gender equality and empowering

women as agents of change and leaders in the

development processes that shape their lives, a

more inclusive, sustainable and resilient world is

envisaged .

Gender Equality

• In addition to improving the lives of individual

women and girls, gender equality improves

the prospects of families, communities and

nations.

• When gender inequalities are reduced, more

children go to school, families are healthier,

agricultural productivity improves and

incomes increase.

Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs)Goal 3

PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN

Target

• Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015

Indicators

� Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education (UNESCO)

� Ratio of literate women to men, 15-24 years old (UNESCO)

� Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector (ILO)

� Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament (IPU)


(MDGs)

Results

• The world has achieved equality in primary education between girls and boys, but few countries have achieved that target at all levels of education.

• The political participation of women keeps increasing. In January 2014, in 46 countries more than 30 per cent of members of parliament in at least one chamber were women.

• In many countries, gender inequality persists and women continue to face discrimination in access to education, work and economic assets, and participation in government. For example, in every developing region, women tend to hold less secure jobs than men, with fewer social benefits.


(MDGs)

Results

• Violence against women continues to

undermine efforts to reach all goals.

• Poverty is a major barrier to secondary

education, especially among older girls.

• Women are largely relegated to more

vulnerable forms of employment.

Sustainable Development Goals

• Goal 5 - Achieve gender equality and empower all women

and girls

Targets

5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls

everywhere

5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in

the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual

and other types of exploitation

5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced

marriage and female genital mutilation


Targets

5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through theprovision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies andthe promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family asnationally appropriate

5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunitiesfor leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and publiclife

5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health andreproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action ofthe International Conference on Population and Development and the BeijingPlatform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences


Indicators

5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws

5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women

5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels

Weak Enabling Factor: Human Security

&

Gender Dimension of Human Security

� Arab women’s security mirrors social, economic and political challenges to Arab women’s empowerment.

� Putting peoples’ security first� Protection of the environment women’s access to resources

� Strengthening of rule of law women’s citizenship rights

� Reorientation of the economy women’s economic participation

� Ending hunger women’s access to food and land

� Boosting health women’s right to life and services

� Managing conflict ensuring women’s personal safety

50

Arab Human Development Report (2009)

Challenges to Human Security in Arab Countries

The Girl Effect

• http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=The+Girl+E

ffect+Video&Form=VQFRVP#view=detail&mid=3B3

5292540C585BA39B03B35292540C585BA39B0

Causality Analysis

Unfulfilled Women Rights

Unfulfilled Women Rights Causality Analysis

“Status”

“Services, Access,

Practices”

“Society, Policies,

Resources”

Limited women participation in Decision Making in the public and Private Sphere

High unemployment rate among women

High Illiteracy Rates among Women

Limited participation in self employment-micro/small enterprise ownership

High fertility Rate

Share of women in wage employment in the non agriculture sector

Women registered as voters

Women heads of Households

Lack of public awareness

Inadequate evidence base research

Lack a strong knowledge base on status of women

Lack of centers of excellence producing state-of-the art research on women’s issues

Poor representation of women's needs and interests

Lack of Gender sensitive service delivery

Lack a strong knowledge base on status of women

Lack of strong Knowledge base on Women’s Rights for Women to Access

Lack of Gender Sensitive mitigation & adaptation of Climate Change and its effect on women’s livelihood

Lack of enabling environment and gender labor market rigidity and inequalities

Low and imbalanced Media coverage on women and gender issues

Lack of control over financial Resources

Lack of qualitative and quantitative data and evidence based research

Insufficient coordinated mechanisms at all levels to promote the advancement of women (Both civil society and government)

Lack of Mainstreaming Women needs in the Infrastructure

Denial of Women Rights in the laws (Inheritance , Access to property )

Lack of M & E Framework

Patriarchy as an ideology pervading society and state

Poverty – illiteracy - Inequality and Discrimination

Social-cultural barriers, traditional beliefs, value systems and attitudes

Socio – cultural barriers prevent women fro m accessing services

Religious misconceptions on women’s status, gender equality, gender roles, and on harmful practices to women and girls

Limited financial resources - Ineffective allocation & use of financial resources

Gender and Power Relations

Discrimination and Inequalities

Imbalance of Power Dynamics

Stereotyping of women and inequality in women's access to and participation in all community and communication system

Gender Based Violence

Gender Biased Attitudes

Culture of Silence Practiced by Women and Society

Less social acceptance to women’s work

Lack of Solidarity Amongst Women

Lack of Accountability

R

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E

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• Limited women participation in Decision

