modern times - cabarrus county schools

Chap te r 19

Chapt er 20

Chap te r 21

Chap te r 22

A.D. 1804NapoleonbecomesFrenchemperor

Africancarving ofEuropeanmissionary

Modern Times

A.D. 1800 A.D. 1825 A.D. 1850 A.D. 1875A.D. 1800 A.D. 1825 A.D. 1850 A.D. 1875A.D. 1877Edisoninvents thephonograph

A.D. 1861U.S. CivilWarbegins

A.D. 1848RevolutionssweepEurope

c. A.D. 1885EuropeanpowersdivideAfrica

BuildingToday’sWorld

BuildingToday’s World

Industry andNationalism

Industry andNationalism

Imperialismand World

War I

Imperialismand World

War I

World War IIand the Cold

War

World War IIand the Cold

War

Each civilization that you will study in this unit made importantcontributions to history.

• Western countries built new societies based on industry.• Western rivalries over land and resources sparked World War I, the first

global conflict.• World War II made the United States and the Soviet Union world

leaders.• By 2000, advances in technology brought peoples of the world closer

together. Conflicts, however, developed among different groups.

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Napoleon

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Chapter19

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A.D. 1917World War Iends

A.D. 1900 A.D. 1925 A.D. 1950 A.D. 1975 A.D. 2000A.D. 1900 A.D. 1925 A.D. 1950 A.D. 1975 A.D. 2000

c. A.D. 1900Japanbecomesa powerin Asia

A.D. 1941U.S.entersWorldWar II

C. A.D. 1957Africanindependencebegins

A.D. 1979 Islamicrevolutionin Iran

A.D. 2001Terroristattackson U.S.

Houses ofParliament,London

Womanfactoryworker

Nigerianscelebrateindepend-ence

Israel’s Flag

A.D. 1949Comm-unistsrule inChina

A.D. 1933HitlerleadsGermany

A.D. 1948Israelbecomesa nation

A.D. 1989Communismends inEasternEurope

A.D. 1898UnitedStatesdeclares waron Spain World War I

poster

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1769–1821French leader

Chapter 19, page 721

2 British Parliament

See Imperialism andWorld War IChapter 20

1783–1830South American military

and political leaderChapter 19, page 750

1867–1934Polish-born

French scientistChapter 19, page 740

PacificOcean

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See Industry andNationalismChapter 19

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1869–1948Indian leader


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1898–1978Israeli prime minister


1918–presentSouth African president


1882–1945U.S. president


5 Cape Town, South Africa

See Building Today’sWorld

Chapter 22

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1870–1924Communist leader


4 Sarajevo, Bosnia

See Building Today’sWorld

Chapter 22

3 Berlin Wall

See World War II andthe Cold WarChapter 21

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1769Wattimprovessteam engine

1799Napoleoncomes topower

1848Karl Marx writesCommunistManifesto

1871Germanyis united

1750 1800 1850 19001750 1800 1850 1900

Steel plant on the Tees River inMiddlesbrough, England

Industry Nationalism

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Chapter PreviewIn the late 1700s, the French Revolution and the Industrial

Revolution brought great changes to Europe and the UnitedStates. Read this chapter to find out how the rise of factories andthe spread of nationalism changed how people lived their lives.

View the Chapter 19 video in the World History: JourneyAcross Time Video Program.

The French Revolution and NapoleonIn 1789 the French overthrew their king and tried to build arepublic. A few years later, however, Napoleon seized power andbuilt a new French empire.

The Industrial RevolutionDuring the 1800s, Europe and North America began usingmachines to produce large quantities of goods. During this time,new inventions improved life for many people.

Society and IndustryThe growth of industry led to the growth of cities and new socialgroups, as well as many new problems and new ideas.

Nationalism and Nation-StatesNationalism and liberalism led to new nations and theemergence of democracy in Europe and the Americas.

Chapter Overview Visitjat.glencoe.com for a previewof Chapter 19.

Organizing Information Make this foldable to help you organize and analyzeinformation by asking yourself questions about industry and nationalism.

Reading and WritingAs you read the chapter,write the main ideas foreach section under theappropriate tabs of yourfoldable. Then write one statement for eachtab that summarizes allof the main ideas in that tab.

