more resilient livelihoods among smallholders in issn ... · 90%, respectively (segeplan 2016). 4...

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Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems

ISSN 2168-3565 (Print) 2168-3573 (Online) Journal homepage httpwwwtandfonlinecomloiwjsa21

Agroecology-based farming provides grounds formore resilient livelihoods among smallholders inWestern Guatemala

Claudia Irene Calderoacuten Claudia Geroacutenimo Alexandra Praun Jaime ReynaIvan Dimitri Santos Castillo Raquel Leoacuten Rose Hogan amp Joseacute Pablo PradoCoacuterdova

To cite this article Claudia Irene Calderoacuten Claudia Geroacutenimo Alexandra Praun JaimeReyna Ivan Dimitri Santos Castillo Raquel Leoacuten Rose Hogan amp Joseacute Pablo Prado Coacuterdova(2018) Agroecology-based farming provides grounds for more resilient livelihoods amongsmallholders in Western Guatemala Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems DOI1010802168356520181489933

To link to this article httpsdoiorg1010802168356520181489933

Published online 06 Jul 2018

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Agroecology-based farming provides grounds for moreresilient livelihoods among smallholders in WesternGuatemalaClaudia Irene Calderoacutena Claudia Geroacutenimob Alexandra Praunc Jaime ReynacIvan Dimitri Santos Castillod Raquel Leoacutene Rose Hoganfand Joseacute Pablo Prado Coacuterdovag

aDepartment of Horticulture University of Wisconsin - Madison Madison WI USA bEscuela deEstudios de Postgrado Facultad de Agronomiacutea Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala GuatemalaGuatemala cIndependent Consultant Guatemala Guatemala dSubaacuterea de Manejo de Suelos y AguaFacultad de Agronomiacutea Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala ePrograma de Medios de VidaSostenible Trocaire Guatemala fSustainable Agricultural and Natural Resource Adviser TrocaireMaynooth Ireland gSubaacuterea de Ciencias Sociales y Desarrollo Rural Facultad de AgronomiacuteaUniversidad de San Carlos de Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala

ABSTRACTA set of sustainability attributes was estimated in WesternGuatemala by characterizing 20 small-scale farming familieswith the aim of exploring food security- and climate resili-ence-related conditions Solidarity-based economies spawn astronger social network among agroecological farms Genderroles in agroecology-adopting families seem to be moving to amore balanced scenario Differences between agroecology-based and semi-conventional farmers suggest that shares ofcommercialized produce gross agricultural income and plantdiversity are significantly higher and thus more resilient in theformer Challenges to agroecological adoption howeverinclude limited public infrastructure dearth of supporting poli-cies and external threats posed by utility-inspired economicagents

ARTICLE HISTORYReceived 31 August 2017Revised 16 April 2018Accepted 13 June 2018

KEYWORDSAgroecology resiliencesmall-scale farmingsolidarity-based economyWestern Guatemala

Introduction

Agroecology-based resilience entails a twofold process that presupposes socialcohesion for improved practices to work in contexts where natural disastersexacerbate food insecurity Such a notion however is normally context- andsite-specific which requires validation at the local level and above all a researchstrategy that is consistent with a horizontal liaison between community mem-bers and researchers (Putnam et al 2014) Resilient systems normally show highbuffer capacity self-organization and the ability to build learning and adapta-tion capacity (Jacobi et al 2013) Both biophysical and socioeconomic traits playa relevant role particularly those related to human agency and institutions

CONTACT Joseacute Pablo Prado Coacuterdova ppradousacedugt Oficina A-14 Edificio T-9 Ciudad Universitaria01012 Ciudad de Guatemala GuatemalaColor versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at wwwtandfonlinecomwjsa

AGROECOLOGY AND SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMShttpsdoiorg1010802168356520181489933

copy 2018 Trocaire

(Mijatovic et al 2013) Small-scale agroecological farmers tend to act as counter-hegemonic think tanks vis-agrave-vis mainstream paradigms in agriculture given theparticulars of the modernization ideology that is a food production systembased upon industrializedmeans and a profit-oriented rationale (Hardeman andJochemsen 2012) Their alternative ways (Navarro 2013) and their empiricaldown-to-earth wisdom often provide themwith an unparalleled know-how as tobetter less-polluting andmore socially desirable ways to produce food Previouswork in Latin America has produced promising results regarding the adoptionof agroecology compared to conventional approaches Jacobi et al (2013)compared levels of resilience in agroforestry systems and monocultures forcocoa production in Bolivia and found the former to be more resilient thanthe latter based upon socioeconomic surveys and a set of biophysical indicatorsSan Martiacuten (2015) carried out a sustainability comparison between traditionaland industrial agriculture in Argentina focusing on resilience stability produc-tivity equity and self-sufficiency and found that agroecology-based traditionalsystems scored better results than industrial plantations Beniacutetez Rojas et al(2015) were part of a research project in Mexico where they evaluated micro-fauna activity in the soil by monitoring CO2 emissions pH soil organic matterand moisture in both conventional and agroecology-based fields and concludedthat micro-fauna activity is higher in the latter An assessment undertaken inCentral America in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 found thatagroecology-based fields were less damaged than monocultures thus providingempirical evidence on the relationship between resilience and agroecology(Holt-Gimeacutenez 2002)

Pre-Hispanic agriculture in Guatemala used to hinge on growing several plantspecies in the same field as well as on soil conservation practices (Barrera andFernaacutendez 2012 Wilken 1971) Indigenous groups in the Guatemalan westernhighlands offermdashin many casesmdashan example of coexistence between ecologicalintegrity and natural resource management since ethically grounded conservationpractices for instance oftentimes dovetail with nature appropriation strategiesstemming from ancient values of reciprocity and collective action (Saacutenchez-Midence and Victorino-Ramiacuterez 2012) Given an ample overlap between tradi-tional family farming and agroecology in Guatemala (Barrera and Fernaacutendez2012 Beach et al 2006 Ford and Nigh 2009 Wilken 1971) there are a numberof well-established initiatives across the country where sustainable practicescoupled with asset-poor settings provide rural households with low-cost agricul-tural produce Knowledge sharing on the other hand is also rooted in this CentralAmerican country where a more formalized version of skills exchange amongfarmers gave birth to the Campesino a campesino (CaC) approach that wasgradually spread across the region in the 1970s (Holt-Gimeacutenez 2006 cited inRosset andMartiacutenez-Torres 2012) Indeed the CaC became a hallmark for successin both income-generating and technological accounts given the breakthroughsachieved in the region until a war-torn context made it unfeasible for Guatemala

2 C I CALDEROacuteN ET AL

in the 1980s (Gimeacutenez Cacho et al 2018) Political violence during the peak of a36-year armed conflictmdashthat started off in 1960 and caused both a torn socialfabric and the loss of traditional practicesmdashwas spawned by State repression uponpolitically active citizens including small-scale farmers thus dwindling previousorganization successes (Steinberg and Taylor 2002) A national survey on agroe-cological practices carried out by Siguumlenza (2015) confirms the increasing numberof relevant experiences across the country and the mature level of some of theseprocesses going on for several decades Themilpa system (usually a polyculture ofmaize beans and squashes as well as other plants) this author argues has beeninstrumental for agroecology to take off as well as the aforementioned develop-ment in the 1970s brought about by NGO World Neighbors in the centralhighlands eventually inspiring the creation of several agroecology-oriented orga-nizations elsewhere in the country in the following years There is a lack ofscientific literature however regarding the main challenges and results comingout from this process and the particular nuances encountered by its practitionersin a highly diverse country Be that as it may small-scale agriculture is thebackbone of Guatemalan food production (Isakson 2013) but its multifunctionalrole is currently being jeopardized by industrial agriculture (IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2014 Gliessman 2013 Lin et al 2011)

A number of small-scale farmers (with 02 plusmn 015 ha of land) have over thepast decade adopted agroecology as their production approach in the westernhighlands of Guatemala San Marcos Department in particular in the town-ships of Sibinal and Tacanaacute thanks to extension work undertaken by theCatholic Church and the local NGO Asociacioacuten Red Kuchubrsquoal and withfinancial support from Troacutecaire In doing so this tandem of aid organizationsseems to have contributed to the inception of a somewhat renewed ruralsubjectivity characterized by a land ethic a sense of self-reliance and a deepconcern for community wellbeing The farmers in question have also becomesocial activists inasmuch as their hard work in the fields their selflesscontribution to collective welfare and their commitment with nature con-servation make them counterhegemonic wrinkles (Tischler 2009) given thattheir rationale hinges on ecological integrity rather than on profit that isthat instead of being a rational economic agent maximizing profit they havechosen to become reasonable subjects adopting sustainable land husbandrypractices In this sense agroecology entails a social process by which this newsubjectivity gradually departs from an alternative epistemology where profitmaximization is not deemed to be the only driver for economic behaviormdashlet alone the main onemdashand still saves some leeway for economically soundinvestments (Barkin Fuentes Carrasco and Tagle Zamora 2012 CarranzaBarona 2013) while recognizing how agrarian societies can manage theircropping systems based upon other concerns such as sustainability andsolidarity In fact Asociacioacuten Red Kuchubrsquoal promotes a solidarity-basedeconomy in the western highlands of Guatemala and this notion is consistent

AGROECOLOGY AND SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 3

with the ethically oriented concerns of agroecology which advocate for anetwork of farmers working out of reach from corporations and their modelof industrialized agriculture (Altieri and Toledo 2011) A solidarity-basedeconomy means that production distribution exchange and consumptioncan take place outside the realm of competition and capital accumulation(Rodriacuteguez Crisoacutestomo 2015) On the other hand another set of small-scalefarmers was selected for comparative reasons This latter group uses mainlyconventional agricultural practices such as the use of synthetic agrochem-icals intensive irrigation and tillage machinery and low crop diversity andthey do not include practices that favor recycling of nutrients nor theecological balance Because in the study sites the conventional practicesaforementioned are combined with some agroecological practices especiallythose related to soil conservation and tillage without machinery we refer tothis farming system as a semi-conventional one

This article answers three research questions (i) How is the food systemamong agroecology-based small-scale farmers like in this region and how itrelates to their non-adopter peers (ii) What is the current status of relevantbiophysical attributes in the agroecology-based fields and to what extent hastheir resilience been improved in comparison with semi-conventional agri-culture (iii) How is the adoption of agroecology reflected in gender- andfamily-dynamics in the local culture In what follows we provide back-ground characteristics for our research sites a thorough description of themethods used our findings and discussion a summary of the overall situa-tion and finally a set of conclusions meant to provide substantiation toaddress the aforementioned research questions

Study area

Food insecurity in Guatemala is first and foremost an access-relatedproblem given that most rural households are net consumers of food(De Janvry and Sadoulet 2010) which means that they buy more food inthe market than what they produce Widespread malnutrition is conse-quently to be expected in a country where more than half of total house-holds live in poverty (Instituto Nacional de Estadiacutestica (INE) 2015)Despite its wealth of natural resources nearly half the children under 5years of age suffer from malnutrition which gets even worse in the SanMarcos Department with an incidence level of 55 (Ministerio de SaludPuacuteblica y Asistencia Social (MSPAS) Instituto Nacional de Estadiacutestica(INE) ICF Internacional 2015) Nearly 60 of the national populationlives under the poverty line (Instituto Nacional de Estadiacutestica (INE) 2015)with Tacanaacute and Sibinal showing even worse poverty levels of 844 and90 respectively (SEGEPLAN 2016)


Culturally wise these communities show a mix of characteristics commonin frontier regions such as informal international trade a distinctive accentand a melting pot of both Guatemalan and Mexican traditions Communitymembers for instance are engaged in barter locally known as cambia mano(loosely translated as hands exchange) which is practiced by sharing laborfor specific purposes such as house-building chores or agriculture It is a wayof collective work that reinforces solidarity networks and used to be practicedmore often than it is now Shocks on the other hand are dealt with bysharing various goods such as food fuelwood and even money Widows alsoget assistance from the community with physically demanding tasks such asfuelwood collection and processing planting and harvesting This kind ofsolidarity is often practiced by individuals church-based groups and only intwo of the surveyed communities by the local authorities

One of the main characteristics of this region is the steady flux of migrantworkers to Mexico from September through January pulled by employmentopportunities harvesting coffee Money-earning opportunities are notenough to cover family needs all year round Stored food in the householdsfor instance only lasts 1 month in 713 of all families in El Rosariomdashone ofour study sitesmdashdue to widespread poverty low yields and an unevenconsumption pattern of key food groups derived from differentiated harvestperiods (AVANCSO 2014) The outflowing of migrant workers entails familylife disruption and has happened for at least 60 years as suggested by the factthat by the mid-twentieth century 80 of all families in Tacanaacute were alreadybeing employed in Mexican coffee farms (Gutieacuterrez 2011) Figure 1 showsthe location of our study sites including a code for agroecology-based (A1-10)and semi-conventional fields (C1-10) Householdsrsquo locations correspond tothe following communities (i) A1 and C1 are located in Unioacuten ReformaSibinal (ii) A2ndashA5 C2 C4 and C5 in Los Limones Tacanaacute (iii) A6 A9 C3and C6 in Nueva Independencia Tacanaacute iv) A7 C7 and C8 in CasbilTacanaacute (v) A8 in Tierra Blanca Tacanaacute (vi) C9 in San Pablo Tacanaacute(vii) and A10 and C10 in El Rosario Tacanaacute