Making in the public and Private Sphere

• High unemployment rate among women

• High Illiteracy Rates among Women

• Limited participation in self employment-

micro/small enterprise ownership

• High fertility Rate

• Share of women in wage employment in

the non agriculture sector

• Women registered as voters

• Women heads of Households

•

“Status”

• Lack of public awareness

• Inadequate evidence base research

• Lack a strong knowledge base on status of women

• Lack of centers of excellence producing state-of-the art research on

women’s issues

• Poor representation of women's needs and interests

• Lack of Gender sensitive service delivery

• Lack a strong knowledge base on status of women

• Lack of strong Knowledge base on Women’s Rights for Women to Access

• Lack of Gender Sensitive mitigation & adaptation of Climate Change and

its effect on women’s livelihood

• Lack of enabling environment and gender labor market rigidity and

inequalities

• Low and imbalanced Media coverage on women and gender issues

• Lack of control over financial Resources

• Lack of qualitative and quantitative data and evidence based research

• Insufficient coordinated mechanisms at all levels to promote the

advancement of women (Both civil society and government)

• Lack of Mainstreaming Women needs in the Infrastructure

• Denial of Women Rights in the laws (Inheritance , Access to property )

• Lack of M & E Framework

“Services, Access,

Practices”

• Patriarchy as an ideology pervading society and state

• Poverty – illiteracy - Inequality and Discrimination

• Social-cultural barriers, traditional beliefs, value systems and

attitudes

• Socio – cultural barriers prevent women fro m accessing

services

• Religious misconceptions on women’s status, gender equality,

gender roles, and on harmful practices to women and girls

• Limited financial resources - Ineffective allocation & use of

financial resources

• Gender and Power Relations

• Discrimination and Inequalities

• Imbalance of Power Dynamics

• Stereotyping of women and inequality in women's access to

and participation in all community and communication system

• Gender Based Violence

• Gender Biased Attitudes

• Culture of Silence Practiced by Women and Society

• Less social acceptance to women’s work

• Lack of Solidarity Amongst Women

• Lack of Accountability

“Society, Policies, Resources

“Root”

UNDP Gender Equality Strategy 2014-2017

Mission Statement

To contribute to the eradication of poverty and the significant reduction of gender inequalities by

empowering women and promoting and protecting their rights.

By advancing gender equality and empowering women as agents of change and leaders in the development processes that shape their lives,

UNDP envisages a more inclusive, sustainable and resilient world.

UNDP focuses directly on gender equality and

women’s empowerment and also integrates it

into the organization’s three key thematic areas:

1- Sustainable development pathways;

2- Inclusive and effective governance systems;

3- Resilience building.

Sustainable Development Pathways

• The equal participation, rights and opportunities of women are essential to

eradicating poverty and promoting growth that is inclusive, equitable and

sustainable. Women, particularly poor and rural women whose lives are

inextricably tied to the environment, have valuable knowledge and experiences

and can be leaders in shaping inclusive national environmental policies.

� Reduce or eliminate the barriers to women’s economic empowerment,

including by addressing women’s unpaid care and promoting women’s decent

work and equal access to credit and productive resources;

� Support the integration of gender considerations in social protection

measures to enable women as well as men to participate in the economy;

� Ensure gender-responsive governance of natural resource management; and,

� Support efforts to increase women’s access to resources , ownership and

sustainable management of ecosystem goods and services, including through

climate finance.

Inclusive and Effective Governance

Systems• For governance to be inclusive and effective, women must participate

equally in both processes and institutions and benefit equally from

services.

� Promote women’s participation as voters and candidates and their

equal representation in constitutional committees, parliaments, public

administrations and the judiciary;

� Strengthen women’s legal rights and access to justice;

� Engage women equitably in the prioritization and provision of local

services, including health and security services;

� Enhance national capacities to prevent and address sexual and

gender-based violence and provide support services and access to

justice for victims

Resilience Building

• Gender equality and women’s empowerment are integral to building resilient societies and nations. Despite the devastation caused by crisis, post-crisis rebuilding periods offer opportunities to create more inclusive governance institutions and transform societies, including by advancing gender equality and women’s empowerment.

� Promote women’s equal participation and leadership in conflict prevention, mitigation, mediation and peace building;

� Ensure women’s equal participation in decision-making processes on climate adaptation, mitigation and disaster risk reduction;

� Mainstream gender equality and women’s empowerment in disaster and climate risk reduction policies and plans; and

� Ensure that women benefit equally from local development, employment creation, front-line service delivery and reintegration programmes in post-conflict and post-disaster situations.

