module tsl 3103 elt methodology for pismp tesl semester 2

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING – KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

1.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:

define the nature of language

describe the language learning process in early childhood

list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning

differentiate between language acquisition and language learning

1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

1

Language Acquisition

and Learning – Key Concepts

and Issues

Nature of Language

Language Learner Acquisition

versus Learning

Language Learning Process


CONTENT

SESSION ONE (3 Hours)

1.2 Language Acquisition and Learning – Key Concepts and Issues

It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and

an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of

what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your

philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your

approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the

nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach

your learners to learn a second language more effectively.

1.2.1 Nature of Language

Exercise 1: What is your definition of language?

Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.

Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.

Compare differences and similarities.

What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language.Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds

similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a

system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in

expressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many

forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using

expressions through body language.

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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings

by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having

understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English

Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most

common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a

way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.

There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.

Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current

approaches to language learning. They are:

The structural view of language

The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally

related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are

usually described as:

phonological units (phonemes)

grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)

grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming

elements)

lexical items (function words and structure words)

The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of

elements of this system.

The communicative view of language

The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle

for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and

communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the

grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target

of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and

categories of meaning.

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http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/prepareforlanguagelearning/TheStructuralViewOfLanguage.htm


The interactional view of language

The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means

for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for

performing social transactions between individuals. The target of

language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and

maintain conversations with other people.

Tutorial Task:

Language can be likened to an ocean. Like the ocean, language is never still. It

has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their

goods. Can you suggest another metaphor to describe language?

What is your image of language?

Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.

Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you

see.

Share your image with a friend.

Note features of your images which you have in common.

Note significant differences between your images.

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

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1.2.2 Language Learning ProcessChildren go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the

earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce

complex, multi-word sentences.

Babbling first stage of language development

known as the pre-linguistic, babbling or cooing stage

period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months

babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa

by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant

sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.

Single Words second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language

development

around the age of 10 to 13 months

children will begin to produce their first real words

only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important

to realize that they are able to understand considerably more

infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able

to produce it

Two Words third stage begins around the age of 18 months

children begin to use two word sentences

sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs

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E.g. “Where daddy?”

"Puppy big!"

Multi-word Sentences around the age of two

children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject

and predicate

E.g. a child might say "Mommy is nice"

or "Want more candy“

As children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time

they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of

10,000 words or more.

Developmental Sequences Developmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in children’s

cognitive understandings

Examples

Grammatical Morphemes

Negations

Questions

Grammatical Morphemes Roger Brown’s longitudinal study (1973)

Present progressive –ing

Plurals –s

Irregular past forms

possessive ’s

Copula

Articles the and a

Regular past –ed

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Third person singular simple present –s

Auxiliary be

Acquisition of Grammatical morphemese.g., “wug test” –

i. Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two ______.

ii. John knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing.

Yesterday, he_______.

Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the

formation of plural and simple past in English.

By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before,

they show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs

such as ‘book/books’ and ‘nod/nodded’.

Acquisition of Negation

Lois Bloom’s study (1991) – four stages

Stage 1: ‘no’ – e.g., “No go”. “No cookie.”

Stage 2: subject + no – e.g., “Daddy no comb hair.”

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Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not

(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses)

e.g., “I can’t do it “, “He don’t want it.”

Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesn’t/is/are) + not

e.g., He didn’t go. She doesn’t want it.

But sometimes double negatives are used

e.g., I don’t have no more candies.

Acquisition of Questions

By the age of 4:

Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real

events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order

and grammatical markers most of the time.

They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages

spoken to them in these early years.

They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures

such as passives and relative clauses.

They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social

environment.

The six stages of children’s question-making can be illustrated as follows:

Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with

rising intonation

(“Mommy book?” “Where’s Daddy?”)

Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (“You like this?”

“Why you catch it?”)

Stage 3: “fronting” - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence

(“Is the teddy is tired?” “Do I can have a cookie?”)

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Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions but not in wh-

questions

(“Do you like ice cream?” “Where I can draw?”)

Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative

wh-questions

(“Why can he go out?” “Why he can’t go out?”)

Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions

(“I don’t know why can’t he go out.”)

