MONEY &

BANKINGSamir K Mahajan

MONEY: MEANING AND FUNCTIONS

Money is regarded any object which is generally accepted as:•medium of exchange•unit of account•standard of deferred payment•store of value •transfer of value.

Samir K Mahajan

Primary Functionso As medium of exchange, money is used as a means of payment. As money has ready purchasing power, it facilitates

in transacting exchange of goods and services with minimum effort and time.

o As unit of account, money is treated as common measure of value. Value of all goods and services in exchange can be expressed in terms of money. Such expression gives rise to price system in which money act as a means of calculating the relative prices of goods and services.

Secondary Functions:o As standard of deferred payment, money can be used in the settlement of debt and future payments. Loans are

advanced and future contracts are settled in terms of money.

o As store of value, money is hold as an asset in liquid (or cash balance) to use anytime in future. This is because money has purchasing power which holds commands over goods and services all time – at present and in future. However use of money as store of value is not without drawbacks. Changes in general price level causes rise and fall in the value of money. When price level rises, value of money falls and vice versa.

o As transfer of value, sale and purchase of movable and immovable assets, paper wealth and physical wealth can be made with the help of money. Thus, value available with a person in the form of asset can be transferred from one person to another with the use of money.

MONEY: MEANING AND FUNCTIONS contd.

Samir K Mahajan

FORMS OF MONEY IN MODERN TIMES

In modern monetary transactions, In modern era, the total stock of money or money supply includes the following:

Metallic money or currency coins : Metallic money refers to the coins made out of metal like gold, bronze, silver, copper, nickel. Coins are of two types such as: Standard or Full-bodied Coins and Token coins.

o Standard or Full-bodied Coins are those coins whose face value is equal to its intrinsic (metallic) value.

o Token coins have intrinsic (metallic) value less than its face value. They generally are of lower denominations are made of cheap metals like nickel and copper. Token coins are used for exchange of small value.

Paper money or paper currency : Paper money consists of currency notes issued by the State Treasury or the Central bank of the country.

Credit or bank money: Bank demand deposits withdraw-able by issuing cheque has started functioning as money, and cheque are conventionally accepted as a means of payment by the business community in general.

Samir K Mahajan

LEGAL TENDER AND CONVENTIONAL MONEY

In modern era, currency money and bank money together constitute the total stock of money or money supply.

Currency money (both currency coins and currency notes) is legal tender money or fiat money and has general acceptability.

Credit money or bank demand deposits are conventional money and lacks general acceptability.

Samir K Mahajan

FUNCTIONS OF COMMERCIAL BANKS

A commercial bank or simply a bank is a financial institution which deals with money, accepts deposits, advances loans, and create credits with the sole purpose of earning profits. Modern banks performs a wide variety of functions. The important functions of the commercial banks are as follows.

Acceptance of Deposits: Commercial bank borrows by accepting deposits from the public. These deposits are broadly classified as time deposits and demand deposits.

o Demand Deposits: Demand Deposits are repayable by the bank on demand or may be withdrawn by the depositors at any time without previous notice to bank through issue of cheque or other forms. It includes savings deposits (interest bearing) and current account deposits (non-interest bearing) .

o Time/term Deposits: These are deposits repayable after a certain fixed time period varying from seven days to ten years or more.. These deposits are not withdrawn able by cheque, draft or by other means. It includes fixed deposits, recurring deposits, certificate of deposits.

Advancing of Loans: The commercial banks provide loans and advances to the public in various forms. These includes overdraft, cash credit, discounting of bills, loans and advances, consumer loans etc.

Samir K Mahajan

Credit Creation : Credit creation is the multiple expansions of bank demand deposits. When a bank advances a loan to its borrower , it does not lend cash buts open a demand deposit account in the name of the borrower and credits the loan amount to his account. The bank allows the borrower to draw upon the bank as and when required though cheque. Thus whenever a bank grants a loan, it creates an equal amount bank deposits. Creation of such derivative demand deposits is called credit creation which results in net increase in the money stock of the economy. Banks have the ability to create many times more than their deposits. The ability of bank to create credit is limited by cash-reserve requirements.

