morphology - uzh · syntagmatic versus paradigmatic relations in morphology paradigmatic relations:...
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Words
Grammatical words (units of syntax)
1. A word can stand alone, part of a word cannot
4. A word can be referred to by an anaphor, part of a word cannot
3. Other elements can come in between two words, not between parts
of words
2. Syntactic ordering principles can apply to words, but not to parts of
words
Words form relatively tight-knit bundles of information, to which
syntactic rules have no access.
Words
Phonological word (unit of phonology)
Languages often have a number of phonological rules and principles that tend
to converge on a certain domain which we might call a phonological word. This
phonological word often but not necessarily coincides with the grammatical
word, but there needs to be a systematic mapping between the two.
Some common phonological operations that can apply to p-words. The p-word
may be the domain for
- Stress
- Tone
- Minimal word requirements
- Phonological rules
- Assimilation
- Dissimilation
- Lenition
- Fortition
- Vowel harmony
Morphemes: form and meaning
Morpheme
Morpheme
Smallest unit of language with its own meaning
Morpheme
Form
Meaning
Morpheme
Highly idealized picture!
Morphemes: form and meaning
Morpheme
Morpheme
Smallest unit of language with its own meaning
Form
Meaning
Morpheme
concrete abstract
concrete abstract
consistent variable
consistent variable
Morphemes: form
Morpheme
Morpheme
Smallest unit of language with its own meaning
Form
Meaning
Morpheme
concrete abstract
Prefix Suffix Circumfix Infix Root
Ablaut Cons mutation Subtraction Conversion Reduplication
morphemes Morphological operations/ processes
Morphemes: form
Parameter 1: position
Position
Describes the relative position of a marker with respect to the root.
Morpheme
Values
PRAE the marker appears before the root
POST the marker appears after the root
IN the marker and the root are pronounced simultaneously
SIMUL a combination of the above
Morphemes: form
Morpheme
Morpheme
Smallest unit of language with its own meaning
Form
Meaning
Morpheme
consistent variable
concrete abstract
Morphemes: form
Exceptions to the pattern one form one meaning
Form
Form
Meaning
Morpheme Allomorphy
Morphemes: form/meaning
How do we decide between single and different morpheme?
Regularity is an important criterion for recognizing a morpheme
MEANING
ACROSS CONTEXTS
FORM
ACROSS CONTEXTS
Regular Irregular
Regular Single morpheme Vague or variable
semantics
Irregular Allomorphy Different morphemes
Morphemes: form
Allomorphy
Allomorphs
Lexically/categorically conditioned
Phonologically conditioned
Transparently related
Non-transparently related
Morphemes: form
Allomorphy
Allomorphs
Lexically/categorically conditioned
Phonologically conditioned
Transparently related
Non-transparently related
Different allomorphs are associated with different
lexical items and/or grammatical categories Different allomorphs are associated with
phonological contexts
The allomorphs cannot be related to each other on the basis of synchronic phonological rules
The allomorphs can be related to each other on the basis of synchronic
phonological rules
Morphemes: form
Allomorphy
Allomorphs
Lexically/categorically conditioned
Phonologically conditioned
Transparently related
Non-transparently related
The allomorphs cannot be related to each other on the basis of synchronic phonological rules
The allomorphs can be related to each other on the basis of synchronic
phonological rules
Parameter 2: fusion
Allomorphs
Lexically/categorically conditioned
Phonologically conditioned
Transparently related
Non-transparently related
Morphemes: form
Morphemes: form
Parameter 2: fusion
Some common phonological operations that can apply to p-words. The p-word
may be the domain for
- Stress
- Tone
- Minimal word requirements
- Phonological rules
- Assimilation
- Dissimilation
- Lenition
- Fortition
- Vowel harmony
Allomorphy
Parameter 2: fusion
Fusion: the degree of tightness with which a morpheme/formative is
integrated with its host.