Then, share your thoughts with a friend.

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Reflect on your own language learning experience

First 3 years

Pre-school years

School years



1.2.3 Language Learner

A lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner.

Here is a brief summary of the latest theories:

The good language learner thinks about how she is learning. She tries to

find out what works for her and what doesn't. If she doesn't understand the

purpose of a particular exercise, she asks the teacher.

The good language learner is willing to experiment and take risks. For

example, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she

finds the way that suits her best. She is also not afraid of making

mistakes, because she knows that these will help her.

The good language learner is realistic. She knows that it will take time

and effort to become proficient in English, and that there will periods

where she does not seem to be making much progress.

The good language learner is independent. She does not expect to learn

English just by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to

totally direct her learning.

The good language learner is organized and active. She uses her time

to learn English sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities to

develop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.

The good language learner has a balanced concern for communication

and accuracy. Some students are experts at communicating their thoughts

but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good

language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both

communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.

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Although these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient

language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a

child will learn English.

Source: © Copyright Paul Shoebottom (1996-2011) The Good Language Learner. Retrieved 8 December 2011, from http://esl.fis.eduFactors affecting language learning

There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could

stem from the learner’s own mind (internal factors) or from the environment he

lives in (external factors).

Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or

her to the particular learning situation, for example, age of the learner,

personality, motivation, experiences, cognition abilities and his native language.

External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning

situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and

the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the

classroom.

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http://esl.fis.edu/

http://esl.fis.edu/info/infofiles/master.htm


Exercise 2

The following are some factors that are known to affect second language

acquisition and learning. Determine whether each factor is related mainly to the

student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Use the

following code:

S = factors primarily in the student

F = factors primarily in the family

E = factors primarily in the environment of the second culture

1. Age _______

2. Socioeconomic status _______

3. Classroom culture _______

4. Cognitive development in L1 _______

5. Family support _______

6. Whether environment provides adequate L2 input _______

7. Literacy level _______

9. Opportunities for language use in school _______

11. Motivation _______

15. Proficiency in the home language _______

17. Role models in the community _______

19. Personality _______

20. Whether student has enough opportunities to use English _______

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24. Teacher’s expectations _______

25. Preferred learning styles _______

Adapted from Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed. Good Apple. ISBN 1-56417-903-6.

Now check your answers below.

Answers:

1S, 2F, 3E, 4S, 5S, 6E, 7F, 8E, 9S, 10S, 11E, 12S, 13E, 14E, 15S

Tutorial Task:

In your experience, as an English learner:

i. Are there personal characteristics that make you more successful than

another learner?

ii. Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with

success in L2 acquisition?

Iii, Share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important

and three least important learner characteristics.

Individual DifferencesResearch findings reveal that every person has a learning style; therefore, there

is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all

learners. Learning styles are also value-neutral; that is, no one style is better

than others. Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often

described as opposites. Learners should therefore be encouraged to “stretch”

their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning

situations.

Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner’s L2 learning. The

opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom),

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the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude ,

personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important

determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.

1.2.4 Acquisition versus LearningIt is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes.

According to linguists there is an important distinction between language

acquisition and language learning.

Language AcquisitionAcquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning.

Experts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire

language. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Children do

not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to just

‘pick up’ language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.

Language acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their

first language. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother

tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds

them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take

place. rather seem to just ‘pick up’ language in the same way they learn to roll

over, crawl and walk.

Language LearningAs opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through

explicit instruction and education. Language learning is the process whereby

humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older

children and adults need explicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is

the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning,

students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that

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knowledge. However, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not

necessarily result in good speaking or writing.

We should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and

language learning. While all children before the critical period can innately

acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical

period must learn second languages through explicit education and instruction.

L1 and L2 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these

processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors

involved. While L1 and L2 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show

differences. Similarities in First and Second Language Acquisition theories are of

great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utilized to improve

language teaching and learning methods.

Nature vs NurtureMuch debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature (what is

innate) and nurture (environmental factors) in the acquisition of language. Is

language acquisition and development innate or taught? The debate about

nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from

both sides.

The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.