Agency Functions: Commercial banks also performs agency functions on behalf of the customers/clients which includes

o Collection of cheques, dividends, and interests on behalf of the customers o Payment of rent, insurance premiums on behalf of the customerso Dealing in foreign exchange o Purchase and sale of securities on behalf of the customerso Act as correspondent of their customer o Preparations of Income-Tax returns for their customerso Act as trustee, executor, attorney etc

FUNCTIONS OF COMMERCIAL BANKS contd.

Samir K Mahajan

General Utility Services: Banks also performs certain general utility services which yields non-interest income to the banks. Such services includes:

o Safety locker facilityo Money Transfero Travelers' chequeso Gift chequeso ATM facilitieso Credit cardo Debit card o Accepting billso Internet banking o Letters of credito Merchant Banking o Bancassurance

FUNCTIONS OF COMMERCIAL BANKS contd.

Samir K Mahajan

CRR, SLR, LRR

CASH RESERVE RATIO (CRR): Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is the minimum fraction of the total deposits of customers which commercial banks have to hold as reserves either in cash or as deposits with the central bank. The cash reserve ratio is fixed by the Central Bank as a tool in monetary policy in influencing the volume of credit that can be created by the banking system of a country.

STATUTORY LIQUIDITY RATIO (SLR): Statutory liquidity ratio (SLR) refers portion of deposits that the commercial banks are required to maintain in the form of liquid asset such as gold or govt. approved securities (bonds, shares) . Statutory Liquidity Ratio is determined and maintained central bank of a country in order to control the expansion of bank credit.

LEGAL RESERVE RATIO (LRR) : Legal Reserve Ratio comprises of both CRR and SLR. While the aim of CRR is immediate liquidity needs, the objective of SLR is two fold : to provide profitability with liquidity.

Samir K Mahajan

Derivation of Credit Multiplier can create credit (∆D) can be written as ∆D=∆R [1+ (1-r)2 +(1-r)3 + (1-r)4 + ………….. ]or, ∆D =(∆R) 1/r Where ‘r’ stands for Reserve Ratio∆R stands for initial excess reserve ∆D stands derivative demand deposits The extent to which the banking system

Derivation of Credit Multiplier: Illustration

o r = 20 percent = 0.2o Primary deposits = Rs 1000 crores o Initial excess reserves = ∆R = 80 percent of Rs 1000 crores o Derivative demand deposits (=credit creation by banking

system) = ∆D = 800 x (1/ 0.2) = Rs 4000 crores

Credit Creation By Commercial Banks Banks Primary Deposits (Rupees

in Crores) Cash Reserve (Cash Reserve Ratio = 20 per cent )

Credit Creation /Demand Deposits

A B C D---------

1000800640 512---------

200160128104---------

800640512408---------

Total 5000 1000 4000

Samir K Mahajan

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BANK WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RESERVE BANK OF INDIA

The Central Bank (The Reserve Bank of India in India) is the highest monetary authority of a country. It acts as the regulatory authority of a country's banking system and is the sole provider and printer of notes and coins in circulation. It also formulates monetary and credit policy of a country. The Central bank of a country perms the following functions:

Monopoly of Note-Issue: The central bank has the sole monopoly of note issue in almost every country. It mints currency coins and prints currency notes. In India, the Reserve Bank of India It has the sole right to issue currency notes of all denominations except one-rupee notes. One-rupee notes had been issued by the Ministry of Finance of the Government of India.

Banker, Agent & Adviser to the Government: The central bank acts as the banker, agent and adviser to Government of India. As banker to the government, central bank provides all those services and facilities to the government which public gets from the commercial banks. In India, RBI maintains and operates government deposits, advises the government on all financial matters etc. As agent, it manages government funds, raises loans from the public on behalf of the government, looks after the management of public debt etc.