Methods

Our approach departs from an adjusted version of MESMIS (Marco para laEvaluacioacuten de Sistemas de Manejo de recursos naturales incorporandoIndicadores de Sustentabilidad) (San Martiacuten 2015) that is a six-step evaluationcycle where agricultural systems are first characterized so as to identify criticalpoints and relevant indicators and then integrated and judged in order to derivewell-substantiated recommendations thereby turning sustainability principlesinto operational definitions (Loacutepez-Ridaura Masera and Astier 2002) Specialattention has been given to those systemrsquos attributes highly relevant to gaugeclimate change-resilience namely diversity soil fertilization soil and water


conservation practices food storage social networks native species conservationmoisture-enhancing fallow and coverage practices organic matter content andprevention of run-off erosion (Altieri et al 2015)

Given that our study hinges on the adoption of agroecology and it is notintended to infer populationrsquos parameters we used a non-probability approachwhere selection criteria entirely relied on a well-established rapport between localsmall-scale farmers andAsociacioacuten Red Kuchubrsquoal and the willingness of potentialrespondents to participate in our survey and allow soil sampling actions such asdrilling holes in their fields Agroecology-practicing families were then selected byusing a purposeful sampling strategy and their semi-conventional peers by usingthe snow-ball technique (Loacutepez andGonzaacutelez 2007 Palinkas et al 2015) that is byasking the agroecological producers about nearby conventional peers willing toparticipate in our study We then proceeded to visit selected households duringboth dry (November through April) and rainy (May through October) seasonsover the period 2016ndash2017 in order to conduct field observations and measure-ments in-depth interviews and focus groupmeetings In light of the non-random

Figure 1 Study sites location


nature of our sample we controlled for relevant research criteria factoring in whatfollows (i) the inclusion of some female-headed households (ii) at least 3 yearssince agroecology adoption and (iii) semi-conventional peers located in areassharing similar biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics In the end tenhouseholds in each category that is agroecology-practicing and semi-conven-tional were investigated so as to compare their levels of food security and climate-related resilience In Table 1 we summarize the basic characteristics of each farm-ing system The agroecological farmers for example have adopted the followingpractices (i) production of their own urine- and manure-based fertilizers (ii)treatment of plant diseases with organic products (iii) active enhancement of farmdiversification (iv) dependence on external inputs kept to a minimum (v) pre-paration of most inputs with on-farm materials (vi) use of locally sound technol-ogy for water management and (vii) mulching

Food security and associated household economies were explored bycollecting relevant data in accordance with context-adjusted internationalstandards in four components namely (i) food availability (ii) food con-sumption (iii) health conditions and (iv) a good-living economy Bothindividual- and household-based interviews were conducted to explorethese issues as well as two focal group meetings with both agroecologicaland semi-conventional producers (Gliessman and Titonell 2015 Instituto deNutricioacuten de Centroameacuterica y Panamaacute Organizacioacuten Panamericana de laSalud (INCAPOPS) 2012 Instituto Internacional para el DesarrolloSostenible (IISD) 2014 Moltedo et al 2014 Swindale and Bilinsky 2006)In late July 2016 we measured and weighted 14 children under 5 years of agemdashone child in C1 was 5 years and 2 months oldmdashin order to detect cases ofmalnutrition

Producersrsquo main agricultural plots were subjected to systematic soilsampling at 0ndash15 and 15ndash30 cm depth (Boone et al 1999 Domburg DeGruijter and van beek 1997) with a spatial arrangement adjusted to thelevel of slope and plane curvature (Pennock Yates and Braidek 2008)Data collected included (i) physical properties such as soil texture bulkdensity field capacity permanent wilting point slope and degree oferosion and (ii) chemical properties such as pH cation-exchange capacity(CEC) organic matter content and availability of macro- and micro-nutrients Bulk density was estimated by sampling two undisturbed soilcores at 0ndash7 and 7ndash14 cm depth at each plot which were extracted byusing a soil corer these cores were then stored and labeled and trans-ported to the laboratory for further analysis (Lampurlaneacutes and Cantero-Martiacutenez 2003) In addition water infiltration in the soil was measured byconducting field tests in two plots each from every category being inves-tigated For this cylinders were transported to the field to be filled withwater which then was allowed to infiltrate while recording velocityLaboratory analyses included (i) pH macro- and micro-nutrients


Table1

Maincharacteristicsof

surveyed

farm

s

Farm

Land

area

(ha)

Rockiness

Water

regime1

Averageslop

e(

)Land

sharewith

terraces

()

Leng

thof

hedg

es(m

)Co

ntrolo

fpestsand

diseases

2Fertilizatio

ntype

3Prod

uctio

nchalleng

es

A1007

Low

Irrigation

9029

1290

BPPRCAC

OO

Steady

prod

uctio

nallyear

roun

dA2

017

Non

eIrrigation

3394

1768

RCAC

OSoilandplantdiseases

A3066

Low

Irrigation

3723

3650

RCAC

OPests

A4011

Low

Irrigation

3145

1650

BPPRCAC

OCo

ntinuity

A5010

Non

eIrrigation

7890

1730

BPPRCAC

SSVR

OSoils

A6009

Low

Rainfed

2144

1920

BPPRCAC

OO

Water

andplanthealth

A7025

Low

Rainfed

6442

9227

ACRC

OWater

A8043

Low

Collector

6253

9190

BPPRCAC

OWater

A9004

Low

Irrigation

4720

2520

ACRC

OWater

andplanthealth

A10

018

Low

Irrigation

5352

1753

ACVRRC

OWaterinp

utsland

area

and

planthealth

C1004

Low

Irrigation

7378

7320

PQPPRC

AC

QO

Planthealth

C2010

Low

Rainfed

290

00

NN

Water

C3022

Low

Irrigation

400

00

ACO

QO

Water

andplanthealth

C4017

Non

eIrrigation

280

00

NQO

Land

area

C5017

Non

eIrrigation

5613

1488

PPQO

Planthealth

C6017

Non

eRainfed

102

900

NQO

Water

andpests

C7023

Non

eRainfed

910

00

PQQO

Water

andpests

C8017

Non

eIrrigation

700

2900

NQO

Water

andplanthealth

C9031

Non

eIrrigation

5069

4200

PQSSVR

RC

NNon

eC10

033

Non

eIrrigation

6051

14190

ACN

Planthealth

1 One

producer

(A8)

owns

areservoird

esignedto

collectrainwaterA

10andC2

saythat

theirirrigationsystem

sdo

notmeettheirn

eedsC6andA6

have

sprin

gswith

intheirp

roperty

2 PQchemicalprod

uctsB

=bio-ferm

entsPP=plant-basedprod

uctsRCcrop

rotatio

nCT

trapcrop

sAC

polycultureTtrapsSSseed

selectionVR

resistant

varietiesOother

Nn

othing

3 QchemicalO

organicN

nothing


including spectrometry and acetylene combustion (ii) organic matterincluding organic carbon (Walkley-Black method) (iii) texture(Bouyoucos hydrometer method) (iv) cation exchange capacity (NaClextraction method) (v) exchangeable soil bases (ammonium acetatemethod) and (vi) total nitrogen (modified Kjeldahl method) Soil biolo-gical activity was explored by counting invertebrate diversity and abun-dance in site by establishing three 50-cm2 plots properly demarcated withwood or rope where invertebrate presence was checked by removingrocks23 litter or debris covering them from sight and assessed accordingto Table 2 (Peacuterez 2010)

In addition earthworm sampling was conducted in order to estimate aproxy for soil biological fertility by using a 30-cm-long handle shovel anddigging a 30-cm hole and then taking five samples at each field to be pouredin a bucket The content of the bucket was eventually checked for earth-worms (Lavelle and Kohlmann 1984) and assessed according to Table 3(Peacuterez 2010) At each plot transects were followed in order to traverse thearea Field observations were made every 10 m recording all species found ina 50-cm-diameter circumference Soil moisture preservation was assessedgravimetrically by collecting soil samples with a hand-auger to be thenoven-dried at 105degC during a 24-h period (Johnson 1962) Dry-sampleweight was the basis for estimating both field capacity and permanent wiltingpoint following standard gravimetric procedures based on soil bulk density(Walker 1989)

Table 2 Ranking criteria for diversity and abundance of invertebrates in the topsoil (Peacuterez 2010)

Invertebrate presenceRanksdiversity

Ranksnumber oforganisms per species

Fieldvalue

No presence Nearly or no invertebrates spotted in theplot

0 0 1

Low presence Low diversity and number ofinvertebrates

1ndash3 1ndash3 2

Moderate presence A good number and diversity ofinvertebrate is easily seen

3ndash5 3ndash5 3

High presence A large number of invertebrates in bothnumbers and diversity

5ndash8 5ndash8 4

Abundant presence A great deal of invertebrates inboth numbers and diversity

8ndash10 8ndash10 5

Table 3 Ranking criteria for abundance of earthworms in the topsoil (Peacuterez 2010)Earthworm presence Ranks Field value

No presence Nearly or no earthworms 0ndash3 1Low presence Low and number of earthworms 1ndash3 2Moderate presence A good number of earthworms are easily seen 3ndash5 3High presence A large number of earthworms are seen 5ndash8 4Abundant presence A great deal of earthworms 8ndash10 5


For each agricultural plot data pertaining to plant diversity were collectedthrough a combination of questionnaires and transects Transects wereadjusted to better fit the spatial topographic and biological characteristicsof each field Plots were divided in subsections based on the topography andtransects were laid accordingly Observations following transects were madeat plot boundaries and at 5-m intervals within a 65-cm diameter hoop Wealso geo-referenced each plot by recording data points with a GPS GarmingpsMAP 626 in each corner thus delineating contours These data were usedto estimate field areas and create maps (Oudenhoven Mijatovic andEyzaguirre 2011 Paniagua-Zambrano Maciacutea and Caacutemara-Leret 2010)

A crop assessment based on maize yields was carried out by establishing one2-m diameter sampling plot at each field and harvesting five plants for biomassestimations (Fernaacutendez 2001) and collecting and shelling all ears to be weightedin the field with a portable scale and then brought to a laboratory to be oven-dried and thus calculatemoisture levels yield and harvest index that is a ratio ofeconomic and biological yield (Chacoacuten Iznaga et al 2011)

As for the cultural component focal groups were carried out with the inten-tion of addressing each cultural trait relevant to the link between agriculturalpractices community organization and climate-related resilience In this casethere were five or less participants in each group Focal group 1 addressedcommunity organization with both male and female leaders and focal group 2dealt with both male and female association members This was conducted withboth agroecological and semi-conventional producers In focal group 3 bothmale and female elders were interviewed on cultural identity (Uriarte 2013)Finally a focal group 4 was organized around the issue of intra-householdrelations thus interviewing housewives and children in the absence of thehusband so as to avoid any male-biased influence on responses

Our quantitative results were deemed to stem from two non-paired sam-ples that is agroecology-based and semi-conventional small-scale farms Wecarried out normality tests using Q-Q plots and controlled for variancehomogeneity using the Satterthwaite correction when needed in order tocompare means of number of producers amounts of incomes harvest fuel-wood consumption invertebrate abundance and diversity number of soilconservation techniques employed plant diversity and gender-differentiatedroles using a t testmdashfor normally distributed datamdashor the non-parametricalWilcoxon testmdashfor ranks and data whose distribution pattern departed fromnormalitymdashwith the aid of statistical software InfoStat while bearing in mindthe small sample size used in the survey (Clewer and Scarisbrick 2001 DiRienzo et al 2016) Small sample sizes cannot yield generalizable results butstatistical theory supports their treatment with the Studentrsquos t test as a validstrategy for elucidating meaningful differences between two groupings(Student 1908 Box 1987 Lehmann 1999 Zabell 2008 de winter 2013) Infact statistically non-representative samples have been used to describe


ecological features of relevance as detailedmdashalbeit non-generalizablemdashknowl-edge of bio-physical characteristics provides valuable insight (Poulsen 1996)This paper therefore reports on findings pertaining to the interviewedsmall-scale producers and it is not intended to make any statistical inferencesfor the whole region Its contribution is scope-limited in this respect buttransparent as to a detailed account of production rationales among small-scale farmers

Results and discussion

Food security and family economy

Food availabilityAgroecology-based farmers have higher levels of food availability than semi-conventional ones during both dry and rainy seasons The former produce27 more plant varieties during the dry season and 62 more so during therainy season than the latter In fact agroecological farmers make also moreagricultural income during both seasons (46 in the dry season and 78 inthe rainy one) than their semi-conventional peers Agricultural production isirregular in these households throughout the year reaching minimum levelsduring water-shortage periods Farmers explain scarcity periods as the resultof a number of factors namely (i) limited areas for production (ii) lack ofirrigation systems during the dry season (iii) climate-related limitations suchas frosts droughts excess of rainfall and hail and (iv) plant disease out-breaks during the rainy season