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Tutorial Task: Comparing First and Second Language Acquisition

Activity 1:There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It

is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby

acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for

learning. Language teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how

languages are acquired.

How is learning a second language like learning a first?

How is it different?

How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences?

Write a paper (4-6 pages) citing at least four research articles to support

text reading.

Activity 2:

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NatureInformalParents & SocietyExperiences

EnvironmentExposureAcquisition

NurtureFormalTeachersSyllabus

ClassroomSystematicLearning


As teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students ‘acquire’ rather than

‘learn’ the language. Discuss.

TOPIC 2 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

2.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 2 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the

instruction of a teacher’s classroom practice. More specifically, it examines in detail the key

principles of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanistic orientations

to language learning.


By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:

define terms relevant to some theories of language learning

explain the main principles of each language learning theory

distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and

humanist principles in the classroom

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CONTENT

SESSION ONE (3 Hours)

2.2 Theories of Language Learning

The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. Generally, we

have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although

a great deal of research has been done into this subject. Various theories have

emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four

main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the

course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social

constructivism and humanism.

2.2.1 Behaviourism

The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the

philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. The founders and

proponents include John B. Watson in the early 20th century, Ivan Pavlov,

B.F.Skinner, E.L. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior

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can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating

and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to

learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish.

General perception is that there is no difference between the way one

learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. According to

the psychologist Skinner, language is a ‘conditioned behaviour’: the stimulus

response process (Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement). The popular

view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the

process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and

negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and

negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior

will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood

that the antecedent behavior will happen again.

Learners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by

step, i.e. Imitation - Repetition - Memorization - Controlled drilling -

Reinforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around

them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other

reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The

main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills

and exercises. Learning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes

place and that, as long as individuals are subjected on the same condition,

they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is not

concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct

response is given. Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of

new behaviour.

The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in

teaching and learning in the classroom:

Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.

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Provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult

concepts

Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts

Break down complex task into smaller and manageable subskills

Sequence material from simple to more difficult to enhance

understanding

Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations

when necessary

Reinforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour

State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and

students

Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what

rewards will be given

Critics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in

the classroom. Some teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will

cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Using a reward

system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect

on other students in the classroom. Also, another problem with this view of

learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life

situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have

never previously seen. A finite number of pre-practiced sentences are not

enough to carry on a conversation.

Exercise 1

Which of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely

practised in the classrooms? Give specific examples.

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2.2.2 Cognitivism

In the 1950’s there was a realization that behaviourism did not fully explain

human learning. Although behaviourism emphasized learning that was

observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds

of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. Cognitivists felt that it was

necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even

though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively.

The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which

draw heavily on the work in linguistics of Noam Chomsky. It replaced

behaviourism in 1960’s as a dominant paradigm. Cognitive theories of learning,

based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi-faceted, complex

and dynamic process. Cognitivism focus on the mind or ‘black box’ and attempt

to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled.

According to the cognitivists, people are not ‘programmed animals’ that

merely respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require

active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of

thinking. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is

occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as

computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain

outcomes.

Cognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to

previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in

the learners’ schemata. Learning is most likely to occur when an individual can

associate new learning with previous knowledge. Unlike in behaviourism,

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learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. Rather, they are

actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own

learning. Errors are also accepted as part of the learning process.

In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the

learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. It believes that

teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student

already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the

learner’s mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective

instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching

students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves.

The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in


Present information in an organized manner

- Show a logical sequence to concepts

- Go from simple to complex when presenting new material

Bring to mind relevant prior learning

Provide for review and repetition of learning

Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g.

inquiry-oriented projects

Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can

become independent learners (Staged scaffolding)

Like Behaviourism, Cognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has

been criticized for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little

emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners.

The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:

Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist

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Focus Bahaviourist Cognitivist

View about the

mind

A blank slate.

Basically alike’

An active organizer.

Varied, with multiple

intelligences and learning

styles.

S-T Roles

Teacher plans and sets

goals for learning.

One ‘best’ way of

teaching.

Students participate in

planning and goal-setting.

Teacher teaches with variety.

Motivation Reward is motivation. Learning is a motivator.