711

Step 1 Fold four sheets of paperin half from top to bottom.

Step 2 On each folded paper, make acut 1 inch from the side on the top flap.

Step 3 Place the folded papers oneon top of the other. Staple the foursections together and label the topfour tabs: The French Revolutionand Napoleon, The IndustrialRevolution, Society and Industry,Nationalism and Nation-States.

Cut 1 inch fromthe edge through the

top flap only.

The FrenchRevolution andNapoleon

Staple here.

http://jat.glencoe.com

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Reading for MeaningSometimes, you can define a word but still not clearly understand

what it means. It often takes a while to learn the full meaning of aword, especially if the word describes a concept or idea. Thinkingabout a word or asking yourself questions about it may help you tounderstand a concept more clearly.

For example, in the following paragraph from page 720, it iseasy to see that the word nationalism means “the desire of a peoplefor self-rule,” but what does that definition really mean?

Ask yourself questions to increase your under-standing of the word nationalism. Here are somequestions you might ask:

• How is nationalism different from patriotism? • How do we show nationalism in the United

States? • Is there such as thing as regional nationalism

in a country, such as “southern-ism”? • What color or music comes to mind when you

think of nationalism? Why?

UnderstandingConcepts

Two forces helped to bringNapoleon’s empire to an end.One was nationalism, or thedesire of a people for self-rule.The nations of Europe rejectedNapoleon’s rule and the Frenchcustoms he forced on them.

––from page 720

Nationalism is a complexconcept madeup of manyideas.

Definitionshelp youunderstand a word, butthey do notalways fullyexplain concepts.

When you discover a

new word in your read-

ing, watch for multiple

meanings of the word in

books, movies, television,

and conversations.

Read to WriteChoose any word from Chapter 19 thatrepresents a concept,such as bourgeoisie,industrialism, socialism,or guerilla warfare. Writeabout the word forseveral minutes, notinganything that comes tomind when you read theword. Then, search theword online to expandyour interpretation ofthe word.

Ask QuestionsChoose one word that you do not understand

fully from each section of Chapter 19. For eachword, try to understand the meaning by asking thefollowing questions:

1) Who might use the word?When would he or she use it?

2) What else do you want toknow about this word?

3) How would you illustratethe word?

4) What actions go alongwith this word?

Choose a word from the chapter thatis familiar to most people. Ask fivepeople how they define the word.How did their answers help you tounderstand the word?

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What’s the Connection?Many ideas of the American

Revolution also affected Europe.In France, the people started arevolution and overthrew the king.The French Revolution then led tothe rise of Napoleon.

Focusing on the • The French Revolution began because

the people were treated unfairly andbecause their country had seriouseconomic problems. (page 715)

• French radicals used terror to enforcetheir reforms. (page 717)

• Napoleon Bonaparte used hismilitary success to take control ofthe French government. (page 719)

• Through military conquests,Napoleon built a huge, but short-lived, empire in Europe. (page 720)

Locating PlacesVersailles (VUHR•SY)Waterloo (WAW•tuhr•LOO)

Meeting PeopleKing Louis XVI (LOO•ee)Maximilien Robespierre (mak•see•

meel•ya ROHBZ•PYEHR)Napoleon Bonaparte (nuh•POH•

lee•uhn BOH•nuh•PAHRT)

Building Your Vocabularyestates

bourgeoisie (BURZH•WAH•ZEE) coup d’etat (KOO day•TAH)

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Use a diagram likethe one below to explain the causes ofthe French Revolution.

The French RevolutionCause:

Cause:

1789The Bastillefalls

1799Napoleoncomes to power

1812NapoleoninvadesRussia

1814Congressof ViennameetsParis Vienna

RomeMadrid

London Moscow

1780 1800 18201780 1800 1820

714 CHAPTER 19 Industry and Nationalism

French Revolutionand Napoleon

The

The French Revolution BeginsThe French Revolution began because

the people were treated unfairly and because theircountry had serious economic problems. Reading Focus During the French Revolution, peopletried to create a new society and government. If youcould change our society today, what changes would youmake?

Previously you learned about theAmerican Revolution. The example of theAmerican Revolution influenced many peoplein France. They, too, wanted political changebased on the ideas of freedom and equality.The French Revolution, which began in 1789,changed France and all of Europe.