We also found that markets for both groups are different in terms ofscope While agroecological produce is commercialized at the municipallevel semi-conventional products seem to stay within the realm of the villageFigure 2 shows how agroecological producers are better articulated (t testp = 00072 α = 005) to local markets than their semi-conventional peersThis finding is consistent with the solidarity-based economy promoted in thearea by Asociacioacuten Red Kuchubal Such an approach is grounded on the workof Marcel Mauss who considered that reciprocity solidarity and giving arevalid economic drivers and even overarching principles for local trading inmany rural areas (Calvo 2016 Carranza Barona 2013) It all boils down to anattempt to introduce ethical concerns into economic life and this aspiration isreinforced by a theological narrative on the detrimental effects of a wealth-oriented civilization (Sobrino 2014) This is particularly relevant in a contextlike the Guatemalan western highlands where the Catholic Church hasindeed been instrumental in the promotion of agroecology All in all a bettermarket articulation of agroecology-based small-scale farmers seems to be theresult of awareness raising efforts in the area


Food consumptionMaize consumption deserves to be singled out given that it entails the dietarybackbone across the country (Isakson 2013) with an average consumption ofone pound per day No major differences were observed between the twogroups as to maize-derived intake Household C5 turned out to be an outlierwhose exceptionally high maize consumption stems from its involvement inlocal maize retailing In other words these families seem to consume asimilar amount of maize regardless of their production system and season

On the other hand the consumption of protein from animal products isvery low An alternative would be the intake of maize and legumes (commonbean runner bean fava bean) together in a relation of 21 (ie one pound ofmaize to half a pound of beanspersonday) which provides high-qualityprotein and a good source of energy Agroecological families consume onaverage 014 lbpersonday of beans for both seasons while semi-conven-tional ones consume on average 012 lbpersonday Both figures lie belowminimum daily requirements Finally there is a clear distinction between thetwo groups as far as purchased junk-food consumption goes Agroecologicalfamilies on the one hand claim to have long quit any junk-food consump-tion and semi-conventional ones on the other do engage in this habit on adaily basis or twice to three times a week Differences in taste access to diet-related information and low prices seem to be the explanatory drivers forthis behavior which entails a major challenge given current consumptionpatterns in the area Poor diets and the regular consumption of fatty foodstogether erode child nutrition and suggest an increasing disconnectionbetween mainstream food-related paradigms and sustainable agriculture Inthis sense consumption habits turn out to be as important as production

Agroecology

Conventional

Agricultural produce

Num

ber

of f

arm

ers

selli

ng

part

of

thei

r pr

oduc

e

Cereals

Legum

es

Vegeta

bles a

nd he

rbs

Roots

bulbs

and

tube

rsFru

its

Med

icina

l plan

ts

Livesto

ck

181614121086420

Figure 2 Differentiated market articulations


rationales inasmuch as the transition to a more sustainable food systempresupposes an alliance among producers middlemen consumers andsociety at large (Francis et al 2003)

Six agroecological producers and one semi-conventional farmer stated thatagriculture gives them enough income to make a living particularly thanks tomaize cultivation An average family in the region for instance needs 2190lbyear of maize to meet calorie-intake requirements Three agroecologicalproducers reported to have produced 2000ndash2500 lbyear (09ndash113 tyear)and four reported 800ndash1200 lbyear (036ndash055 tyear) whereas semi-con-ventional producers reported 200ndash1200 lbyear (009ndash055 tyear) A sum-mary of consumption habits by food group is shown in Table 4

Direct measurements of harvest indexes and average maize yields arepresented in Figures 3 and 4 Both comparisons yielded differences that arenot statistically significant (t test p = 01597 for harvest indexes and t testp = 05039 for yields) which suggest that even in the absence of syntheticfertilization agroecological producers are able to keep up with their semi-conventional peers The estimated average yields of 2 tha for agroecology-based fields and 182 tha for semi-conventional farming are consistent withrecent national estimations (The World Bank 2017) and place these house-holds closer to previous estimates for the hillsides in Mexico of 19 tha than

Table 4 Consumption habits in each food groupFood group Relevant aspects

Cereals Every family consumes maize on a daily basis during every meal as tortillas ortamales Seven families in each group eat wheat once or twice a week generally as ahand-made thin pastry Rice and pasta are eaten once or twice a week

Legumes All families eat beans but only one in each group does so every day Most familiesconsume beans twice or three times a week for breakfast or dinner Black beans arepreferred but local variety Isich is also consumed particularly during the dry season

Herbs Five agroecological families eat herbs daily whereas only two families do the samewithin the semi-conventional sub-sample These are normally eaten in broths orstewed with onions and tomatoes in every meal

Vegetables Consumption of onions and tomatoes is contingent upon price If prices are cheap enoughtheir consumption takes place every day particularly during the dry season During therainy season however only two households in each group eat vegetables regularly

Roots bulbs andtubers

Four agroecological families and three conventional ones eat potatoes daily duringthe rainy season The remainder of the families only get to eat potatoes twice orthree times a week Other varieties are seldom consumed

Fruits During the dry season all fruits available to both groups are whatever they can bringback from the lower lands which normally includes bananas watermelons papayaplantains and oranges During the rainy season fruit production is irregular but somefarmers do harvest apples peaches and cherries

Animal products Every family consumes eggs with differentiated frequencies Most families do sotwice a week depending on whether they own gens Half of the families consumepowder milk used to make porridge one to five times a week Milk on the otherhand is also consumed by half of the families who seldom consume cheese Thereseems to be a low consumption of dairy products They do eat chicken twice a weekor once a month and half of the families eat fish once or twice a month


for those in Guatemala at the time of 106 tha (Altieri 2002) This differencemakes sense given that agroecology-based practices are knowledge-intensiveand as such learning curves will gradually produce improved yields overtime In addition maize cultivation is also important as a mechanism for

Agroecology Semi-conventional

Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597

Figure 3 Comparison of harvest indexes


Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039

Figure 4 Comparison of average yields


preserving cultural identity and even as a resistance expression vis-agrave-vis theexpansion of monoculture fields (Isakson 2009) Standard levels of maizeharvest therefore suggest the high priority of this crop within these small-scale farming systems given both its diet-related uses and the cultural mean-ing associated with its cultivation Average areas for maize cultivation how-ever are quite limited namely (i) 009 ha for agroecological fields and (ii)02 ha for semi-conventional ones

Income

With the exception of household A5mdashwhose specialized agricultural strategymakes it an outlier as far as gross income goesmdashthe remainder of the householdsengaged in commercializing their producemade an average USD PPP 76643 overa 6-month recall period This means that each month these households madearound USD PPP 12774 or USD PPP 426 per day for the whole family As forsemi-conventional households this figure drops to USD PPP 206 per day for theentire family These numbers suggest a fairly weak articulation to markets in theregion Agroecological producers however claim to generate enough income tolive off the land throughout the year which suggests that even if weakly articulatedto the market-based economy they meet their needs with a combination of self-consumption and a limited share of cash-income generating produce Semi-conventional producers conversely contend that agriculture is not enough andmany among them seek job opportunities overseas notably in Mexico and theUSA Some semi-conventional producers mentioned that their fields are not largeenough to provide themwith sufficient food for their families and that they rely onrainfed agriculture which has become a risky activity given the occurrence ofincreasingly irregular rainfall patterns Statistically significant differences in grossagricultural income (Wilcoxon test p = 00351 α = 005) among groups of farmersare shown in Figure 5 Likewise semi-conventional families spend double asmuchin grocery shoppingwhen comparedwith agroecological ones which suggests thatthe former are less economically efficient and more dependent on purchased fooditems than the latter These trends are in line with previous research on how small-scale farmers in this region have adopted a coping strategy that allows them tokeep on working the land while tapping alternative income sources such as off-farm employment (Isakson 2009) It seems as though small-scale agriculture hereis fairly resilient vis-agrave-vis increasing attempts by external agents of encroachingupon territories and pulling factors such as more lucrative off-farm endeavors Inaddition maize landraces have been found to be economically viable in similarcontexts like Mexico where small-scale farmers keep afloat thanks to a specialty-oriented commercialization strategy thus providing evidence on how they culti-vate landraces for cultural agronomic andmdashunder some favorable conditionsmdasheconomic reasons and how even under contexts of meagre income subsistence


agriculture might subsidize market articulation at the household level (KelemanHellin and Flores 2013)

As for net incomes Table 5 shows a comparison broken down by foodgroup and season in which the aforementioned better market articulation inagroecological farms is confirmed Agroecological producers mentioned thelack of stable markets and the struggle to compete with cheaper conventionalproducts In fact one of the agroecological female producers reported to havestarted off sensitizing her consumers on the benefits of eating organicproduce and thus securing a market share

-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351

Figure 5 Comparison of gross agricultural income

Table 5 Comparison of annual net incomeAgroecological Semi-conventional

Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Cereals minus66929 000 minus66929 minus111286 000 minus111286Legumes 89055 16101 105156 minus4199 1549 minus265Vegetables andherbs

506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306

Roots tubers andbulbs

201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999

Fruits 55853 32808 88661 39370 000 3937Medicinal plants 52598 29934 82532 21588 262 2185Livestock 71129 88648 159777 86824 3609 90433Total 909764 391691 1301455 93629 387393 481022


Barter is also practiced in this region mainly among relatives and neigh-bors At Unioacuten Reforma for instance our respondents mentioned how inAugust they organize a non-monetary exchange fair where they barter theirproduce with farmers from lower altitude regions Agroecological producersmentionedmdashin decreasing order of importancemdashthe following as their mainincome-generating activities (i) agriculture (ii) commerce (iii) remittancesand (iv) paid labor Semi-conventional producers highlighted the hardshipassociated with finding stable jobs with a full package of benefits

Energy supply

Nearly 90 of rural households in Guatemala meet their energy needs withfuelwood which entails both a challenge for forest resources conservation andan opportunity for sustainable management (Taylor et al 2011) Our respon-dents followed national trends shown in Table 6 The difference in fuelwoodconsumption between the two groups of farmers turned out not to be statis-tically significant (t test p = 01572 α = 005) These data on the other handare lower than averages for San Marcos thus suggesting that family-basedagricultural systems in this region are less energy-demanding than other farm-ing arrangements in the nearby areas In fact energy budgets in the countryare still quite firewood dependentmdashnearly one third of the energy came frombiomass for the period 2012ndash2016 (Comisioacuten Nacional de Energiacutea Eleacutectrica(CNEE) 2017)mdashwhich means that a less-demanding energy system makes arelevant contribution to reducing anthropogenic pressures on nearby forestedareas as previous research suggests (Moran-Taylor and Taylor 2010)

Table 6 Trends in fuelwood consumptionHousehold Monthly consumption (m3) Source Household Monthly consumption (m3) Source

A1 043 Forest C1 068 ForestA2 255 Market C2 191 MarketA3 128 Forest C3 006 FarmA4 136 Farm C4 015 MarketA5 068 Forest

MarketC5 Farm

A6 128 Forest C6 115A7 Farm C7 006 Farm

MarketA8 15 Farm C8 128 Market

FarmA9 Market C9 034 MarketA10 013 Market

FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services

Access to public health services is very limited and is sought for intermittently bymost respondents given that health centers are undersupplied and usually chargethem some fees These exceptional costs are usually met with loans by sellinganimals or relying on relatives Little is done to prevent diseases from spreadingamong family members although improved hygienic practices are widelyencouraged They also said that there is a fair amount of malnourished childrenin their communities Only three children from family A9 showed malnourish-ment problems (Table 7) arguably due to a weak coping strategy in this house-hold vis-agrave-vis the passing of the husband which suggests that men stillconcentrate agricultural know-how in the area Most families would havepiped water of good qualitymdashsince it comes straight from the springsmdashbut itgets contaminated along the way due to poorly managed distribution systemsHealth centers distribute chlorine for cleaning the water but many householdsare reluctant to use it because they fear side effects Most people then boil wateras a rule of thumb in order to prevent any poisoning In addition most familieshave latrines albeit poorly maintained At last there is a growing problem ofcontamination stemming from the lack of rubbish bins in the area

Biophysical characteristics of the soil system

Life in the topsoil

Moisture and organic matter content seem to provide the conditions fortopsoil invertebrates to thrive During the dry season this is particularly sofor those fields where soil conservation practices are regularly implementedIn the agroecological fields we observed 14 species of invertebrates belongingin 13 taxa and 7 functional groups with an average of 64 species per field In

Table 7 Nutrition status of children under 5 years of ageAge

Household Years Months Weight (lb) Height (cm) Muscle arm circumference (cm) Nutrition status

A1 4 9 35 99 NormalA2 2 11 30 945 NormalA7 0 4 14 NormalA9 1 4 105 Low

1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low

C1 5 2 39 97 Above normal4 00 8 14 Normal

C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570

Figure 6 Comparison of invertebrate diversities in the dry and rainy seasons


the semi-conventional fields we observed 10 species corresponding to 10taxa and 6 functional groups with an average of 44 species per field


Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology

Figure 7 Comparison of invertebrate abundances in the dry and rainy seasons


Comparisons of invertebrate diversity invertebrate abundance and earth-worm abundance in agricultural fields during dry and rainy seasons showedno statistical support for the differences among groups The use of soilconservation practices and minimum tillage in most fieldsmdashagroecologicaland the semi-conventional counterpartsmdashmay well be the explanatory factors


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171

Figure 8 Comparison of earthworm abundances in the dry and rainy seasons


for the non-difference Widespread use of agrochemicalsmdashparticularly infarms C1 C7 and C9mdashintense cultivation low diversity of plants and lackof rotationsmdashas in C2mdashseem to explain the low diversity and abundancesfound (Figures 6ndash8)