Curriculum Content

Students are taught ‘what’. Students are taught ‘what’

and ‘how’

Assessment

Teacher assess.

Product is important.

Students are involved in peer

and self-assessment.

Product and process are

important

Source: Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners, (2nd

edn.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Exercise 2

Which of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being

practiced in the classrooms? Give specific examples.

CONTENT

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SESSION TWO (3 Hours)

2.2.3 Social ConstructivismJust as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the predominant

Behavioural Psychology in the 1970’s, Constructivist Learning Psychology has

been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990’s. A reaction to didactic

approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized

process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Constructivism is a

perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Piaget and

Vygoysky. It is Vygotsky’s social development which is one of the foundations

for constructivism.

Constructivists emphasize that learning is a social activity. They believe

that often it is social experiences rather than what is taught in schools which

accounts for much of the variation in student learning. Cooperative, collaborative

and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and

values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of

learning resides with the learner. Learners interpret what they hear, read and

see based on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do

not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately ‘hear’

or ‘see’ what is before them. Unlike previous educational viewpoints where the

responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a

passive role, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner

being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role

as facilitator. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in

serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to

new situations.

What does this mean for classroom learning? As active learners exploring

and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with

authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work together with

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one another. Authentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see

a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions

through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners

assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation

more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.

The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in


Encourage student autonomy and initiative

- Students take responsibility for their own learning

- Respect students’ ideas and encourage independent thinking

Promote higher order thinking amongst students

- Ask questions that will influence student response

- Challenge students to analyze, justify and defend their ideas

Engage students in meaningful learning

- Provide students opportunity to express their ideas

- Involve students in real-world situations

The main critique of Social Constructivism is that it is often seen as

being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.

Exercise 3

Discuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the

classroom. Describe with specific examples.

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2.2.4 Humanism

Humanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the

1960’s and 1970’s. Humanism has its roots in counseling psychology and

focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and

interpersonal skills. Perhaps the most well-known applications of humanism in

ELT are those of Gattegno (1972) and Curran (1976).

Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is

as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe

behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather

from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity.

Humanists, led by such famous authors as Abraham Maslow and Carl

Rogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self-actualization, the growth of

a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable

of achieving. Learning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards

self-development. A student learns because he or she is inwardly driven (self-

motivation), and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that

having learned something affords. Hence, much of a humanist teacher’s effort

would be put into developing a student’s self-esteem. This form of education,

known as student-centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and

owning their learning.

The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge.

He or she creates an educational environment that fosters self-development,

cooperation, positive communications, and personalization of information. In

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particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how

students learn and what motivates them to learn. Participatory and discovery

methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. As well as the

student’s academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the

student’s affective or emotional needs. Feeling and thinking are very much

interlinked. Humanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates

learning.

The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic

principles:

Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening environment

for the students to work in.

Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits

and attitudes that teachers want to foster.

Teachers should be role models and set good examples for students to

emulate.

Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with

responsibilities) to plan and carry out activities.

Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students.

Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and

experimenting.

Respect student’s feelings and aspirations.

Provide opportunity for success.

De-emphasize rigorous, performance-oriented, test-dominated

approaches.

Students are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace

Experiential learning is encouraged.

Exercise 4

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To what extent do you think schools give attention to the affective (emotions,

feelings) aspects of learning? Discuss by citing specific examples.

Summary.

What conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of

learning? Instructional learning theories are centred on the major schools of

educational psychology. From these so-called schools have evolved modern

thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the

classroom ultimately affects that learning. Each has its own merits and each has

shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.

Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,

Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to

classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our

classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many

different theories we have learnt.

Tutorial Task

Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoretical

perspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state

your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.

28


TOPIC 3 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I) KRASHEN’S MONITOR MODEL

3.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory

called Krashen’s Monitor Model. There are five components or hypotheses

which form the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter

Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural

Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for

teaching.


By the end of this session, you will be able to:

1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashen’s Monitor Model

2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model

3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model

4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.