UNDP RBAS Results are focused on

1. Increasing women’s political representation and participation

2. Expanding opportunities for women’s involvement in constitution making

3. Strengthening women’s roles in peace and security processes

4. Championing Gender responsive resilience-based development

5. Enhancing Employment opportunities , Livelihoods of the poor women and the excluded

WOMEN AND GIRLS CALL FOR ACTION

Social Empowerment

• Well being of women and girls.

• Equal access to health care, quality education at all levels, to community, sports and local

activities

• Equal access to Justice and Public Safety

• Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social decisions

• Skills and opportunities for women and girls to organize and use their collective power to

advocate for justice, fairness and equity on behalf of themselves and others.

• Make their own choices with regard to traditional beliefs and cultural practices

• Share Power Equally and change opportunity structure

• Negotiate Gender Relations

• Develop a common understanding on vision and approaches (between women-men) to

change societal attitudes

• Provide choices for young women

• Create a social mechanism and a popular discourse

• Proactive/Preventive measures to eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls

• Build Sense of Responsibility

• Create an intergenerational Framework and bridge the Generational Gap


Economic Empowerment

• Equal access for women to career and vocational guidance, employment,

equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security

• Equal access to participation and decision making in economic decisions

• Self Employment /Entrepreneurship

• Ability to generate income

• Access to resources, Access and use credit, Access to information

• Own and control assets

• Provide choices for young women

• Realize greater choices in jobs and occupations and demand access to

essential services for themselves, their families and their communities.

• Supportive family policies for working mothers

• Quality and affordable Childcare

• Creative incentives to the Private Sector for gender equity policies.


Political Empowerment

• Equal access to participation and decision making / Equal Opportunities

• Place in the negotiation Table in the Post conflict and Peace negotiations

• Develop a Civic education curricula that starts from the early years in the school

• Build Trust

• Temporary affirmative action measures (within parties, in local, and national

elections)

• Encourage Young Women to participate

• Shed Lights on the Role of women in the political Party

• Be attentive to young women needs

• Ensure that educational achievements for girls are translated into social

achievement

• Ensure Allocation of resources for Capacity Development

• Engage as Equal Citizen/Foster Active Participation

• Create a strong Voice/ Bridge the intergenerational gap

• Conduct budget Analysis for political parties to assess their commitment to

equality and women's issues

A DREAM FOR GENDER EQUALITY

• An ‘agency approach’ is needed to enhance young women’s status as agents of development, as partners, and movers and shapers of change to benefit society at large.

• Translate ‘women's issues’ into a matter of ‘public interest’

• Efforts to guarantee greater political participation, engage women in voice-based (demand) to choice-based (supply) to improve accountability of public service providers, will benefit society at large, as will assuring public safety and security for women and girls.

• A monitoring, evaluation and accountability framework for gender equality policies, procedures, processes would need to be developed.

Egypt CASE

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvlf6FJRfUU&i

ndex=7&list=PLWCzLjozR2zoN1e7KUPDN-

3OYRZDoA6oA

Resources

• http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/gender.shtml

• Egypt Human Development report , Gender Discrimination Chapter 7 , 2010

• UN Women (Women in Politics: 2015) Facts and Figures: Leadership and Political Participation. Retrieved from

<http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures>

• World Bank (2015). Unemployment, youth female (% of female labor force ages 15-24). Retrieved

from<http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.1524.FE.ZS/countries>

• UNDP (Human Development Report: 2014). Gender Development Index (GDI). Retrieved from: <http://hdr.undp.org/en/faq-

page/gender-development-index-gdi>

• UN Women (2013, January). Women Human Rights in Situations of Conflict and Post Conflict Contexts. Retrieved from:

<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/Womenconflictsituations/RegionalConsultationAmmanJan2013.pdf>

• UN Women (2012, April 20).Women’s Empowerment in the Middle East and Worldwide. Retrieved from:

<http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/4/women-s-empowerment-in-the-middle-east-and-worldwide>

• World Bank (2012, April 9). Women are less likely than men to participate in the labor market in most countries. Retrieved

from <http://data.worldbank.org/news/women-less-likely-than-men-to-participate-in-labor-market>

• World Population Prospects, United Nations, unless otherwise indicated.

• Population Division Database, UN.

• Gender Statistics, World Bank.

• ILOSTAT, ILO.

• World Development Indicators, World Bank

• Gender Statistics, World Bank

http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/variableSelection/selectvariables.aspx?source=gender-statistics

morsy, maya salzburg presentation

Presentations & Public Speaking