Soil conservation techniques

Hedgerows and terraces are used in all agroecological fields and in over half ofsemi-conventional ones Hedgerows are made of a variety of plant species includ-ing medicinal plants wild plants trees forage and ornamentals Wooden fencesstone hedges and even those made with tires were also found In fact thesepractices seem to be engrained in local agricultural rationales as a result of ancientdevelopments in this field (Wilken 1971) A non-significant Wilcoxon test(p = 00682 α = 005) suggests that no major differences exist as to the numberof conservation practices used by each group (Figure 9)

Soil properties

Soils in the township of Tacanaacute were formed in the tertiary and quaternarybeing heavily influenced by volcanic activity (Simmons Taacuterano and Pinto1959) Chemical- and physical-soil characteristics in both fields are presentedin Tables 8ndash11 In the agroecological fields values for pH seem fine rangingfrom slightly acidic (65) to slightly alkaline (73) extremes with a moderatevariation among samples Bases such as Ca Mg and K were found to be overthe required concentration range for agriculture and in equilibrium Cu andFe were found to occur on average at lower concentration levels than thoseideal for agriculture but the overall good shape found for other nutrientsseems to offset this deficiency This is to be expected in a naturally medium-to low-fertility area like this one where organic matter is consistently beingincorporated to the soil Average low concentrations of P might be derivedfrom the soil origin in the area although exceptionally high values in somesites also indicate the presence of powerful P-fixating clays Furthermore pHvaluesmdashand higher-than-recommended CEC valuesmdashsuggest that even inlower-than-recommended P concentrations most of it is available for plantnutrition Organic matter contentsmdashalbeit slightly lower on average thanrecommended values but covering a wider rangemdashsuggest a differentiatedpattern of agroecological practices but an overall good soil husbandry as soilmoisture seems to be conserved thereby making these fields more resilient todroughts and less prone to runoff erosion Agroecological practices there-fore seem also to be contributing substantially to improving physical soilproperties in these fields In addition organic matter in the soil increases thenumber of mycorrhizae whose presence helps both nutrient absorptionmdashofparticular relevance for P in our casemdashand hydraulic conductivity through


the root system In fact water infiltration capacity was also estimated forboth agroecological (0043ndash26 cmmin) and semi-conventional (0013ndash17 cmmin) fields Both groups of soils fall within the category of highinfiltration which is consistent with their texture This means that thesesoils are not particularly erosion-prone given their ability to get rid of excesswater rapidly and therefore show a reasonably high level of climate-relatedresilience

Semi-conventional fields turned out to be quite similar to agroecological oneswith less organic matter contents and higher bulk density values presumably dueto the fact that these semi-conventional fields are indeed heavily influenced bylocal practices of incorporating organic matter and where synthetic fertilizers areused in relatively small quantities In other words smaller-than-expected differ-ences in chemical properties between agroecological and semi-conventional fieldsare most likely due to the following (i) chemical changes in the soil take longperiods to occur and given that the agroecological approach was implemented inthese fields from 3 to 10 years ago these properties are still quite similar to thosefrom the semi-conventional approach (ii) prominent contrasts in soil propertiesare normally expected when comparisons are made between agroecological andindustrialized fields in our case however semi-conventional fields are managedaccording to traditional knowledge including organic matter management soilconservation and minimal tillage and (iii) even if an agroecological approach hasnot been fully adopted by conventional producers it seems as though their soilmanagement practices are yielding reasonably good results Both agroecologicaland semi-conventional fields show good physical and chemical properties for


Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682

Figure 9 Comparison of soil conservation practices


Table8

Chem

icalcharacteristicsof

agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9

Physicalcharacteristicsof

agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C

hemicalcharacteristicsof

semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P

hysicalcharacteristicsof

semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph

eremoisturemoisturecontentof

asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres


agriculture with a high fertility potential Some deficiencies were found howeverin P Fe and Cu as a result of natural fixation problems Overall both types offields seem well endowed to withstand climate-related impacts given their richcontents of organic matter

Plant diversity

Plant diversity provides good grounds for comparison of farming approachesDiversification is in fact one of the most conspicuous features in our agroeco-logical fields whose plant diversity level is higher than that of semi-conventionalfarms There is a general need among both agroeocological and semi-conven-tional growers in the following aspects (i) finding alternative ways to obtainseeds and training on seed saving and asexual propagation (ii) strengthening localseed exchange networks and (iii) adopting participatory plant breeding to mini-mize the risk of dependence to external sources Our comparison includedWilcoxon tests of plant species arranged by food group namely (i) grains(p = 09687 α = 005) and fruits (p gt 09999 α = 005) turned out to be similar interms of their diversity level for both groups and (ii) vegetables (p = 00127α = 005) tubers (p = 00418 α = 005) and medicinal plants (p = 00346α = 005) on the other hand yielded statistically significant differences in favorof agroecological farms This means that agroecological fields harbor a largeramount of plant species which brings about structural advantages given forexample a more diversified root system and therefore a more even absorption ofsoil resources (Jacobsen et al 2015)

Table 12 Number of cultivated plant species according to season

HouseholdNumber of plant species

cultivated during the dry seasonNumber of plant species cultivated

during the rainy season Mean

A1 16 18 17A2 12 13 125A3 28 27 275A4 15 15 15A5 15 16 155A6 43 35 39A7 29 34 315A8 43 58 505A9 13 18 155A10 29 25 27C1 8 14 11C2 0 6 3C3 14 19 165C4 10 10 10C5 18 18 18C6 17 22 195C7 6 13 95C8 10 15 125C9 9 7 8C10 28 32 30


Most producersmdashwith the exception of A9 C3 and C4mdashown more thanone agricultural plot which spawns plant diversity There seems to be astrong link between water availability and plant diversity Farm C2 forinstance has no access to water during the dry period which translated inno vegetation This is particularly worrisome as it means severe vulnerabilityIn Table 12 we present an account of cultivated plant species in the mainagricultural field of each farmer according to season and in Figure 10 theresult of a comparison (t test p = 00223 α = 005) between agroecological(n = 10 micro = 246) and semi-conventional (n = 10 micro = 138) fields

Table 12 also shows that agroecology-based farms keep high levels of plantdiversity during the dry season even under water-shortage conditions This ispossible thanks to a multilayered landscape including herbs shrubs andtrees the incorporation of perennial plants diversification of the uses givento plants and the adoption of rainwater collection strategies (A8) Semi-conventional farmers on the other hand lack both the economic means tooffset water scarcity and the specific knowledge associated with the advan-tages of a multilayered field

Almost all farmersmdashexcepting A1mdashcultivate maize yellow maize in parti-cular One of the semi-conventional farmers (C10) cultivates black and redvarieties of maize Four agroecological farmers (A4 A6 A7 and A10) andtwo semi-conventional ones (C5 and C10) cultivate more than one maizevariety generally together with black beans in the milpa system Both agroe-cological and semi-conventional growers use polyculture as a cropping


Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223

Figure 10 Comparison of plant species


system meaning they have more than one crop growing in the same plot atthe same time The main difference in agricultural practices between bothgroups relies on the intensity of the spatial and temporal patterns of inter-cropping Some agroecological producers A3 and A5 for instance tend tohave higher levels of spatial intercropping where at least two varieties ofvegetables (parsley and lettuce) are mixed growing in the same ldquosoil bedrdquo Wealso observed that agroecological farmers adopt a clearer progression ofsowing activities This is particularly relevant to keep track of crop rotationsto reduce soil-borne pest infestations Plant uses are diverse namely (i) food(ii) medicine (iii) forage (iv) N-fixation (v) plant allies (vi) constructionmaterials (vii) shade (viii) religious ornaments (ix) fuelwood (x) drinks(xi) spices (xii) construction and even (xiii) experimentation A group ofagroecology-based women is engaged in tea production supported byAsociacioacuten Red Kuchubrsquoal which has helped them increase the diversity levelsin their fields by including species such as mint chamomile and lemon teaalthough they still face major challenges associated with processing packa-ging and commercialization

Seed provenance exchange and storage

All agroecological and semi-conventional farmers save seed of maizelegumes and cucurbits In addition to seed saving ten agroecological andeight semi-conventional farmers obtain seeds (ie carrots) or seedlings (iecelery onion cabbage cauliflower broccoli and peas) from local retailersThere is no clear information on the origin or breeding schemes by which theseeds were derived nor information on the varietal names was provided(except for potato some apple and peach varieties and the local maize andbean landraces) Potato seeds used in the region derive from Instituto deCiencia y TecnologiamdashICTAmdashbut its underfunded public breeding programis unable to breed for all ecosystems in Guatemala and thus growers lack achoice in terms of crops and varieties that will succeed in higher altitudeswith lower atmospheric pressure and higher rates of UV radiation

A well-established seed exchange network is missing in the area In factonly two farmers (A1 and C1) obtain their seeds and seedlings from localNGO FUNDAP Two semi-conventional farmers (C2 and C8) obtain theirseeds exclusively from their own storage facilities refraining from buying oreven exchanging their plant materials Coincidentally these two producershave the lowest levels of plant diversity and have scarce or no access to waterHalf of the farmers however do partake in a local network of produceexchange with farmers coming from lower areas One of the semi-conven-tional producers (C1) is a member of REDSAG(Red Nacional por la Defensade la Soberaniacutea Alimentaria en Guatemala) a nation-wide network for seedexchange A participatory program for plant improvement would allow these


farmers to develop their varieties in accordance with their own needs In factan open-access strategy for biological mechanismsmdashinspired in open accesssoftwaremdashsuggested by Kloppenburg (2010) would indeed be consistent withthe solidarity-based economy promoted by Asociacioacuten Red Kuchubrsquoal giventhat such an approach seeks open sharing among small-scale farmers and nointervention from corporate interests

Each main crop seems to have its own storage strategy namely (i) formaize seeds ears are allowed to dry on the plant and then harvested Somegrowers will hang the cob without the husk on a rope inside their homes Bythis method the ears are usually smoked and the seeds protected fromrodents and beetles Other farmers proceed to shell the ears of corn afterharvest allow the grain to further dry and spread it on plastic tarps underthe sun Then the seeds are stored in clay pots or sacks and placed in theattic The single grower with a silo (A3) stores the seeds there Ashes aresometimes added to reduce beetle infestation (ii) for beans (ie runnerbeans and fava beans) pods are left on the vines to let them harden anddry When the vines turn yellow and withered the whole plant is removedfrom the soil and shaken for threshing thus separating the seeds from thepods Growers refer to this mechanism as aporreo [beating] Pods that do notcrack open are then shelled by hand Seeds are stored in sacks (iii) as forchamomile infloresences are shaken vigorously inside a paper bag Seeds canbe stored directly in those bags or sometimes in clay pots as well inside theirhomes (iv) potatoes are placed in wooden boxes in corridors or inside thehouses while they are eaten or sold (v) for root crops (ie carrots andturnips) farmers pull out the plants from the ground and then shake theexcess dirt to eventually allow them to dry in the sun (vi) squashes are cutopen and seeds removed from the fruit cavity They are washed and allowedto air dry out in the sun

Social organization

A cohesive social fabric is instrumental in providing community members witha sense of belonging and enables a number of solidarity networks to grow This isparticularly relevant under challenging circumstances such as climate-relatedcatastrophes when social bonds allow victims to endure hardship and uncer-tainty Organizational capacities provide community members with a safety netand it seems to be working for both agroecology-based and semi-conventionalfarmers Authorities for instance are recognized in two spheres namely (i) thecustomary authorities locally known as alcaldes auxiliares and a number ofassistants and (ii) the Community Development Councils known asCOCODES for their Spanish acronym Only a few women have been electedfor these positions Power is still considered to be a menrsquos domain Within theCOCODES topical committees are organized in accordance with community


needs These committees cover an ample range of issues and we found only onegender committee in Unioacuten Reforma Two communities have a forest commit-tee A group of women coordinated a social mobilization to protect their forestsagainst a mining company trying to settle in very much in line with regionaltrends (Hallum-Montes 2012) Subsequently people from five municipalitiesjoined the movement and have so far succeeded in preventing the companyfrom arriving in their territory This example provides evidence as to the degreeof social cohesion in the area and suggests that social resilience is still in goodshape as it reacts swiftly to external threats confirming the existence of acommunity-centered anti-mining movement in the area (Urkidi 2011Yagenova and Garciacutea 2009) We also found an emergency committee in everycommunity as a consequence of Hurricane Stan in 2005 Lack of rural develop-ment policies in the area is evident when relations between community organi-zations and the government are explored Social resilience however stems fromcitizen engagement and local culture and fails to find a sounding board when itaddresses the national government Conflict resolution mechanisms on theother hand are good explanatory variables for understanding communitydynamics These communities have their own mechanisms to deal with conflictIf a conflict arises they take the following steps (i) hear what the family eldersmdashwho are revered as the embodiment of experience and wisdommdashhave to sayabout the problem (ii) if the family eldersrsquo opinion is not enough they seekadvice from elders outside their families (iii) should everything else fail theythen take the quarrel to be settled by the local authorities who may summon ageneral assembly depending on the number of persons involved in the disputeand (iv) if the issue at hand is grave judicial and national authorities are invitedto participate In doing so community members are assured that their daily-lifeproblems will be dealt with expeditiously depending on the nature of the matterEven though this alternative justice system somewhat challenges the nationalone it guarantees that these marginalized communities have prompt access tojustice services as seen in other territories in Latin America and discourage theincidence of arbitrary violence (Sieder 2012)