Three basic values:
ISOLATING No p-word level processes between morpheme and
base (p-word < g-word)
CONCATENATIVE P-word level processes between base and morpheme,
but morpheme can be separated from base.
NONLINEAR Simultaneous expression of morphological process
and base, not analyzable in any linear string (direct
modification of the base)
Morphemes: form
Morphemes: form
Parameter 3: flexivity
Allomorphs
Lexically/categorically conditioned
Phonologically conditioned
Transparently related
Non-transparently related
Morphemes: form
Parameter 3: flexivity
Flexivity
Describes whether a formative/morphome has lexically determined
(item-based) allomorphs (i.e. allomorphs that cannot be explained by
general phonological principles).
Morpheme
Values
FLEXIVE There is variation in marking one and the same
category depending on the lexical context
NONFLEXIVE Marking is invariant across lexical contexts (or
phonologically fully predictable)
Morphemes: form
Parameter 3: flexivity
1. Presence of flexivity
Can you rule out general phonological explanations for the conditioning
and the phonetic form of the allomorphs?
2. Locus of flexivity
Is flexivity located in the stem or in the affix (or perhaps both?)
3. Conditioning of flexivity
Is flexivity arbitrarily or predictably conditioned?
If predictable, is it lexically or categorically conditioned?
If lexically conditioned, what is the conditioning factor?
Morphemes: form
Parameter 3: flexivity
1. Presence of flexivity
Can you rule out general phonological explanations for the conditioning
and the phonetic form of the allomorphs?
2. Locus of flexivity
Is flexivity located in the stem or in the affix (or perhaps both?)
3. Conditioning of flexivity
Is flexivity arbitrarily or predictably conditioned?
If predictable, is it lexically or categorically conditioned?
If lexically conditioned, what is the conditioning factor?
Predictable lexical flexivity: semantics (e.g. agentivity, etymology)
or phonology (e.g. nr. of syllables)
Morphemes: meaning
Morpheme
Morpheme
Smallest unit of language with its own meaning
Form
Meaning
Morpheme
concrete abstract
consistent variable
Morphemes: meaning
How do we decide between single and different morpheme?
Regularity is an important criterion for recognizing a morpheme
MEANING
ACROSS CONTEXTS
FORM
ACROSS CONTEXTS
Regular Irregular
Regular Single morpheme Vague or variable
semantics
Irregular Allomorphy Different morphemes
Morphemes: meaning
How do we decide between single and different morpheme?
Some ingredients of regularity of morphemes
(apart from phonetic form)
1. Consistency of meaning across contexts
2. Consistency of resulting category
3. Consistency of base category
4. Consistency of the range of allomorphs
5. Consistency of effects on the base
6. Potentiation
Morphemes: meaning
Parameter 4: exponence
Exponence
The degree to which different categories are grouped together in
single, indivisable morphemes
Values
SEPARATIVE One meaning per morpheme
CUMULATIVE More than one meaning per morpheme
Morphemes: meaning
Cumulative exponence
Exceptions to the pattern one form one meaning
Form
Meaning
Meaning
Morph
Spanish (Romance, IE)
habl-ó
speak-3SG.PAST.PERF.IND
‘He spoke.’
Form Meaning
1 >1
Morphemes: affixes and clitics
Affixes versus clitics
Form
Meaning
Affix HOST: (subset of)
lexical class -
Phonological integration
Morphemes: affixes and clitics
Affixes versus clitics
Form
Meaning
Clitic HOST:
variable/syntactic =
Phonological integration
Clitics have less selection restriction because of their syntactic behavior.
Morphemes: affixes and clitics
Typological parameters in the study of clitics
Domain
The linguistic
domain wrt which
a clitic is placed
Placement Host
Examples:
clausal domain
nominal domain
verbal domain
The particular
host that a clitic
attaches to
a lexical item
(e.g. first word,
focused word)
a syntactic
constituent
(e.g. NP VP, first
constituent)
Principles of
placement
Flexible (floating)
Fixed (second
position, final
position)
Position
The position wrt
the host
Prae
Post
(In)
(Simul)
Structures: Templates
What is a template?