What Caused the French Revolution? Inthe 1700s, France was one of Europe’s mostpowerful countries. French kings ruled itwith absolute power. Nobles had many priv-ileges and lived in great wealth. Most peo-ple, however, were poor, had littleeducation, and struggled to make a living.

The French people were divided into threeestates, or classes. The First Estate was theCatholic clergy, or church officials. They didnot pay taxes, and they received money fromchurch lands. The Second Estate was thenobles. They filled the highest posts in gov-ernment and the military. Like the clergy, thenobles were free from taxes. They lived in lux-ury at the king’s court or in their countryhouses surrounded by large areas of land.

Everyone else in France belonged to theThird Estate. At the top of this group was thebourgeoisie (BURZH • WAH • ZEE), or the middleclasses. They included merchants, bankers,doctors, lawyers, and teachers. Next werethe city workers—artisans, day laborers, andservants. At the bottom were the peasants,who made up more than 80 percent of theFrench people.

Members of the Third Estate had novoice in the government, but they paid thecountry’s taxes. As Enlightenment ideasabout freedom and equality spread, the mid-dle class came to resent more and more theprivileges of the nobles and clergy.

The French King Is Overthrown In 1788food shortages and rising prices causedgreat discontent throughout the country. Atthe same time, the French government was

First Estate: Clergy

Third Estate: Commoners

Second Estate: Nobility

Land ownership

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The Three Estates inPrerevolutionary France

The Three Estates inPrerevolutionary France

CHAPTER 19 Industry and Nationalism 715

The Third Estate made up by far the largestpart of France’s population.1. What percentage of the land in France did

the Second Estate own? What percentage of the population did they make up?

2. Infer From looking at these circle graphs,what inferences can you draw about why a revolution occurred in France?

almost bankrupt because of costly wars andincreasing expenses for the king’s court.After French banks decided they could nolonger afford to loan the governmentmoney, King Louis XVI (LOO •ee) asked thenobles and clergy to pay taxes, but theyrefused. Louis then called a meeting of thecountry’s legislative body, the Estates-General, at his palace at Versailles (VUHR •SY). It was the only way he could impose

new taxes. The Estates-General was madeup of representatives from all three estates.

In the Estates-General, the nobles andclergy refused to give up their privileges.Frustrated, the delegates of the Third Estatedecided to meet separately. They declaredthemselves to be the National Assemblyand began work on a new constitution forFrance.

The people celebrated this victory, butthey began to worry. News came that theking was gathering troops at Versailles. Thepeople of Paris got ready to fight. Early onJuly 14, 1789, a large crowd stormed a hatedroyal fortress and prison called the Bastille(ba • STEEL).

News of the Bastille’s fall spread to thecountryside, where the peasants roseagainst the nobles. To calm the people, theNational Assembly passed new laws thatended the privileges of the clergy andnobles. It also issued the Declaration of theRights of Man and the Citizen. TheDeclaration said that the powers of govern-ment came from the people, not the king.

In 1791 the National Assembly madeFrance a constitutional monarchy. Francewas to be ruled by an elected assembly, andthe king’s power was limited. Louis, how-ever, would not accept these changes. InJune 1791, he and his wife Marie Antoinettetried to flee to Austria. They did not get far.At a town east of Paris, soldiers arrested theking and queen and returned them to Paris.

Worried that Austria’s ruler would sendtroops to aid Louis, the National Assemblydeclared war on Austria in 1792. Soon after,Prussia joined Austria in fighting France.The war did not go well for France. Angryabout France’s defeats, radicals—or peoplewanting far-reaching changes—took overParis and helped set up a new governmentcalled the National Convention.

Identify Who belonged tothe three estates in France?

Declaration of theRights of Man andthe Citizen

On August 26, 1789, the French NationalAssembly approved 17 articles that statedtheir basic freedoms. Three of the articles are listed below.

2. The aim of everypolitical association is the preservation of the natural . . .rights of man. Theserights are liberty,property, security,and resistance tooppression [hardship].

9. Every man being pre-sumed innocent untilhe has been provenguilty, . . .

11. The free communica-tion of ideas andopinions is one of the most precious of therights of man; every citizen can then freelyspeak, write, and print. . . .

—Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (August 1789)

Which freedoms do Articles 2, 9, and 11protect?

Declaration ofthe Rights ofMan and theCitizen

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The Reign of Terror French radicals used terror to enforce

their reforms.Reading Focus Have you ever heard the phrase “Theend justifies the means”? In other words, if your goal isright, is it okay to do anything, even break the law orhurt people, to reach that goal? What do you think?

Many of the radicals who formed theNational Convention—France’s new govern-ment—belonged to the Jacobin club. Thiswas a large network of political groups inFrance. They were called Jacobins (JA•kuh•buhnz) because they held meetings at theJacobin monastery in Paris. Once in power,the Jacobins divided into two groups.

The Struggle for Power In the Convention,delegates argued about the revolution’sfuture. One group of the Jacobins was theGirondists ( juh • RAHN • dihsts), who camefrom the Gironde, a region in southwestFrance. The Girondists believed that therevolution had gone far enough. Theywanted to protect the interests of the mid-dle class.

Across the aisle was the group ofJacobins that favored still more changes. Itsmembers were known as the Mountain,because they sat on high benches at the rearof the hall. Leaders of this group, such asGeorges-Jacques Danton and Jean-PaulMarat, saw themselves as the voice of thepeople and defenders of the revolution.

When the Bastille was attacked on July 14, 1789, it was defended by a little more than100 soldiers, and it held only 7 prisoners. Why did the people of Paris storm the Bastille?

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Marie Antoinette is led to herexecution. Why was the guillotineadopted for executions?

This painting shows a supporter of the revolution known as a sans-cullote,which means “without breeches.” Sans-cullotes were shopkeepers, artisans, andworkers who got their name because theywore long pants, rather than the knee-length breeches of the upper class.

Model of aguillotine

The Mountain soon controlled theConvention. They used their power to get ridof the former king. In late 1792, Louis wastried and found guilty of helping France’senemies. A month later, Louis was beheadedon the guillotine—a new machine designedto quickly execute people. Louis’s executionscared other European rulers. In early 1793,Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, andSardinia joined Austria and Prussia in theirwar against France.

Who Was Robespierre? Soon after theking’s execution, the National Conventionset up the Committee of Public Safety torun the country. This new body quicklycame under the control of a lawyer namedMaximilien Robespierre (mak • see • meel •ya ROHBZ • PYEHR).

The Committee took harsh steps to end growing unrest in France. Revolutionary

courts sentenced to death by guillotine any-one believed to be disloyal to the revolution.This included Girondists, clergy, nobles, andeven women and children. In all, about40,000 people died, including Queen MarieAntoinette. This period became known as theReign of Terror.

During this time, Robespierre tried tocreate a “Republic of Virtue.” He thoughtthe revolution should inspire people to begood citizens. Under Robespierre’s lead,the Committee opened new schools, hadnew farming skills taught to the peasants,and worked to keep prices under control.Robespierre even created a new religionthat worshiped a “Supreme Being.” Thisattempt to replace France’s traditionalCatholic faith, however, did not last.

With France under threat from abroad,the Committee decided to raise a new army.All single men between the ages of 18 and 25

The French RevolutionThe French Revolution

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CHAPTER 19 Industry and Nationalism 719(r)Photo Researchers

Periods of Revolution and Empire in France, 1789–1815Periods of Revolution and Empire in France, 1789–1815

1785 1790 1795 1800 1805 1810 1815

1795The Directory1792

National ConventionJune 1789NationalAssembly

May 1789Estates-General

1791Legislative Assembly

1804Empire of Napoleon

1815Defeat ofNapoleon

1799Consulate of

Napoleon

were conscripted, or required to join up. Withthis new force of almost a million soldiers,France was able to throw back the foreigninvaders. Military victories gave revolution-ary generals great confidence. They soonbecame important in French politics.

As the fear of foreign invasions less-ened, people in France grew tired of all thekillings and wanted to end the Reign ofTerror. When Robespierre refused, govern-ment leaders had him executed. AfterRobespierre’s fall, moderate middle-classleaders created a new government led by afive-man council. This council, called theDirectory, spent its time trying to handle foodshortages, rising prices, government bank-ruptcy, and attacks by other countries. By1799, the Directory had lost much support.The French people began to look for astrong leader who could restore order.