There are three associations of agroecological farmers in the area namely (i)Asociacioacuten de Desarrollo Sibinalense San Miguel ArcaacutengelmdashADISMAmdashfounded10 years ago (partakes in the local Council for Municipal Development produ-cing organic manure and offering a microcredits scheme) (ii) Asociacioacuten deDesarrollo Integral Mames TacanecosmdashACDIMTmdashfounded 20 years ago (sup-ports the development of irrigation systems) and (iii) Asociacioacuten de DesarrolloIntegral Medianos AgricultoresADIMAGmdashfounded 12 years ago (supports ruraldevelopment projects) ADISMA is made of six communities and 70 membersincluding 40 women ACDIMT gathers five communities with around 50members including 18 women and ADIMAGrsquos 35 membersmdashincluding 10womenmdashcome from one community These are supported by the CatholicChurch-affiliated Pastoral de la Tierra Semi-conventional farmers on the


other hand lack such a level of organization but we did find a well-functioningexception in San Pablowhere theCooperativa Integral Unioacuten y Progreso has beenworking for 40 years This cooperative is a role model by prioritizing educationand by leading a multi-institutional initiative for healthy schooling


Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353

Figure 12 Men participation in household tasks


Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994

Figure 11 Women participation in agricultural tasks


Gender dynamics

Gender roles in agriculture and household chores follow traditional patterns Weexplored this behavior by comparing number-based indicators whosemean valueswere used in a Wilcoxon test at α = 005 (Figures 11 and 12) which yieldedexpected results Men are less eager to partake in household chores whereaswomen are more actively involved in both agricultural and housekeeping tasksThese differentiated gender roles correspond to context characteristics and aredeeply rooted in social dynamics Minor breakthroughs were observed in caseswhere male heads of households take part in household chores although nodifference was found between the two groups of farmers surveyed Women onthe other hand get mainly involved in cooking family care tending medicinalplants sales and animal husbandry They also participate actively in agriculturalactivities thereby doubling inmany cases their workload in comparisonwithmenLand-property arrangements also play out against women in these areas sincemost inheritance attitudes favor men We found several cases however whereboth agroecological (4) and semi-conventional (5) families came up with adifferent way of distributing land-property rights in cases where land is indeedowned by women which empowers them and shifts intra-household dynamicstoward amore balanced interaction betweenmen and women By the same tokenland-proprietor women play a more active role in agriculture-related decisionmaking One of them (C10) has even decided howmuch land is going to be passedon to her children although she gets to make major decisions as long as she isdeemed fit to do so by the rest of her family

Gender differences were also observed in regard to schoolingAgroecological families seem to distribute schooling opportunities moreevenly (15 girls and 15 boys) than their semi-conventional peers (15 girlsand 23 boys) Agroecological groups have had more chances of being trainedby a number of organizations which seems to have deepened their gender-related sensitivity Even so agroecological female producers still face majorchallenges as to health nutrition education access to credits access to waterwork migration and organization

Finding identity

One of the most obvious cultural traits revealed during the interviews is thatthe Maya-derived Mam language is almost lost in the areamdashconfirmingprevious research (Collins 2005)mdashsince it is only widely spoken in a fewcommunities and mainly by the elders As for the producers who participatedin this study they share the fact that their parents did not teach them thelanguage and the same occurs in wearing traditional outfits which onlyhappens in a few cases notably among elder women In their view thiscultural loss stems from the fear of being mocked by Spanish speakers both


in their townships and in Mexico where many of them go seeking employ-ment opportunities on a regular basis In addition Spanish-oriented school-ing in the area evangelical-based religious practices and conscription alsoundermine according to our respondents Mam preservation The loss of alanguage could mean the disappearance of a wealth of local biodiversity-related knowledge and a concomitant jeopardy for guaranteeing viable liveli-hood strategies Despite this situation our respondents still identify them-selves as indigenous people On the other hand some cultural practices inagriculture survive to the point that farmers do check the moon phase beforeundertaking any agricultural activity Full moon is according to this viewthe right time for most actions In fact a synchrony between ancient Mamrituals and Catholic ceremonies is now commonplace Catholic Church-sanctioned seedrsquos blessing for instance has come to replace ancient ritualsof asking the spiritual realm for forgiveness before sowing by burning pom[Protium copal (Schltdl amp Cham) Engl] (Vallejo-Mariacuten Domiacutenguez andDirzo 2006) also known as copal or Maya incense or rue crosses beingcarried out before wheat planting All in all the survival of some ancientagricultural practices suggests that cultural resilience is still in good shape inthe area albeit subjected to major threats Ideological shifts prompted by newreligious affiliations for instance seem to have spread the notion of deservedpunishment to interpret climate change and other major community eventsThis conformity might become indeed an engrained hindrance for functional

Table 13 Overall picture

Attributes Criteria IndicatorsRelation between agroecology-based (A)

and semi-conventional (C) farmers p value

Productivity Efficiency Market integration A gt C 00072Resilience Diet

compositionMaizeconsumption

A asymp C 04212

Productivity Efficiency Gross agriculturalincome

A gt C 00351

Stability Natural resourceconservation

Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572

Productivity Efficiency Harvest index A asymp C 01597Productivity Efficiency Maize yields A asymp C 05039Stability Natural resource

conservationInvertebrateabundance intopsoil

A asymp C 00826

Resilience Adjustedtechnology

Soil conservationpractices

A asymp C 00682


Soil organic matter A asymp C

Reliability Agrodiversity Cultivated plantspecies diversity

A gt C 00196

Reliability Agrodiversity Plant diversity A asymp C 00674Equity Gender roles Women in

agricultureA asymp C 08994

Equity Gender roles Men in householdchores

A asymp C 05353


community organization and mobilization and therefore deserves specialattention

An overall picture

Table 13 shows a summary of the most relevant attributes criteria andindicators used in our study and suggested by the MESMIS approach(Loacutepez-Ridaura Masera and Astier 2002) Our indicators turned out to behigher for agroecological families or equivalent for both groups Differenceswere found to be highly significant (p lt 001) significant (p lt 005) andin most cases non-significant (p gt 005) (Clewer and Scarisbrick 2001) Thelatter are presented as equivalent althoughmdashwith the exception of organicmatter contentmdashagroecological indictors were slightly higher in our compar-isons Child malnutrition found in one agroecological family however seemsto be an isolated case in view of the other indicators This summary suggeststhat agroecological production in these communities has reached the samelevels asmdashand in a few instances even better thanmdashsemi-conventional agri-culture despite being a more labor-intensive system Despite widespreadconcerns among agroecological producers regarding marketing andincome-generating strategies our analysis suggests that they have bettermarket integration levels than their semi-conventional peers which on itsown is no guarantee for long-lasting poverty alleviation but indicates a trendIn addition agroecological farmers seem to be better organized and haveaccess to stronger solidarity networks

Conclusions

Food production takes place on these farms under harsh conditions char-acterized by a steep terrain lack of access to infrastructure recurrent watershortages and the need to guarantee nutritious food for the entire familyAgroecological families have diversified their production more than theirsemi-conventional peers and this has allowed them to be more stronglyarticulated to local markets This also allows them to generate more agricul-tural income which in turn means improved food access in a context of netfood consumption Although both groups consume approximately the samelevels of cereals regularly their legume-derived intake of proteins is lowFood-scarcity periods match those reported at the national levelAgroecological farmers claim to make a living off the land hence their deeplyrooted attachment to it Maize yields are similar in both groups and con-sistent with self-reported data and national averages Fuelwood consumptionlevels are also similar for both groups and lower than regional average valuesFor these farmers agroecology has meant improved agronomic practices an


enhanced platform for life preservation and a common ground for socialaction in the struggle to defend their territories

The surveyed farms are small (02 plusmn 015 ha of land) Water is the limitingfactor making rainfed-only fields particularly vulnerable Invertebrate diver-sity and abundances showed no significant differences between the twogroups during the two seasons explored Soil conservation practices arecommon in both groups Physical- and chemical-soil characteristics aresimilar between the two groups arguably due to widespread organic-matterincorporation practices Soils in both groups for example are not particu-larly prone to run off erosion given their ability to get rid of excess waterrapidly Vegetables tubers and medicinal plants make for overall highercultivated plant diversity in agroecological fields Farmers seem to be incontrol of local landraces of maize and pulses but show dependence oncorporations to provide most vegetables Seed storage is for the most partartisanal which can entail health-related risks and jeopardize food securityAgricultural activities in the area of study in general extend beyond their roleof producing food In sum significant differences in plant diversity and plantusage suggest that agroecological farms are indeed more biophysically resi-lient than conventional ones bearing in mind that all other indicators yieldednon-significant differences between the two groups In other words agroe-cological farms do as good as semi-conventional ones and even better

Farming not only converts agricultural resources into end products that canbe used at the household or market level it has shaped the landscape the foodsystem the diets the social dynamics the appreciation toward nature and theeconomic structures of the farmers and their communities The adoption ofagroecology in this region seems to have found a social fabric conducive toreciprocity local organization and downward accountability Both traditionaland official authorities take into account community assemblies and wide-spread concerns This helps understand how external threats such as open-pitmining operations are dealt with in a collective and prompt fashion Religionplays a major role for both spiritual reasons and as a catalyst for socialcohesion Customary mechanisms for conflict resolution give communitymembers access to swift justice provided that no major offenses were com-mitted Solidarity networks are still active and fillmdashalbeit partiallymdashthe voidleft by the lack of public services Associations are up and running but facemajor challenges such as marketing membership and income generationGender roles showed no significant differences between the two groups Menparticipate much less in household chores than women do in agricultural tasksIn fact women have to deal with a heavier burden given that they normallytake care of both Agroecological families however seem to have started off adifferent way of looking at gender roles as seen in their more symmetricaldistribution of schooling opportunities Even though the official census cate-gorizes these municipalities as non-indigenous our respondents still maintain


Mam traditions and seem to value their cultural heritage Future studies shouldcompare a larger sample of fully conventional farms with agroecological onesin different stages of transition use net primary productivity and land equiva-lent ratios for yield measurements take into account the cost savings wheninputs are not purchased and measure labor costs Such studies will contributeto assess long-term biophysical and socioeconomic changes brought about bythe adoption of agroecology and further explore the challenges facing farmersfor adopting agroecological practices

Acknowledgments

Preliminary data from this project was presented on April 25 2017 at the InternationalColloquium The Future of Food and Challenges for Agriculture in the 21st Century Debatesabout who how and with what social economic and ecological implications we will feed theworld held at Vitoria-Gasteiz Spain The authors want to express their gratitude to all 20small-scale producers in Tacanaacute and Sibinal who accepted to be interviewed and to theHigher Education Support Program (HESP) of the Open Society Foundations and the CentralEuropean University in Hungary where one of the authors conducted literature review forthis article during the first half of 2016 USAC in Guatemala provided access to soillaboratories and time from its faculty This research initiative was possible thanks to logisticsupport provided by Asociacioacuten Red Kuchubrsquoal USAC student Carlos Enrique Maldonadoprovided invaluable support during field work Erick Holt-Gimeacutenez and Aniacutebal Sacbajaacuteprovided insightful comments along the process

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors

Funding

This work was funded by Trocaire Maynooth Ireland

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Altieri M A 2002 Agroecology The science of natural resource management for poorfarmers in marginal environments Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment (93)1ndash24doi101016S0167-8809(02)00085-3

Altieri M A C I Nicholls A Henao and M A Lana 2015 Agroecology and the design ofclimate change-resilient farming systems Agronomy for Sustainable Development 35869ndash90 doi101007s13593-015-0285-2

AVANCSO 2014 Aldea el rosario municipio de tacanaacute San Marcos Guatemala AVANCSOBarkin D M E Fuentes Carrasco and D Tagle Zamora 2012 La significacioacuten de una

Economiacutea Ecoloacutegica radical Revista Iberoamericana De Economiacutea Ecoloacutegica 191ndash14


Barrera C and L A M A Fernaacutendez 2012 Mejores son huertos de cacao y achiote queminas de oro y plata Huertos especializados de los choles del Manche y de los KrsquoekchirsquoesLatin American Antiquity 23(3)282ndash99 doi1071831045-6635233282

Beach T N Dunning S Luzzalder-Beach D E Cook and J Lohse 2006 Impacts of theancient Maya on soils and soil erosion in the central Maya Lowlands Catena 65166ndash78doi101016jcatena200511007

Boone R D D Grigal P Sollins R J Ahrens and D E Armstrong 1999 Soil samplingpreparation archiving and quality control In Standard soil methods for long-term ecolo-gical research G P Roberson D C Coleman C S Bledsoe and P Sollins ed 3ndash28 NewYork Oxford University Press

Box J F 1987 Guinness Gosset Fisher and small samples Statistical Science 2(1)45ndash52doi101214ss1177013437

Calvo C 2016 El don-reciprocidad como motor del desarrollo humano Veritas 359ndash28doi104067S0718-92732016000200001

Carranza Barona C 2013 Economiacutea de la Reciprocidad Una aproximacioacuten a la EconomiacuteaSocial y Solidaria desde el concepto del don Otra Economiacutea 7(12)14ndash25 doi104013otra201371202