29



CONTENT

SESSION THREE (6 Hours)

3.2 Krashen’s Monitor Model

Second language acquisition theory seeks to explain how and by what

processes individuals acquire a second language. A predominant theory of

second language acquisition was developed by Steven Krashen from the

University of Southern California. Krashen is a specialist in language acquisition

and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language

learning community.

The following are some quotes from Krashen (1982) about language

acquisition.

"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious

grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."

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"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -

natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the

form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and

understanding."

“The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input'

in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to

hear. These methods do not force early production in the second

language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready',

recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and

comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."

"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are

willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."

Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls

hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the

components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The

five components are as follows:

1. The Input Hypothesis

2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis

4. The Monitor Hypothesis

5. The Natural Order Hypothesis

3.2.1 Input Hypothesis

Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most

useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be just a little

31


beyond the learner's present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not

pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.

The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she

receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of

linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage 'i', acquisition takes place when

he/she is exposed to 'comprehensible input' that belongs to level 'i + 1‘. Here “i”

refers to the current language level the learners are at. “i + 1” means a level

higher than the level the students are at or the next level along the natural order.

Natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring

that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her

current stage of linguistic competence.

Karshen suggests that teachers should give rough-tuned input and a wide variety of materials, supported by visual cues and realia which gives it a context within which the learner may guess at the content. As such,

language teachers must make input comprehensible by contextualizing it.

Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:

Effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child/ people speak

to children acquiring their first language in special ways.

Adults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid

comprehension. Adults roughly-tune to child’s level of linguistic

competence. These include use of baby-talk and short simple sentences.

Teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student.

Teachers simplify their language to make L2 learners understand or go

down to L2 learners’ comprehension.

Foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language

learner or acquirer

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Some of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower

pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress

on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.

L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period.

A learner is silent to build up competencies in 2nd language via listening.

Speaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the

language.

Krashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older

learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible

input the greater the L2 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays

language acquisition. As such teaching methods work according to the extent

that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is

successful because it provides comprehensible input. As for bilingual

programmes, they succeed to the extent teachers provide comprehensible input

3.2.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis

This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that

impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and

anxiety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high

level of anxiety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from

acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,

confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have more success

acquiring a second language.

Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has

about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These

feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Hence, the teacher's

job is to make language learning free of stress and enjoyable.

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3.2.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Krashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are

independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.

The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language

acquisition. When people learn their first language by speaking the language

naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Here

speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the

structure of their utterances.

On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where

students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.

One example of the learned system is the studying the rules of syntax.

The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Figure 1

below:

Acquisition Learning

implicit, subconscious explicit, conscious

informal situations formal situations

uses grammatical 'feel' uses grammatical rules

depends on attitude depends on aptitude

stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of

learning

Fig. 1: Differences between acquisition and learning

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3.2.4 Monitor Hypothesis

The monitor hypothesis seeks to explain how the learned system affects

the acquired system. According to Krashen, the formal rule system acts as the

Monitor in the acquired system. When second language learners monitor their

speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and

initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have

ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.

The Monitor is best used when:

we have to be very careful

when language is necessarily formal

e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a

formal situation.

There are three conditions required by the Monitor:

Time

The learner must have time to use the monitor. Using the monitor

requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language.

Focus on correctness of form

The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. A

learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.

Knowledge of rules

The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have

had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to

produce.

There three types of monitor users – over-users, under-users and optimal-

users. Monitor over-users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned

with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor under-

users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious

35


knowledge of the language. Error correction by others has little influence on

them, as they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness.

Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the

monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.

They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,

but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can

therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired

competence

Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of

the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than

on the form of our utterances.

3.2.5 Natural Order Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second

language learners acquire their target language. Krashen states that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language and this order is roughly

the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.

Research shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the

learner's native language, the target language, and the conditions under which

the second language is being learned.

Mistakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.

These mistakes are not random, but are very similar to the errors that children make when learning their first language. The mistakes that students

make through time lie in a rough sequence.

36


In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same

as the sequence of learned grammar items. Some grammatical morphemes

which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late - the

's' of PTS. Chinese learning English make the same mistakes, and will learn in

more or less the same order as the French. According to Krashen, this indicates

that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language. In addition, these mistakes will be made in the same order whether the learners have been taught the grammar or not, and that teaching grammar will not help them change the order.