An abstract specification of the linear arrangement of subconstituents
of some larger constituent (what goes where?), [independent of specific
semantic, syntactic, or phonlogical considerations.]
Templates
A template has slots or positions,
where (groups of) subconstituents can
be positioned.
The basic principle of a slot is that the subconstituents that can go in
that slot cannot occur at the same time, they are in paradigmatic
opposition to each other.
Structures I: Templates
Hierarchy in morphology
Morphologists usually do not consider complex words to be just a linear
string of morphemes. A comparison to the structure of an onion is often
made.
un happy ness + +
Selection restriction un- attaches to adjectives (and some verbs)
Selection restriction ness- attaches to adjectives
A linear analysis potentially ignores certain generalizations, such as
selection restrictions of affixes.
Structures I: Templates
Hierarchy in morphology
These kinds of non-linear relations are hierarchical in nature, and can
be represented by tree structures
un happy ness
A
A
N
Lieber, Rochelle (2009) Introducing morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 37
Morphological head
Structures: Templates
Proposed factors in shaping affix ordering principles
Semantic scope
If affix p has scope over affix q, it is external with respect to affix q.
(external meaning further away from the root)
Structures: Compounds
Interfixes
Interfixes
Compounds may have an additional type of affix, called an interfix.
Interfixes come in between two lexemes of a compound, and is also
called a linking element.
Interfixes are often frozen inflections.
Structures: Compounds
Criteria
Unique collocations (not for every language or CMP type)
Interfix (not for every language or CMP type)
Idiomaticity (but neither sufficient nor necessary)
Dependent noun is generic rather than referential (not sufficient)
Compounds versus phrases
Additional criteria In general terms, compounds exhibit greater phonological, morphological and
syntactic cohesion than phrases. Phonological cohesion
Morphological cohesion
Syntactic cohesion (anaphoric reference)
Structures: Derivation/Inflection
Derivation Inflection
Provides new
lexemes
Provides forms
of lexemes
Lexicon Syntax
Structures: Derivation/Inflection
Criteria for the distinction between derivation and inflection
1. Meaning
2. Change of category
3. Regularity of meaning
4. Productivity
5. Position in the template
6. Obligatoriness
7. Relevance to syntax
Structures: Derivation/Inflection
Inflection versus derivation
Inherent versus contextual inflection
Inherent inflection: inflection that is relevant to the syntax, but which conveys
some independent information as well (e.g. tense, aspect, number on nouns,
some peripheral case markers)
Contextual inflection: required by the syntactic context (government and
agreement)
Structures: Derivation/Inflection
Parameter 5: locus of marking
Where does contextual inflectional information appear?
head-marking: on the
head
dependent-marking:
on the dependent
double marking: on
both
no marking: there is
no contextual
inflection for the
relation
Structures: Paradigms
Syntagmatic relations: relations between units that (potentially) follow
each other in speech
Syntagmatic versus paradigmatic relations in morphology
Paradigmatic relations: relations between units that could (potentially)
occur in the same slot and are mutually exclusive
house s work s
ø ø
ed
ing
syntagmatic dimension
paradigmatic dimension
Structures: Paradigms
Notions related to paradigms
An inflection class is a set of lexemes that exhibit the same inflectional pattern.
Different inflectional classes -> allomorphy
Syncretism is systematic homonymy within an inflectional paradigm
A lexeme is defective when it lacks the inflectional forms that other lexemes do have so
that that particular feature value cannot be expressed for the defective lexeme.
Periphrasis: a well-established alternative non-morphological pattern that ‘fills’ the empty
cells of an inflectional paradigm.
A deponent lexeme takes the “wrong” inflectional forms.
Eidemic resonance is the meaningless sound resonation that characterizes the
inflectional forms in some paradigms