Chacoacuten Iznaga A S Cardoso Romero A Barreda Valdeacutes A Colaacutes Saacutenchez R AlemaacutenPeacuterez and G Rodriacuteguez Valdeacutes 2011 Acumulacioacuten de materia seca rendimientobioloacutegico econoacutemico e iacutendice de cosecha de dos cultivares de soya [(Glycine max (L)Merr] en diferentes espaciamientos entre surcos Centro Agriacutecola 38(2)5ndash10

Clewer A G and D H Scarisbrick 2001 Practical statistics and experimental design forplant and crop science Chichester John Wiley amp Sons

Collins WM 2005 Codeswitching avoidance as a strategy for Mam (Maya) linguistic revitaliza-tion International Journal of American Linguistics 71(3)239ndash76 doi101086497872

ComisioacutenNacional de Energiacutea Eleacutectrica (CNEE) 2017 InformeEstadiacutestico 2016 Guatemala CNEEDe Janvry A and E Sadoulet 2010 The global food crisis and Guatemala What crisis and

for whom World Development 38(9)1328ndash39 doi101016jworlddev201002008de winter J C F 2013 Using the Studentrsquos t-test with extremely small sample sizes Practical

Assessment Research amp Evaluation 1810Di Rienzo J A F Casanove M G Balzarini L Gonzaacutelez M Tablada and CW Robledo 2016

InfoStat versioacuten 2016 Coacuterdoba Grupo InfoStat FCA Universidad Nacional de CoacuterdobaDomburg P J J De Gruijter and P van Beek 1997 Designing efficient soil survey schemes

with a knowledge-based system using dynamic programming Geoderma 75183ndash201doi101016S0016-7061(96)00090-0

Fernaacutendez C 2001 Praacutecticas de laboratorio de Fisiologiacutea Vegetal Guatemala USACFord A and R Nigh 2009 Origins of the Maya forest garden Maya resource management

Journal of Ethnobiology 29(2)213ndash36 doi1029930278-0771-292213Francis C et al 2003 Agroecology The ecology of food systems Journal of Sustainable

Agriculture 22(3)99ndash118 doi101300J064v22n03_10Gimeacutenez C M M T et al 2018 Bringing agroecology to scale Key drivers and emblematic

cases Agroecology and sustainable food systems doi 1010802168356520181443313Gliessman S 2013 Agroecology and climate change mitigation Agroecology and Sustainable

Food Systems 37(3)261 doi101080104400462012751954Gliessman S and P Titonell 2015 Agroecology for food security and nutrition Agroecology

and Sustainable Food Systems 39131ndash33 doi101080216835652014972001Gutieacuterrez M 2011 San Marcos frontera de fuego In Guatemala la infinita historia de las

resistencias ed M E Vela 243ndash316 Guatemala Magna Terra EditoresHallum-Montes R 2012 ldquoPara el Bien Comuacutenrdquo Indigenous Womenrsquos environmental acti-

vism and community care work in Guatemala Race Gender amp Class 19(12)104ndash30


Hardeman E and H Jochemsen 2012 Are there ideological aspects to the modernization ofagriculture Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 25(5)657ndash74 doi101007s10806-011-9331-5

Holt-Gimeacutenez E 2002 Measuring farmerrsquos agroecological resistance after Hurricane Mitch inNicaragua A case study in participatory sustainable land management impact monitoringAgriculture Ecosystems amp Environment 93(93)87ndash105 doi101016S0167-8809(02)00006-3

Holt-Gimeacutenez E 2006 Campesino a campesino voices from Latin Americarsquos farmer to farmermovement for sustainable agriculture Food First Books Oakland California USAAgriculture Ecosystems amp Environment 93(93)87ndash105 doi101016S0167-8809(02)00006-3

Instituto de Nutricioacuten de Centroameacuterica y Panamaacute Organizacioacuten Panamericana de la Salud(INCAPOPS) 2012 Guiacuteas alimentarias para Guatemala Recomendaciones para unaalimentacioacuten saludable Guatemala INCAPOPS

Instituto Internacional para el Desarrollo Sostenible (IISD) 2014 Manual del Usuario de laHerramienta CRiSTAL Seguridad Alimentaria 20 Winnipeg IISD

Instituto Nacional de Estadiacutestica (INE) 2015 Repuacutelica de Guatemala Encuesta Nacional deCondiciones de Vida 2014 Principales Resultados Guatemala INE

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2014 Climate Change 2014 SynthesisReport Contribution of Working Groups I II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Geneva IPCC

Isakson S R 2009 No hay ganancia en la milpa The agrarian question food sovereigntyand the on-farm conservation of agrobiodiversity in the Guatemala highlands The Journalof Peasant Studies 36(4)725ndash59 doi10108003066150903353876

Isakson S R 2013 Maize diversity and the political economy of agrarian restructuring inGuatemala Journal of Agrarian Change 14(3)347ndash79 doi101111joac12023

Jacobi J M Schneider P Botazzi M Pillco P Calizaya and S Rist 2013 Agroecosystemresilience and farmersrsquo perceptions of climate change impacts on cocoa farms in Alto BeniBolivia Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 30(2)170ndash83 doi101017S174217051300029X

Jacobsen S-E M Sorensen S M Pedersen and J Weiner 2015 Using our agrobiodiversityPlant-based solutions to feed the world Agronomy for Sustainable Development 351217ndash35 doi101007s13593-015-0325-y

Johnson A I 1962Methods of measuring soil moisture in the field Denver US Geological SurveyKeleman A J Hellin and D Flores 2013 Diverse varieties and diverse markets Scale-

related maize ldquoprofitability crossoverrdquo in the central Mexican highlands Human Ecology 41(5)683ndash705 doi101007s10745-013-9566-z

Kloppenburg J 2010 Impeding dispossession enabling repossession Biological open sourceand the recovery of seed sovereignty Journal of Agrarian Change 10(3)367ndash88doi101111(ISSN)1471-0366

Lampurlaneacutes J and C Cantero-Martiacutenez 2003 Soil bulk density and penetration resistanceunder different tillage and crop management systems and their relationship with barleyroot growth Agronomy Journal 95526ndash36 doi102134agronj20030526

Lavelle P and B Kohlmann 1984 Etude quantitative de la macrofaune du sol dans une forettropicale humide du Mexique (Bonampak Chiapas) Pedobiologia 27377ndash93

Lehmann E L 1999 ldquoStudentrdquo and small-sample theory Statistical Science 14(4)418ndash26doi101214ss1009212520

Lin B B et al 2011 Effects of industrial agriculture on climate change and the mitigationpotential of small-scale agro-ecological farms CAB Reviews Perspectives in AgricultureVeterinary Science Nutrition and Natural Resources (CABI) 6(20)1ndash18 doi101079PAVSNNR20116020


Loacutepez E and B Gonzaacutelez 2007 Fundamentos para la comprensioacuten del muestreo estadiacutesticoGuatemala Facultad de Agronomiacutea Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala

Loacutepez-Ridaura S O Masera and M Astier 2002 Evaluating the sustainability of complexsocio-environmental systems The MESMIS Framework Ecological Indicators 2135ndash48doi101016S1470-160X(02)00043-2

Mijatovic D F Van Oudenhoven P Eyzaguirre and T Hodgkin 2013 The role ofagricultural biodiversity in strengthening resilience to climate change Towards an analy-tical framework International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 11(2)95ndash107doi101080147359032012691221

Ministerio de Salud Puacuteblica y Asistencia Social (MSPAS) Instituto Nacional de Estadiacutestica(INE) ICF Internacional 2015 Encuesta nacional de salud materno infantil 2014-2015Guatemala Ministerio de Salud Puacuteblica y Asistencia Social

Moltedo A N Troubat M Lokshin and Z Sajaia 2014 Analyzing food security using householdsurvey data Streamlined analysis with ADePT software Washington The World Bankgr

Moran-Taylor M J and M J Taylor 2010 Land and lentildea Linking transnational migrationnatural resources and the environment in Guatemala Population and Environment 32(23)198ndash215 doi101007s11111-010-0125-x

Navarro M L 2013 Subjetividades poliacuteticas contra el despojo capitalista de bienes naturalesen Meacutexico Acta Socioloacutegica 62135ndash53 doi101016S0186-6028(13)71002-8

Oudenhoven F J W D Mijatovic and P B Eyzaguirre 2011 Social-ecological indicators ofresilience in agrarian and natural landscapes Management of Environmental Quality anInternational Journal 22(2)154ndash73 doi10110814777831111113356

Palinkas L A S M Horwitz C A Green J P Wisdom N Duan and K Hoagwood 2015Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method imple-mentation research Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental HealthServices Research 42(5)533ndash44

Paniagua-Zambrano N M J Maciacutea and R Caacutemara-Leret 2010 Toma de datosetnobotaacutenicos de palmeras y variables socioeconoacutemicas en comunidades rurales EcologiacuteaEn Bolivia 45(3)44ndash68

Pennock D T Yates and J Braidek 2008 Chapter 1 Soil sampling designs In Soil samplingand methods of analysis M R Carter and E G Gregorich ed 1ndash15 Boca Raton Taylor ampFrancis Group LLC

Peacuterez B M A 2010 Sistema agroecoloacutegico raacutepido de evaluacioacuten de calidad de suelo y salud decultivos Herramienta para la gestioacuten de sistemas agriacutecolas desde la perspectiva de laagroecologiacutea Bogotaacute Corporacioacuten Ambiental Empresarial

Poulsen AD 1996 Species richness and density of ground herbswithin a plot of lowland rainforestin North-West Borneo Journal of Tropical Ecology 12(2)177ndash90 doi101017S0266467400009408

Putnam H et al 2014 Coupling agroecology and PAR to identify appropriate food securityand sovereignty strategies in indigenous communities Agroecology and Sustainable FoodSystems 38165ndash98 doi101080216835652013837422

Rodriacuteguez Crisoacutestomo C G 2015 Experiencias de economiacutea solidaria del AltiplanoOccidental de Guatemala Caracteriacutesticas socioeconoacutemicas y efectos en las familias involu-cradas Masterrsquos thesis FLACSO

Rojas B A Mariacutea C C Langen and J A Cruz Rodriacuteguez 2015 Actividad microbiana ensuelo de agroecosistemas con manejo agroecoloacutegico y convencional en la UniversidadAutoacutenoma Chapingo Paper presented at the V Congreso Latinoamericano de Agroecologiacutea- SOCLA Trabajos cientiacuteficos y relatos de experiencias La agroecologiacutea un nuevo paradigmapara redefinir la investigacioacuten la educacioacuten y la extensioacuten para una agricultura sustentableLa Plata Universidad Nacional de la Plata A1ndash366


Rosset P M and M E Martiacutenez-Torres 2012 Rural social movements and agroecologyContext theory and process Ecology and Society 17(3)17 doi105751ES-05000-170317

San Martiacuten S M 2015Evaluacioacuten de sustentabilidad de sistemas de cultivo tradicionales eindustriales en las localidades de Patacal y Maimaraacute de la Quebrada de Humahuaca (JujuyArgentina) Paper presented at the V Congreso Latinoamericano de Agroecologiacutea -SOCLA Trabajos cientiacuteficos y relatos de experiencias la agroecologiacutea un nuevo paradigmapara redefinir la investigacioacuten la educacioacuten y la extensioacuten para una agricultura sustentableLa Plata Universidad Nacional de la Plata A1ndash16

Saacutenchez-Midence L A and L Victorino-Ramiacuterez 2012 Guatemala Cultura Tradicional ySostenibilidad Agricultura Sociedad Y Desarrollo 9297ndash313

SEGEPLAN 2016 SEGEPLAN Web site Accessed July 21 2016 httpwwwsegeplangobgtdownloadsIndicePobrezaGeneral_extremaXMunicipiopdf

Sieder R 2012 The challenge of indigenous legal systems Beyond paradigms of recognitionBrown Journal of World Affairs 18(2)103ndash14

Siguumlenza P 2015 Agroecologiacutea en Guatemala Muacuteltiples beneficios para una nueva agricul-tura Guatemala FundebaseAlianza por la Agroecologiacutea

Simmons C S T J M Taacuterano and J H Pinto 1959 Clasificacioacuten de reconocimiento de lossuelos de la Repuacuteblica de Guatemala Guatemala Instituto Agropecuario Nacional

Sobrino J 2014 Civilizacioacuten de la pobreza contra civilizacioacuten de la riqueza para revertir unmundo gravemente enfermo Papeles De Relaciones Ecosociales Y Cambio Global 125139ndash50

Steinberg M K and M Taylor 2002 The impact of political turmoil on maize culture anddiversity in highland Guatemala Mountain Research and Development 22(4)344ndash51doi1016590276-4741(2002)022[0344TIOPTO]20CO2

Student 1908 The probable error of a mean Biometrika 6(1)1ndash25 doi101093biomet611Swindale A and P Bilinsky 2006 Puntaje de diversidad dieteacutetica en el Hogar (HDDS) para

la medicioacuten del acceso a los alimentos en el hogar Guiacutea de indicadores Washington D CFANTAFHI 360

Taylor M J M J Moran-Taylor E J Castellanos and S Eliacuteas 2011 Burning for sustain-ability Biomass energy international migration and the move to cleaner fuels andcookstoves in Guatemala Annals of the Association of American Geographers 101(4)1ndash11 doi101080000456082011568881