Contrast How did theGirondists differ from the Mountain?

The Rise of Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte used his military

success to take control of the French government.Reading Focus What qualities make a great leader?As you read about Napoleon, ask yourself which of hisqualities won him the confidence of the French people.

While the Directory lost support inFrance, the French army was winning great victories in neighboring lands. Oneyoung general, battling Austrian armies inItaly, especially captured the French people’s imagination. His name wasNapoleon Bonaparte (nuh • POH • lee • uhnBOH • nuh • PAHRT).

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on theMediterranean island of Corsica in 1769. Hewent to military school and became an offi-cer. Napoleon supported the revolution. Hismilitary talent helped him rise to the rank ofgeneral by the time he was 24 years old.

1. How many years did the Directory stay in power?

2. Compare Which period lasted the longest?

This painting shows Napoleon Bonaparte (center)seizing control of the French government in1799. At what age did Napoleon become ageneral in the French army?


After his successes in Italy, Napoleonattacked the British in Egypt in 1799. Whilein Egypt, he heard of the worsening politi-cal troubles back home. He immediately returned to France. There, he took part in a coup d’etat (KOO day • TAH). This is when thetop government leaders are suddenlyreplaced by force by a new group of lead-ers. Napoleon became the most powerfulman in the country, with the title of FirstConsul. France had the strong leader manybelieved it needed.

Napoleon moved quickly to strengthenhis control. He reorganized the government,created many new schools, and appointedlocal officials. He reorganized the country’sfinances and tax system. He created a newlegal system. Known as the NapoleonicCode, it was based on Enlightenment ideas.Napoleon also made peace with the CatholicChurch, which had opposed the revolution.

Napoleon did not remain true to all ofthe ideas of the French Revolution. Peoplewere equal under the law, but freedom ofspeech and the press was limited. A newgroup of nobles, based on ability ratherthan wealth or family ties, was created.Then, in 1804, Napoleon crowned himselfemperor, and France became an empire.

Explain After becomingconsul, how did Napoleon strengthen his control?

Napoleon’s EmpireThrough military conquests, Napoleon

built a huge, but short-lived, empire in Europe.Reading Focus Many talented people use their abili-ties to rise high. Some, however, try to do too much andfall. Read to learn how Napoleon finally lost his powerand his empire.

Being emperor of France was notenough for Napoleon. He wanted to build agreat empire. Beginning in 1803, Napoleonwon a number of victories that helped himreach his goal. By 1807, Napoleon had anempire that stretched across Europe fromthe Atlantic Ocean to Russia.

Napoleon’s empire included many dif-ferent territories. Napoleon directly ruledFrance and parts of Germany and Italy. Hisrelatives, however, governed other lands,such as Spain and the Netherlands. Outsidethe empire, independent countries, such asPrussia, Austria, and Sweden, were forcedto become France’s allies.

Napoleon Fights Britain Two forceshelped to bring Napoleon’s empire to anend. One was nationalism, or the desire of apeople for self-rule. The nations of Europerejected Napoleon’s rule and the Frenchcustoms he forced on them. The other forcewas the combined might of Britain andRussia.

Only Britain and Russia remained unde-feated by Napoleon. The French emperorhoped to invade Britain. However, in 1805,the British admiral Lord Horatio Nelsondestroyed the French fleet at the Battle ofTrafalgar off Spain’s coast. After that,Napoleon tried to obtain victory in a differ-ent way. He forbade the countries in hisempire to trade with Britain. His plan,called the Continental System, was hard toenforce, and it proved unsuccessful.

The Arc de Triomphe in Paris, a monument toFrench military victories, was begun by Napoleonin 1806 and finally finished in 1836. Whatterritories were included in Napoleon’s empire?

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NAPOLEON BONAPARTE1769–1821

Even though Napoleon Bonaparte’s first battle

was a snowball fight, he took the game seriously. At

the time, Napoleon was a young cadet at the

Brienne military academy in northeastern France. A

surprise snowfall had given the boys a break from

their schoolwork. Instead of throwing random

snowballs at his classmates, Napoleon showed his

leadership skills by forming a full-scale attack. He

gave the boys on his team duties and places to

stand. They easily beat the other team because of

his warlike strategies.