Banker's Bank: Central bank is the bank of banks. It is the custodian of cash reserves of commercial banks. It gives them advice on financial and economic matters and regulate banking activities such relating to licensing of banks and their branch expansion; management and methods of working of the banks; amalgamation, acquisition of banks etc.

Samir K Mahajan

Lender of Last Resort: Central bank provides security to their cash reserves, gives them loan and accommodation at the times of emergency and thus act as the lender of the last resort. The Reserve Bank provide financial assistance to the scheduled banks by rediscounting their eligible bill, and through loans and advances against approved securities.

Credit Control: The central bank of the country regulates bank credit and thus money supply in economy in order to ensure internal price stability and promote economic growth and thus, avoids inflationary and deflationary tendencies in the country. The monetary authority use of various quantitative (such as bank rate, open market operation, cash reserve ratio, repo and reverse repo) and qualitative techniques (such as margin requirements, moral suasion, appeal etc) to effectively control and regulate credit in the country.

Custodian of Country’s Reserves of Foreign Currencies: Central bank is the custodian of the foreign currency obtained from various countries. It maintains and stabilizes the external value of the domestic currency , and thus administers exchange controls and other restrictions imposed by the government, and manages the foreign exchange reserves

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BANK contd.

Samir K Mahajan

Clearing House Function All the commercial banks have their accounts with the central bank. Therefore, central bank settles the mutual transactions of banks and thus saves all banks contacting each other individually for setting their individual transactions, and claims. In this way; the unnecessary cash transactions between individual banks are avoided.

Other FunctionsBesides the traditional central banking functions, Central Bank (RBI)also performs a variety of promotional and developmental functions. It collects and publishes statistical information relating to banking, finance, credit, currency, agricultural and industrial

production, etc. It also publishes the results of various studies and review of economic situation of the country in its monthly bulletins

and periodicals.

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BANK contd.

Samir K Mahajan

METHODS OF CREDIT CONTROL BY CENTRAL BANK WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MONETARY POLICY OF RBI

Credit control policy or monetary policy may be defined as that branch of economic policy of public authority which is concerned with the regulation of the supply, the costs and the directions of credit. The monetary and credit policies in India is prepared and effectuated by the Reserve Bank of India. The major objectives RBI monetary policy are:

o Economic growth with price stability o Equitable distribution of credit in different sectors and in different sections of the societyo Stability of external value of its currency

Central bank of a country can control credit by following two methods such as quantitative credit control and qualititative credit control.

Quantitative /General Credit Controls: Quantitative controls are used to expand or contract the total quantity (overall size) of credit in an economy. These are, thus, used to regulate and adjust the total quantity of derivative deposits created by the com mercial banks in general.

o Bank Rate (or Discount Rate) Policy : The bank rate is the rate at which the central bank lends funds to commercial banks a lender of last resort against approved securities or eligible bills of exchange. During inflationary tendencies, the central bank may increase bank rate and consequently, lending rates by bank on loans and advances also move up, borrowing from banks becomes expensive and is discouraged and, as a result, monetary expansion decreases. During deflationary tendencies, bank rate may be decreased.

Samir K Mahajan

o Open Market Operation: Open market operation refers to buying and selling of approved securities by the Central Bank with a view to influencing money supply in the economy. During inflationary tendencies, the central bank sells securities to the public and banks. As a result, a portion of purchasing power of the public and commercial banks' cash flows goes to the central bank. With reduction in deposits, lending power of banks decreases which leads to reduction in credit expansion. The central bank purchase securities during falling prices (i.e. deflationary).

o Cash Reserve Ratio: The proportion of primary deposits which the banks are legally required to keep with the central bank is termed legal cash reserve ratio (CRR) . If the cash reserve ratio is raised, the lending power of commercial banks will contract accordingly. This will cause fall in money expansion in the economy and is followed during rising prices or inflationary tendencies. A decrease in ratio has an opposite effect and may be followed during deflationary tendencies.

o Statutory Liquidity Ratio: Statutory liquidity Ratio (SLR) refers to the amount of assets which banks are legally required to hold in the forms of cash in hand, government and approved securities. The increase in SLR causes a fall rate of credit expansion and decrease in SLR causes a rise in the rate of credit expansion.