Tischler V S 2009 Imagen y dialeacutectica Mario Payeras y los interiores de una constelacioacutenrevolucionaria Guatemala F amp G Editores

Uriarte J 2013 La perspectiva comunitaria de la resiliencia Psicologiacutea Poliacutetica 477ndash18Urkidi L 2011 The defence of community in the anti-mining movement of Guatemala

Journal of Agrarian Change 11(4)556ndash80 doi101111joac201111issue-4Vallejo-Mariacuten M C A Domiacutenguez and R Dirzo 2006 Simulated seed predation reveals a

variety of germination responses of neotropical rain forest species American Journal ofBotany 93(3)369ndash76 doi103732ajb933369

Walker W R 1989 Guidelines for designing and evaluating surface irrigation systems Rome FAOWilken G 1971 Food-producing systems available to the ancient Maya American Antiquity

36(4)432ndash48 doi102307278462The World Bank 2017 Cereal yield (kg per hectare) Accessed on January 6 2017 http

dataworldbankorgindicatorAGYLDCRELKGend=2014amplocations=GTampstart=1961ampview=chart

Yagenova S and R Garciacutea 2009 Indigenous peopleacutes struggles against transnational miningcompanies in Guatemala The Sipakapa People vs Goldcorp Mining Company Socialismand Democracy 23(3)157ndash66 doi10108008854300903208795

Zabell S L 2008 On Studentrsquos 1908 article ldquoThe probable error of a meanrdquo Journal of theAmerican Statistical Association 103(481)1ndash7 doi101198016214508000000030


Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

Agroecology-based farming provides grounds for moreresilient livelihoods among smallholders in WesternGuatemalaClaudia Irene Calderoacutena Claudia Geroacutenimob Alexandra Praunc Jaime ReynacIvan Dimitri Santos Castillod Raquel Leoacutene Rose Hoganfand Joseacute Pablo Prado Coacuterdovag

aDepartment of Horticulture University of Wisconsin - Madison Madison WI USA bEscuela deEstudios de Postgrado Facultad de Agronomiacutea Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala GuatemalaGuatemala cIndependent Consultant Guatemala Guatemala dSubaacuterea de Manejo de Suelos y AguaFacultad de Agronomiacutea Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala ePrograma de Medios de VidaSostenible Trocaire Guatemala fSustainable Agricultural and Natural Resource Adviser TrocaireMaynooth Ireland gSubaacuterea de Ciencias Sociales y Desarrollo Rural Facultad de AgronomiacuteaUniversidad de San Carlos de Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala

ABSTRACTA set of sustainability attributes was estimated in WesternGuatemala by characterizing 20 small-scale farming familieswith the aim of exploring food security- and climate resili-ence-related conditions Solidarity-based economies spawn astronger social network among agroecological farms Genderroles in agroecology-adopting families seem to be moving to amore balanced scenario Differences between agroecology-based and semi-conventional farmers suggest that shares ofcommercialized produce gross agricultural income and plantdiversity are significantly higher and thus more resilient in theformer Challenges to agroecological adoption howeverinclude limited public infrastructure dearth of supporting poli-cies and external threats posed by utility-inspired economicagents

ARTICLE HISTORYReceived 31 August 2017Revised 16 April 2018Accepted 13 June 2018

KEYWORDSAgroecology resiliencesmall-scale farmingsolidarity-based economyWestern Guatemala

Introduction

Agroecology-based resilience entails a twofold process that presupposes socialcohesion for improved practices to work in contexts where natural disastersexacerbate food insecurity Such a notion however is normally context- andsite-specific which requires validation at the local level and above all a researchstrategy that is consistent with a horizontal liaison between community mem-bers and researchers (Putnam et al 2014) Resilient systems normally show highbuffer capacity self-organization and the ability to build learning and adapta-tion capacity (Jacobi et al 2013) Both biophysical and socioeconomic traits playa relevant role particularly those related to human agency and institutions

CONTACT Joseacute Pablo Prado Coacuterdova ppradousacedugt Oficina A-14 Edificio T-9 Ciudad Universitaria01012 Ciudad de Guatemala GuatemalaColor versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at wwwtandfonlinecomwjsa

AGROECOLOGY AND SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMShttpsdoiorg1010802168356520181489933

copy 2018 Trocaire









Study area





Methods











Table1


surveyed

farm

s

Farm

Land

area

(ha)

Rockiness

Water

regime1

Averageslop

e(

)Land

sharewith

terraces

()

Leng

thof

hedg

es(m

)Co

ntrolo

fpestsand

diseases

2Fertilizatio

ntype

3Prod

uctio

nchalleng

es

A1007

Low

Irrigation

9029

1290

BPPRCAC

OO

Steady

prod

uctio

nallyear

roun

dA2

017

Non

eIrrigation

3394

1768

RCAC


A3066

Low

Irrigation

3723

3650

RCAC

OPests

A4011

Low

Irrigation

3145

1650

BPPRCAC

OCo

ntinuity

A5010

Non

eIrrigation

7890

1730

BPPRCAC

SSVR

OSoils

A6009

Low

Rainfed

2144

1920

BPPRCAC

OO

Water

andplanthealth

A7025

Low

Rainfed

6442

9227

ACRC

OWater

A8043

Low

Collector

6253

9190

BPPRCAC

OWater

A9004

Low

Irrigation

4720

2520

ACRC

OWater

andplanthealth

A10

018

Low

Irrigation

5352

1753

ACVRRC

OWaterinp

utsland

area

and

planthealth

C1004

Low

Irrigation

7378

7320

PQPPRC

AC

QO

Planthealth

C2010

Low

Rainfed

290

00

NN

Water

C3022

Low

Irrigation

400

00

ACO

QO

Water

andplanthealth

C4017

Non

eIrrigation

280

00

NQO

Land

area

C5017

Non

eIrrigation

5613

1488

PPQO

Planthealth

C6017

Non

eRainfed

102

900

NQO

Water

andpests

C7023

Non

eRainfed

910

00

PQQO

Water

andpests

C8017

Non

eIrrigation

700

2900

NQO

Water

andplanthealth

C9031

Non

eIrrigation

5069

4200

PQSSVR

RC

NNon

eC10

033

Non

eIrrigation

6051

14190

ACN

Planthealth

1 One

producer

(A8)

owns

areservoird

esignedto

collectrainwaterA

10andC2

saythat


sdo

notmeettheirn

eedsC6andA6

have

sprin

gswith

intheirp

roperty

2 PQchemicalprod

uctsB

=bio-ferm


uctsRCcrop

rotatio

nCT

trapcrop

sAC


selectionVR

resistant

varietiesOother

Nn

othing

3 QchemicalO

organicN

nothing







Fieldvalue


0 0 1


1ndash3 1ndash3 2


3ndash5 3ndash5 3


5ndash8 5ndash8 4


8ndash10 8ndash10 5

















Agroecology

Conventional


Num

ber

of f

arm

ers

selli

ng

part

of

thei

r pr

oduc

e

Cereals

Legum

es

Vegeta

bles a

nd he

rbs

Roots

bulbs

and

tube

rsFru

its

Med

icina

l plan

ts

Livesto

ck

181614121086420


















Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597



Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039




Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References









Study area





Methods











Table1


surveyed

farm

s

Farm

Land

area

(ha)

Rockiness

Water

regime1

Averageslop

e(

)Land

sharewith

terraces

()

Leng

thof

hedg

es(m

)Co

ntrolo

fpestsand

diseases

2Fertilizatio

ntype

3Prod

uctio

nchalleng

es

A1007

Low

Irrigation

9029

1290

BPPRCAC

OO

Steady

prod

uctio

nallyear

roun

dA2

017

Non

eIrrigation

3394

1768

RCAC


A3066

Low

Irrigation

3723

3650

RCAC

OPests

A4011

Low

Irrigation

3145

1650

BPPRCAC

OCo

ntinuity

A5010

Non

eIrrigation

7890

1730

BPPRCAC

SSVR

OSoils

A6009

Low

Rainfed

2144

1920

BPPRCAC

OO

Water

andplanthealth

A7025

Low

Rainfed

6442

9227

ACRC

OWater

A8043

Low

Collector

6253

9190

BPPRCAC

OWater

A9004

Low

Irrigation

4720

2520

ACRC

OWater

andplanthealth

A10

018

Low

Irrigation

5352

1753

ACVRRC

OWaterinp

utsland

area

and

planthealth

C1004

Low

Irrigation

7378

7320

PQPPRC

AC

QO

Planthealth

C2010

Low

Rainfed

290

00

NN

Water

C3022

Low

Irrigation

400

00

ACO

QO

Water

andplanthealth

C4017

Non

eIrrigation

280

00

NQO

Land

area

C5017

Non

eIrrigation

5613

1488

PPQO

Planthealth

C6017

Non

eRainfed

102

900

NQO

Water

andpests

C7023

Non

eRainfed

910

00

PQQO

Water

andpests

C8017

Non

eIrrigation

700

2900

NQO

Water

andplanthealth

C9031

Non

eIrrigation

5069

4200

PQSSVR

RC

NNon

eC10

033

Non

eIrrigation

6051

14190

ACN

Planthealth

1 One

producer

(A8)

owns

areservoird

esignedto

collectrainwaterA

10andC2

saythat


sdo

notmeettheirn

eedsC6andA6

have

sprin

gswith

intheirp

roperty

2 PQchemicalprod

uctsB

=bio-ferm


uctsRCcrop

rotatio

nCT

trapcrop

sAC


selectionVR

resistant

varietiesOother

Nn

othing

3 QchemicalO

organicN

nothing







Fieldvalue


0 0 1


1ndash3 1ndash3 2


3ndash5 3ndash5 3


5ndash8 5ndash8 4


8ndash10 8ndash10 5

















Agroecology

Conventional


Num

ber

of f

arm

ers

selli

ng

part

of

thei

r pr

oduc

e

Cereals

Legum

es

Vegeta

bles a

nd he

rbs

Roots

bulbs

and

tube

rsFru

its

Med

icina

l plan

ts

Livesto

ck

181614121086420


















Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597



Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039




Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References



Methods











Table1


surveyed

farm

s

Farm

Land

area

(ha)

Rockiness

Water

regime1

Averageslop

e(

)Land

sharewith

terraces

()

Leng

thof

hedg

es(m

)Co

ntrolo

fpestsand

diseases

2Fertilizatio

ntype

3Prod

uctio

nchalleng

es

A1007

Low

Irrigation

9029

1290

BPPRCAC

OO

Steady

prod

uctio

nallyear

roun

dA2

017

Non

eIrrigation

3394

1768

RCAC


A3066

Low

Irrigation

3723

3650

RCAC

OPests

A4011

Low

Irrigation

3145

1650

BPPRCAC

OCo

ntinuity

A5010

Non

eIrrigation

7890

1730

BPPRCAC

SSVR

OSoils

A6009

Low

Rainfed

2144

1920

BPPRCAC

OO

Water

andplanthealth

A7025

Low

Rainfed

6442

9227

ACRC

OWater

A8043

Low

Collector

6253

9190

BPPRCAC

OWater

A9004

Low

Irrigation

4720

2520

ACRC

OWater

andplanthealth

A10

018

Low

Irrigation

5352

1753

ACVRRC

OWaterinp

utsland

area

and

planthealth

C1004

Low

Irrigation

7378

7320

PQPPRC

AC

QO

Planthealth

C2010

Low

Rainfed

290

00

NN

Water

C3022

Low

Irrigation

400

00

ACO

QO

Water

andplanthealth

C4017

Non

eIrrigation

280

00

NQO

Land

area

C5017

Non

eIrrigation

5613

1488

PPQO

Planthealth

C6017

Non

eRainfed

102

900

NQO

Water

andpests

C7023

Non

eRainfed

910

00

PQQO

Water

andpests

C8017

Non

eIrrigation

700

2900

NQO

Water

andplanthealth

C9031

Non

eIrrigation

5069

4200

PQSSVR

RC

NNon

eC10

033

Non

eIrrigation

6051

14190

ACN

Planthealth

1 One

producer

(A8)

owns

areservoird

esignedto

collectrainwaterA

10andC2

saythat


sdo

notmeettheirn

eedsC6andA6

have

sprin

gswith

intheirp

roperty

2 PQchemicalprod

uctsB

=bio-ferm


uctsRCcrop

rotatio

nCT

trapcrop

sAC


selectionVR

resistant

varietiesOother

Nn

othing

3 QchemicalO

organicN

nothing







Fieldvalue


0 0 1


1ndash3 1ndash3 2


3ndash5 3ndash5 3


5ndash8 5ndash8 4


8ndash10 8ndash10 5

















Agroecology

Conventional


Num

ber

of f

arm

ers

selli

ng

part

of

thei

r pr

oduc

e

Cereals

Legum

es

Vegeta

bles a

nd he

rbs

Roots

bulbs

and

tube

rsFru

its

Med

icina

l plan

ts

Livesto

ck

181614121086420


















Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597



Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039




Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References









Table1


surveyed

farm

s

Farm

Land

area

(ha)

Rockiness

Water

regime1

Averageslop

e(

)Land

sharewith

terraces

()