Before the other cadets realized his abilities,

Napoleon was picked on by his classmates because

of his short height, unusual name, and Italian-

sounding accent. Napoleon did not care for his

fellow cadets because they were from wealthy

families and were French. Napoleon’s father was a

lawyer, but Napoleon was one of eight children

and the family was not wealthy. In fact, Napoleon

often sent money home. Napoleon resented the

French in general because they invaded his

homeland, the Mediterranean island of Corsica,

in 1768. Historians say that one year later—on the

day he was born—Napoleon’s homeland was forced

to celebrate the anniversary of the French takeover.

Napoleon’s teachers found him to be smart

and capable, especially in mathematics, but a

poor speller. He earned a scholarship to a Paris

military academy and tested well enough

to become a second lieutenant in the

army at age 16. Little did anyone

know that someday he would

become a military leader and

emperor of France.

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“I have sacrificed all ofmy interests to those ofthe country.”

—Napoleon Bonaparte, “Farewellto the Old Guard”

Napoleon Bonaparte

What skills would prepare someone to be a

good military leader today?

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Napoleon Invades Russia Napoleon nextdecided to take on Russia. He organized alarge force of about 600,000 soldiers calledthe Grand Army. In the summer of 1812, theGrand Army invaded Russia. Except forone battle, the Russians refused to fight.Instead, they drew Napoleon’s armydeeper into Russia. When Russia’s harshwinter arrived, Napoleon’s forces wereunprepared and helpless. Their retreat wasa disaster. Fewer than 100,000 men returnedalive.

France’s enemies then capturedNapoleon and exiled him to theMediterranean island of Elba. He escaped tothe French mainland in the spring of 1815.His troops flocked to their old commander.Napoleon returned to Paris in triumph. AtWaterloo (WAW • tuhr • LOO) in Belgium, aninternational force led by Britain’s Duke ofWellington finally defeated Napoleon. Thistime, Napoleon was sent to the island of St.Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean,where he died in 1821.

From 1807 to 1812, Napoleon controlled alarge part of Europe.1. Which battles shown were French defeats?2. Which countries were allied against Napoleon

in 1812? What geographic factors might haveallowed these states to remain free fromFrench control?

Find NGS online map resources @ www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

France, 1799French Empire, 1812Dependent states, 1812States allied withNapoleon, 1812States allied againstNapoleon, 1812French victoryFrench defeatNapoleon's invasionof Russia, June–December 1812

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http://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

Reading SummaryReview the • Rising prices, food shortages, and

unemployment in France led theThird Estate to rebel, creating anew elected assembly.

• French radicals known as Jacobinsgained control of the governmentand executed thousands of peo-ple who opposed their reforms.

• As political troubles in Franceworsened, Napoleon Bonapartetook control of the country.

• After creating a large empire,Napoleon was finally defeated.European leaders attempted torestore a balance of power.

1. What was the main idea of theDeclaration of the Rights ofMan and the Citizen?

2. What were the goals of theCongress of Vienna?

Critical Thinking3. Organize Information Draw

a chart like the one below. Useit to describe the divisions inFrench society.

4. Summarize What were someof the achievements of theCommittee of Public Safety?

5. Compare and ContrastCompare the goals of theFrench and AmericanRevolutions.

6. Sequence InformationWhat events led to Napoleon’sdefeat and the fall of theFrench Empire?

7. UnderstandingConcepts Make a recruitingposter for the French army,either in the revolutionaryperiod or under Napoleon. Uselanguage and illustrations thatconvey the ideals, emotions,and events of the time.

What Did You Learn?

Study CentralTM Need help with the material in this section? Visit jat.glencoe.com

The Congress of Vienna In September1814, European leaders met in the Austriancapital of Vienna. Their goal was to returnEurope to the way it was before the FrenchRevolution. The leader of the conference,known as the Congress of Vienna, wasAustria’s foreign minister Klemens vonMetternich (MEH • tuhr • nihk). Like the otherleaders, Metternich was a conservative.Conservatives at that time believed in tradi-tional values, orderly ways, and a strongrole for religion. They rejected calls for indi-vidual rights and self-rule. American con-servatives today believe in traditionalvalues, but they also support individualpolitical rights and self-rule.