The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the

diagram below.

Combined model of acquisition and production

3.2.6 Implications for Teaching

Krashen’s Monitor Model has its implications for ESL/EFL teaching. Input

hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at “i + 1” level. To enable learners

to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to expose them to large

amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in

terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students’ interests and

37


purposes for learning the language. A wide variety of input, supported by visual cues and realia should be contextualized in a way that the learner can

understand a large amount of spoken or written language.

According to Krashen comprehension precedes production. As such, L2

learners often go through an initial Silent Period. Teachers should provide time

for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language

before they begin to produce it.

In line with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, language acquisition should be

done in relaxing and friendly conditions. Affective-humanistic activities such as

dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.

Tutorial Task

How does the Krashen’s Monitor Model help a teacher better to understand how

his/her second language students learn?

Design materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to

Krashen’s Monitor Model

Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.

38


TOPIC 4 OVERVIEW: APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES – ELT METHODS

4.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 4 introduces you to the


By the end of this Session, you will be able to:


39

Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods

ELT Methods

Grammar-Translation Method

Direct Method

Audio-Lingual Method

Silent Way

Suggestopedia

Community Language Learning

Total Physical Response


CONTENT

SESSION FOUR (6 Hours)

4.2 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques – ELT Methods

4.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method

4.2.2 Direct Method

4.2.3 Audio-Lingual Method

4.2.4 Silent Way

4.2.5 Suggestopedia

4.2.6 Community Language Learning

4.2.7 Total Physical Response

Tutorial Task

40


TOPIC 5 ELT METHOD: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

5.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 5 introduces you to the




CONTENT

SESSION FIVE (3 Hours)

5.2 ELT Method

5.2.1 Communicative Approach

41

ELT Method

Communicative Approach


TOPIC 6 ELT METHODS: LEXICAL AND ECLECTIC APPROACHES

6.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 6 introduces you to



1. understand how figurative language is used in communication

2. use figurative and phrasal verbs in spoken and written language


SESSION SIX (3 Hours)

6.2.1 Lexical Approach

6.2.2 Eclectic Approach

Check your answers with your tutor!

42

ELT Methods

Lexical Approach Eclectic Approach


TOPIC 7 SYLLABUS DESIGN – MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENGLISH CURRICULUM

7.0 SYNOPSIS





CONTENT

SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)

7.2. Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum

7.2.1 Principles

7.2.2 Techniques

7.2.3 Strengths/Limitation

43

Syllabus Design

Principles

Role of teacher, learners, and resources

Scheme of work – weekly, semesterTechniques

Strengths/Limitation


7.2.4 Role of Teacher, Learners, and Resources

7.2.5 Scheme of Work – Weekly, Semester

Tutorial Task

44


TOPIC 8 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (II)

8.0 SYNOPSIS





CONTENT

SESSION EIGHT (6 Hours)

Universal Grammar Why a Universal Grammar What does a Universal Grammar consist of? Universal Grammar and first language acquisition Universal Grammar and second language acquisition

TOPIC 9 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE 45


CLASSROOM

9.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 9 introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to

audiolingualism. It also introduces the PPP procedure in language learning.



1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to

audiolingualism

2. explain the different stages in the PPP procedure

3. devise a teaching plan using the PPP procedure


CONTENT

46


SESSION NINE (3 Hours)

9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning

The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it

were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the PPP Approach

or procedure in the Communicative Language Teaching Method.

Exercise 1: 1. What is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is

based on?

2. State the principles of audiolingualism.

3. Name three techniques used in audiolingualism.

4. What are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism?

You would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audio-

lingual method in Topic 4. What we will discuss here briefly are the issues

related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of PPP Approach.

Audiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist Learning Theory relied

heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. Emphasis on accuracy of

the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive

reinforcement. However much of the audio-lingual method of language learning

remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real-life

context. Hence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational context.

This lead to introduction of the PPP Approach.

9.2.2 The PPP Approach

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The "Three Ps" procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. PPP

stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structural-

situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational

contexts. It is very important to understand what "Presentation", "Practice" and "Production" really are, and to see how they work in together to create

effective communicative language learning.

Presentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with

production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner

becomes a "user" of the language in contrast to a "student" of the language.

Practice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage

through to the final one.

This is how it works. At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces

a situation which contextualizes the new language to be taught. Then the

language or linguistic "model" is presented. With this "model" in mind, the

students practise the new language through a variety of "controlled" activities

such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills. After

sufficient practice, the students move into "productive" activity, where a situation

calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. For

example the students can construct their own sentences. In general, for

communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to

occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the next.

PRESENTATION

This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning

process. Presentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and

logical use of the new language. When the students recognize and understand

the "situation", they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the

48


meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to

them. When the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual

meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a

linguistic "model". It is this linguistic model or language presented that the

students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity

without help.

It is important for the teacher to build on whatever English the students

have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and

getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. At

primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of

presenting new language. Dialogues and text can also be used when the

students have progressed.

There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic

‘models’ can be presented. What is important is that these presentations should

have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic

examples; have logical connection; contextualized; clear models; sufficient

meaningful repetition; are brief and can be recycled

PRACTICE:

The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative

language teaching. Sometimes this stage is “over-done" or used ineffectively.

This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used

as a natural progression or step towards production.

The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being

learned as well as the level and competence of the students. Practice is done to

ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students

to be familiar with the language. Hence an effective practice stage is one where

repetition leads to competence and accuracy.

49


Practice activities need to be clear and understandable and should

promote a degree of confidence in the students. A well planned practice activity

will generate the students' motivation. Practice activities should be challenging,

but within the reach of the students.

Practice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual

drills to pair work such as chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work.

It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production.

PRODUCTION:

The production stage is the most important stage of communicative

language teaching. A good indicator of a successful production is when students

move from being "students" or learners of the language to "users" of the

language.

The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the

students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage

independently. The situation should allow the students produce more

personalized language. A successful production stage depends on an effective

practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the

students’ confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to

independently "use" it in the production stage.

One of the most important things you have to remember is that production

activities should not "tell" the students what to say. In the practice stage, the

students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage

they do not have the information and therefore must think. As such it would be

good if ‘real life" situations are given in the production stage. Getting students

engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive

ability. Hence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned

activities.

50


Some good examples of effective production activities include situational

role-plays, debates, discussions, problem-solving, narratives, descriptions,

quizzes and games.

The following demonstrates the use of the PPP procedure:

PRESENTATION:

The teacher shows the students the following picture and elicits some facts about

it.

The teacher points to the man carrying the Malaysian flag to elicit the sentence

“He is carrying the Malaysian flag” by asking “What’s the man doing?”

The teacher then models the sentence “The man is carrying the Malaysian flag”.

This is repeated with the other people in the picture.

PRACTICE:

The teacher gets the students to repeat the sentences in chorus.

The teacher picks individual students to repeat the sentences.

The teacher gives a cue (woman in yellow) and gets the students to respond.

PRODUCTION:

The teacher asks students to construct their own sentences e.g. think about what

their family members are doing at the moment.

51


Tutorial Task

Devise a teaching plan to show your understanding of the PPP procedure.


TOPIC 10 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE

52


CLASSROOM

10.0 SYNOPSIS

Topic 10 provides you with input on alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and

Production. It also deals with the teaching implications of these alternatives in

the primary ELT classroom.



1. name the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production

2. explain the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production

3. explain the teaching implications of the alternatives in the primary ELT

classroom


CONTENT

53


SESSION TEN (3 Hours)

10.2.1 Alternatives to Presentation, Practice and Production

The PPP Approach or procedure in the Communicative Language

Teaching Method which was introduced in the mid 1960’s came under criticism in

the 1990’s.

Exercise 1: 1. Do you use the PPP procedure in your classroom? Why?