Leng

thof

hedg

es(m

)Co

ntrolo

fpestsand

diseases

2Fertilizatio

ntype

3Prod

uctio

nchalleng

es

A1007

Low

Irrigation

9029

1290

BPPRCAC

OO

Steady

prod

uctio

nallyear

roun

dA2

017

Non

eIrrigation

3394

1768

RCAC


A3066

Low

Irrigation

3723

3650

RCAC

OPests

A4011

Low

Irrigation

3145

1650

BPPRCAC

OCo

ntinuity

A5010

Non

eIrrigation

7890

1730

BPPRCAC

SSVR

OSoils

A6009

Low

Rainfed

2144

1920

BPPRCAC

OO

Water

andplanthealth

A7025

Low

Rainfed

6442

9227

ACRC

OWater

A8043

Low

Collector

6253

9190

BPPRCAC

OWater

A9004

Low

Irrigation

4720

2520

ACRC

OWater

andplanthealth

A10

018

Low

Irrigation

5352

1753

ACVRRC

OWaterinp

utsland

area

and

planthealth

C1004

Low

Irrigation

7378

7320

PQPPRC

AC

QO

Planthealth

C2010

Low

Rainfed

290

00

NN

Water

C3022

Low

Irrigation

400

00

ACO

QO

Water

andplanthealth

C4017

Non

eIrrigation

280

00

NQO

Land

area

C5017

Non

eIrrigation

5613

1488

PPQO

Planthealth

C6017

Non

eRainfed

102

900

NQO

Water

andpests

C7023

Non

eRainfed

910

00

PQQO

Water

andpests

C8017

Non

eIrrigation

700

2900

NQO

Water

andplanthealth

C9031

Non

eIrrigation

5069

4200

PQSSVR

RC

NNon

eC10

033

Non

eIrrigation

6051

14190

ACN

Planthealth

1 One

producer

(A8)

owns

areservoird

esignedto

collectrainwaterA

10andC2

saythat


sdo

notmeettheirn

eedsC6andA6

have

sprin

gswith

intheirp

roperty

2 PQchemicalprod

uctsB

=bio-ferm


uctsRCcrop

rotatio

nCT

trapcrop

sAC


selectionVR

resistant

varietiesOother

Nn

othing

3 QchemicalO

organicN

nothing







Fieldvalue


0 0 1


1ndash3 1ndash3 2


3ndash5 3ndash5 3


5ndash8 5ndash8 4


8ndash10 8ndash10 5

















Agroecology

Conventional


Num

ber

of f

arm

ers

selli

ng

part

of

thei

r pr

oduc

e

Cereals

Legum

es

Vegeta

bles a

nd he

rbs

Roots

bulbs

and

tube

rsFru

its

Med

icina

l plan

ts

Livesto

ck

181614121086420


















Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597



Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039




Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References






Fieldvalue


0 0 1


1ndash3 1ndash3 2


3ndash5 3ndash5 3


5ndash8 5ndash8 4


8ndash10 8ndash10 5

















Agroecology

Conventional


Num

ber

of f

arm

ers

selli

ng

part

of

thei

r pr

oduc

e

Cereals

Legum

es

Vegeta

bles a

nd he

rbs

Roots

bulbs

and

tube

rsFru

its

Med

icina

l plan

ts

Livesto

ck

181614121086420


















Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597



Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039




Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References














Agroecology

Conventional


Num

ber

of f

arm

ers

selli

ng

part

of

thei

r pr

oduc

e

Cereals

Legum

es

Vegeta

bles a

nd he

rbs

Roots

bulbs

and

tube

rsFru

its

Med

icina

l plan

ts

Livesto

ck

181614121086420


















Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597



Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039




Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References
















Farming systems

019

031

044

056

069

Har

vest

inde

x

p=01597



Farming systems

111

152

192

232

272

Yie

lds

in t

ha

p=05039




Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References


Income





-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References



-280

1240

2760

4280

5800


Farming systems

6-m

onth

gro

ss in

com

e in

US

D P

PP

p=00351



Agriculturalproduce

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome

Dryseason

Rainy seasonUSDPPP

Total netincome


506929 179528 686457 39915 21391 61306


201129 44672 245801 21417 360582 381999




Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References


Energy supply




MarketC5 Farm




FarmC10 013 Forest

Mean 115 064


Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

Public services



Life in the topsoil





1 2 11 Low2 11 20 83 Low


C3 2 6 21 79 Normal4 0 27 925 Normal

C4 4 7 37 985 Normal1 3 14 Normal

C5 5 1 31 95 Normal



Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References


Farming system

090

145

200

255

310

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e d

ry s

ea

son

p=06891


Farming systems

190

245

300

355

410

Inve

rte

bra

te d

ive

rsity

in th

e r

ain

y s

ea

so

n

p=05570





Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References



Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

dry

se

aso

n

p=04345

Semi-conventional

Farming systems

080

190

300

410

520

Inve

rte

bra

te a

bu

nd

an

ce in

the

ra

iny

sea

son

p=00826

Agroecology





Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References



Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

dry

seas

on

p=03171


Farming systems

095

122

150

177

205

Ear

thw

orm

abu

ndan

ce in

the

rain

y se

ason

p=03171






Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References




Soil properties






Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References




Farming systems

-140

630

1400

2170

2940

Soi

l con

serv

atio

n pr

actic

es p=00682



Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

Table8

Chem


agroecolog

icalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

A165

148

01

75

01

85

283

574

152

023

108

3026

1277

053

15ndash30

65

149

01

121

104645

649

197

025

146

2191

1409

06

0ndash15

A271

1117

05

115

05

193076

1347

308

038

197

6149

372

022

15ndash30

73

91

01

165

05

202522

1622

333

042

187

8658

391

02

0ndash15

A367

1183

05

45

25

155

1692

848

148

037

082

6595

448

019

15ndash30

68

1649

05

825

155

1569

948

177

028

097

7969

432

02

0ndash15

A47

26

01

501

75

4569

1322

296

038

382

4462

55

023

15ndash30

7112

01

501

85

2707

1322

271

032

256

6954

521

022

0ndash15

A572

256

01

501

17354

1148

284

038

292

4978

43

016

15ndash30

72

206

01

601

183416

998

251

034

218

4393

417

015

0ndash15

A672

2798

1135

195

385

2511

1497

329

032

226

8299

482

02

15ndash30

69

1686

121

38365

2717

1447

345

037

131

7214

475

022

0ndash15

A771

246

505

155

475

3252

1173

21

026

267

5152

475

018

15ndash30

72

295

705

195

537

354

1272

251

074

385

5599

537

022

0ndash15

A866

17

01

35

01

93993

898

144

044

187

319

826

031

15ndash30

67

116

01

35

01

75

4198

923

132

033

21

3092

815

032

0ndash15

A962

2705

95

85

275

2307

1322

263

037

269

8202

638

038

15ndash30

61

2505

811

235

2184

1198

218

03

221

7627

6033

0ndash15

A10

67

269

01

75

01

185

323

1647

28

031

187

6641

805

034

15ndash30

67

295

01

81

175

2953

1622

259

061

187

7209

815

033

Mean

685

282

01

75

075

1625

3014

1235

255

0355

2035

6372

529

022

Min

610

112

010

050

010

475

1569

574

132

023

082

2191

372

015

Max

730

2798

700

2100

3800

3850

4645

1647

345

074

385

8658

1409

060

Accep

table

mean

rang

e

6ndash65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

Table9


agroecolog

ical

soils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(gcm3)

13atm

15atm

Clay

Moisture(

)Silt

Sand

Soilseparates

Texture

0ndash15

A107407

5542

2946

1008

3419

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

07547

5678

319

1008

3629

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A210256

3888

2663

2478

2999

4524

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3994

2707

2058

2789

5154

Loam

0ndash15

A310526

3684

1948

1772

3914

4314

Loam

15ndash30

10526

3446

1935

2058

3629

4313

Loam

0ndash15

A408889

4231

3552

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09091

4197

3448

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A509756

3933

3231

1735

2902

5363

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09524

3938

3114

1315

3112

5573

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A611111

2859

2181

1945

3322

4733

Loam

15ndash30

11429

3247

2394

2575

2692

4733

Sand

yclay

loam

0ndash15

A710526

3437

2505

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3605

2702

1525

3112

5363

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A809756

3928

2193

685

3532

5783

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

3831

2759

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

A909756

3433

2272

1256

3457

5287

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

09756

311

2392

1886

3247

4867

Loam

0ndash15

A10

09302

386

2484

1315

3532

5153

Loam

15ndash30

09302

3305

256

1105

3322

5573

Sand

yloam

Mean

097

5638

455

26115

1315

3322

5363

Min

074

2859

1935

685

2692

4313

Max

114

5678

3552

2575

3914

6203


Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

Table10C


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

(cm)

Hou

seho

ldpH

PCu

ZnFe

Mn

CEC

CaMg

Na

KBase

saturatio

nOrganic

matter

N

0ndash15

C164

096

01

901

55

3261

749

107

052

051

2941

883

037

15ndash30

64

091

01

45

01

45

203

324

062

023

044

2232

689

031

0ndash15

C266

191

01

15

01

95

2245

624

103

046

105

3909

1155

024

15ndash30

67

174

01

201

92307

773

119

061

113

4622

543

023

0ndash15

C356

818

185

22205

2215

898

181

039

069

5362

375

023

15ndash30

56

907

185

20225

1999

873

185

044

064

5835

364

023

0ndash15

C469

454

05

42

105

284

773

144

025

151

3852

413

016

15ndash30

68

499

05

62

133169

749

16

03

187

3554

393

015

0ndash15

C571

519

05

65

75

245

2215

898

16

05

118

5536

382

018

15ndash30

71

549

05

855

295

2307

1397

35

061

172

858

394

019

0ndash15

C659

2646

05

5115

185

2387

574

148

023

146

3731

475

018

15ndash30

61

2718

01

1155

145

2387

823

222

036

115

5012

534

018

0ndash15

C766

727

19

105

455

1907

973

173

05

115

6877

393

017

15ndash30

65

328

15

10125

232153

1347

354

052

185

8999

222

013

0ndash15

C966

147

01

45

01

9399

1272

164

03

13917

1073

042

15ndash30

67

119

01

501

75

3599

1322

156

023

082

4402

1046

042

0ndash15

C10

67

218

01

35

1235

2861

923

21

03

133

4533

621

039

15ndash30

65

331

01

65

15

265

3783

1098

251

026

21

4189

747

031

Mean

66

3925

03

625

2165

2347

8855

162

0375

115

44675

5045

023

Min

560

091

010

150

010

450

1907

324

062

023

044

2232

222

013

Max

710

2718

150

1100

2200

4550

3990

1397

354

061

210

8999

1155

042

Accep

table

meanrang

e6ndash

65

120ndash16

020minus40

40ndash

60

100ndash15

010

0ndash15

020

ndash25

40ndash

80

15ndash

2mdashndash

027

ndash038

75ndash9

040ndash

50

03ndash

04


Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

Table11P


semi-con

ventionalsoils

Depth

Hou

seho

ldBu

lkdensity

(cm)

Moisture(gcm3)

13atma

15atmb

Clay

Soilseparates(

)Silt

Sand

Texture

0ndash15

C109091

3684

2926

512

3284

6204

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10256

3615

2091

512

2654

6834

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C210256

3324

2497

1525

2902

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

2827

2618

722

3704

5574

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C310000

3317

1333

2726

3037

4237

Loam

15ndash30

10256

3265

2372

2516

2827

4657

Loam

0ndash15

C410256

3161

2651

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

10000

3227

261

1315

2902

5783

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C510000

3257

2882

2155

2902

4943

Loam

15ndash30

10256

374

296

2575

3112

4313

Loam

0ndash15

C611765

2295

1755

1735

2692

5573

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

11765

2375

1721

1105

2692

6203

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C711765

291877

2785

2692

4523

Sand

yclay

loam

15ndash30

11429

2904

238

2365

3112

4523

Loam

0ndash15

C908889

4386

3024

895

2902

6203

Sand

yloam

15ndash30

08889

4397

2031

895

3112

5993

Sand

yloam

0ndash15

C10

10526

4028

2474

2268

2789

4943

Loam

15ndash30

09756

3749

239

1848

3209

4943

Loam

Mean

10256

3291

2432

163

2902

5573

Min

089

2295

1333

512

2654

4237

Max

118

4397

3024

2785

3704

6834

a13atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of13atmosph

ere

b15

atmosph


asoilthat

hasbeen

saturatedandthen

brou

ghtto

equilibriu

mat

apressure

of15

atmosph

eres



Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References


Plant diversity












Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References





Farming systems

088

1256

2425

3594

4763

Ave

rage

num

ber o

f cul

tivat

ed p

lant

s

p=00223










Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References








Social organization








Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References






Farming systems

-050

225

500

775

1050

Men

par

ticip

atio

n va

lue

p=05353



Farming systems

265

457

650

842

1035

Wom

en p

artic

ipat

ion

valu

e p=08994



Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

Gender dynamics



Finding identity









A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References







A asymp C 04212


A gt C 00351


Fuelwoodconsumption

A asymp C 01572



A asymp C 00826



A asymp C 00682




A gt C 00196




A asymp C 05353



An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References


An overall picture


Conclusions








Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References






Acknowledgments




Funding


References
























































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References


















































































Abstract

Introduction

Study area

Methods



Food availability

Food consumption

Income

Energy supply

Public services


Life in the topsoil


Soil properties

Plant diversity


Social organization

Gender dynamics

Finding identity

An overall picture

Conclusions

Acknowledgments


Funding

References

more resilient livelihoods among smallholders in issn ... · 90%, respectively (segeplan 2016). 4...

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