CREDIT CONTROL BY CENTRAL BANK contd.

Samir K Mahajan

CREDIT CONTROL BY CENTRAL BANK contd.

o Repo and Reverse Repo by RBI : 'Repo' transactions are conducted by RBI in money market to manipulate short-term interest rate, and to manage liquidity levels/short term capital.

When RBI conduct a Repo, commercial banks sell approved securities to RBI with a repurchase or buy back option on a specified time and price. Thus, with Repo, RBI lends money to the banks and thus, inject extra liquidity into the money market. Repo rate is the discount rate at which commercial banks sells government securities to RBI with a buy back option.

When RBI conduct a Reverse Repo, Commercial Banks buys approved securities from RBI with a to resale agreement at future date and specified price. Thus, with revers Repo, RBI borrows money from commercial banks and thus, absorb excess liquidity from the money market. Reverse Repo rate is the discount rate at which commercial banks purchases government securities with a resale option.

Samir K Mahajan

Qualitative /Selective Credit Controls The qualitative measures do not regulate the total amount of credit created by the commercial banks but certain particular credit or loans which creates economic instability. Therefore, qualitative measures are known as the selective measures of credit control.

o Fixation of Margin Requirements: Margin Requirements is the difference between the value of the securities and the loan. When the Central Bank prescribes higher margin the borrowers can obtain less amount of credit on his stock and vice-versa.

o Rationing of Credit: Under the rationing of credit, the Central Bank fixes a maximum limit for loans that a commercial bank can provide to different sectors of the economy.

o Directives : The Central Bank issues directives from time to time to follow its credit policy and the commercial banks abide. The directives may be in the form of written orders, warnings or appeals, etc.

o Moral Suasion: Under this method, the Central Bank merely uses its moral influence on the commercial banks. It includes the advice, suggestion request and persuasion with the commercial banks to co-operate with the Central Bank. If the commercial banks do not follow the advice extended by the Central Bank, no penal action is taken against them.

CREDIT CONTROL BY CENTRAL BANK contd.

Samir K Mahajan

o Publicity: Under this method, the Central Bank gives wide publicity to its credit policy through its bulletins. By this, the Central Bank educates the general public regarding the monetary policy and its objectives. The commercial banks are guided as well.

o Direct Action: The Central Bank uses direct action act against the banks which does not comply with its instructions. No commercial bank can afford to go against the wishes of the central bank with regard to policy matters, as the central bank has wide powers even to stop banks' operations.

CREDIT CONTROL BY CENTRAL BANK contd.

Samir K Mahajan

CLASSIFICATION OF MONEY BY RESERVE BANK OF INDIA

M1 ( Narrow Money/High Powered Money) = Currency ( coins and notes) with public + Demand deposits (Current Deposits and Demand Liabilities Portion of Savings Deposits ) with the Banking system + Other deposits with RBI

M2 = M1 + Time Liabilities Portion of Savings Deposits with the Banking System + Certificate of Deposit (CDs) issued by Banks + Term Deposits of residents with a contractual maturity of up to and including one year with the Banking System (excluding CDs)

M3 (Broad Money)= M2 + Term Deposits of residents with a contractual maturity of over one year with the Banking System + Call/Term borrowings from 'Non-depository Financial Corporations by the Banking System

M4 = M3 + All deposits with post office savings banks (abolished)

Samir K Mahajan

RBI

As on Aug. 29, 2014 Ratios and Rate (in percent)

Cash Reserve Ratio 4.00Statutory Liquidity Ratio 22.00

Repo Rate 8.00

Reverse Repo Rate 7.00

Bank Rate 9.00

Samir K Mahajan