2. What are the strengths of the PPP procedure?

3. What are the shortcomings of the PPP procedure?

One of the main criticisms of the PPP procedure is that it is teacher-

centred. This is in contrast with the humanistic and learner-centred approach that

was prevalent in the 1990’s. The fact is that the PPP procedure assumes

learners learn ‘in straight lines’, that is, starting from no knowledge, through very

structured sentence-based patterns straight to instantaneous production was not

favourable to many. According to Woodward (1993) language cannot be broken

down into small bits and pieces to learn as it is full of ‘interlocking variables and

systems’. Lewis (1993) was not in favour of the PPP approach as he felt that it

did not reflect neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. It could

also be a waste of time and demotivating especially if you might be teaching

what the students already know.

One of the first people to suggest an alternative to the PPP procedure was

Keith Johnson in 1982. His suggestion called the ‘deep-end strategy’ was a

variation of the PPP procedure. He encouraged students into immediate

production, in other words throwing them in the deep end. The teacher can see if

54


and where the students have difficulties in the language in the production stage.

The teacher goes back to either the presentation or practice stage after the

production stage if deemed necessary.

Byrne (1986) had similar views as Johnson. However, he joined the three

stages of presentation, practice and production into a circle. Here teachers and

students can decide at which stage to begin the procedure. Figure 1 below

shows Byrne’s alternative approach.

.

Figure 1: Byrne’s Alternative Approach

Harmer (2007) suggested ESA: Engage, Study and Activate as an

alternative to the PPP procedure. E is for engage. Getting the students

emotionally engaged with what is going on is important to ensure effective

learning. S stands for study. Here the focus of the teaching and learning

process is on how something is constructed. The study may focus on forms of

the language such as relative clauses, specific intonation patterns, developing a

paragraph etc. The teacher can draw the attention of students to the form of the

language during a communicative task or the students themselves may notice

the form of the language. A stands for activate. At this stage students are

encouraged to use all or any of the language they know. Teachers can plan

communicative activities to activate students’ knowledge. Reading for pleasure

or interest also helps students activate their language knowledge.

55


There are three basic lesson procedures in ESA. The first is the ‘Straight

Arrows’ lesson procedure. This procedure is sequential in nature. The teacher

engages the students via the presentation of situations, pictures or other means.

The study stage involves the explanation of meanings and forms of the language

by the teacher. The teacher models the forms of the language and the students

repeat and practise them. Activation of the new language is done when students

use the language to form their own sentences.

The second basic lesson procedure is called the ‘Boomerang’ procedure.

The order here is EAS. First the teacher gets the students emotionally engaged

with the lesson. Then the teacher gets the students to do a task for example a

written task, a simulation activity or a communicative game. After the activity, the

students study some aspects of the language that were incorrectly used by them

or what they lack.

The final procedure is known as the ‘Patchwork’ lesson procedure. Here

the teacher may follow various sequences. The teacher may get the students

engaged first, followed by activating their knowledge before studying some

language forms before moving on to other activation activities. These may be

followed by re-engaging the students and ending with more study on language

forms.

56


Figures 1 to 3 depicts the different lesson procedures of ESA.

Exercise 2:1. List the alternatives to PPP procedure.

2. Explain the ESA procedure.

3. Discuss the similarities and differences between the three

lesson procedures of ESA.

10.2.2 Teaching Implications of the Alternatives in the Primary School Classroom

The various frameworks suggested as alternatives for the PPP procedure

such as Johnson’s ‘deep-end strategy’, Byrne’s alternative approach and

Harmer’s ESA imply that teachers should shift from a sequential, teacher-

centred approach to a more humanistic and leaner-centred approach. Teachers

should bear in mind that getting students emotionally engaged is vital for

effective learning. As such, teachers should minimize their criticism and

encourage their young learners to be engaged in what is going on in the

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classroom. Students should have positive feelings about what and how they are

learning.

The teacher should be well-versed in the forms of the language. There

would be teachable moments where the teacher needs to focus on the forms of

the language. This is something that the teacher must be prepared for. In other

words preparing for eventualities for the study phase.

The teacher should be creative to design communicative tasks that will

activate students’ language knowledge. Activities prepared should encourage

students to use of much knowledge of the language that they have. These

activities should develop a desire for the students to communicate.

Tutorial Task

Devise a teaching plan using any of the alternative frameworks discussed above.

What are the possible challenges you might face in carrying out the teaching

plan?


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module tsl 3103 elt methodology for pismp tesl semester 2

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