At the Congress of Vienna, Metternichand the other leaders wanted to create abalance of power, or equal strength amongcountries. They hoped that a balance of

power would prevent any single nation,such as France, from controlling Europe.

The European leaders at Vienna wereagainst individual rights and nationalism.Hoping to crush revolutionary ideas, theybrought back to power the royal familieswho had ruled in Europe before Napoleon.To keep the peace, the leaders also agreed tomeet from time to time at conferences. Thesemeetings were called the Concert of Europe.

Analyze How did national-ism help defeat Napoleon?

Klemens vonMetternich


First Estate

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The Industrial Revolution

What’s the Connection?While France and other nations

were undergoing political changes,the Industrial Revolution waschanging the way people worked andlived.

Focusing on the • The Industrial Revolution began in

Great Britain because of theenclosure movement, Britain’snatural resources, and new Britishinventions. (page 725)

• The Industrial Revolution spreadbeyond Great Britain’s shores toEurope and the United States.(page 729)

Meeting PeopleJames Hargreaves (HAHR•GREEVZ)Richard Arkwright (AHRK•RYT)Edmund Cartwright (KAHRT•RYT)James Watt

Robert Fulton

Michael Faraday (FAR•uh•DAY)Thomas Edison

Building Your Vocabularyindustrialism (ihn•DUHS•tree•

uh•LIH•zuhm)textile (TEHK•STYL)capital

partnership

corporation (KAWR•puh•RAY•shuhn)

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information Use adiagram like the one below to showfour of the major inventions and theirinventors that helped start theIndustrial Revolution.



1769Watt improvessteam engine

1807Robert Fultonbuildssteamboat

1876AlexanderGraham Bellinvents telephone

1903Wright brothersmake firstairplane flight

NORTHAMERICA

EUROPELondon

ParisNew York

1750 1800 1850 19001750 1800 1850 1900

Industrialism BeginsThe Industrial Revolution began in

Britain because of the enclosure movement, Britain’snatural resources, and new British inventions.Reading Focus How would your life be different ifyou did not have cars, telephones, or electricity? All ofthese things came from the Industrial Revolution. Readto learn how industry began.

While political revolution swept throughEurope, a new economic system known asindustrialism (ihn • DUHS • tree • uh • LIH •zuhm) began in Britain. There, people began

to rely on the use of machinery, rather thanon animal or human power. Over the next200 years, industrialism would spread fromBritain to dramatically change life in otherparts of the world. Industry changed life somuch that historians call these changes theIndustrial Revolution.

Before the rise of industrialism, mostpeople lived in small farming villages. Theyraised their own food and made their owngoods. In Britain during the early 1700s,cloth was made in villages. As you readpreviously, this system was known as cot-tage industry. Under this system, most

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The Industrial Revolution 1870

The Industrial Revolution spread throughoutEurope in the 1800s.1. What were the major industries in the United

Kingdom?2. What patterns do you see in the distribution

of industries, and what geographical factorsmight account for these patterns?

Coal miningIronworkingTextile production

Industry:

Manufacturing and industrial area Major industrial centerMajor railways by 1870

KEY

work was done in workers’ cottages, wherefamilies worked together.

Merchants went from cottage to cottage,bringing the workers raw wool and cotton.Using hand-powered spinning wheels andlooms, the workers would spin the threadand weave it into wool and cotton cloth. Themerchants then picked up the finished clothto sell. The Industrial Revolution began in thewoven cloth, or textile (TEHK • STYL), industry.Merchants could make so much money fromtextiles that they began to look for ways tomake cloth better and faster. By the 1700s,changes in Britain made this possible.

What Caused the Industrial Revolution?The Industrial Revolution began in Britainfor many reasons. One important cause ofBritain’s Industrial Revolution was achange in how Britain’s landowners usedtheir land. In the 1700s the enclosure

movement began. Britain’s Parliamentpassed new laws that allowed landownersto fence off their land. For hundreds ofyears, local villagers had rented the landfrom landowners and divided it into smallstrips, each worked by a family. Now thevillagers were told they could not use theland the way they wanted.

Enclosure allowed landowners to makemore money. Whole areas could grow thesame crop, which meant larger harvestsand greater profits. Often the land wasturned into pasture for sheep whose woolwas used by the textile industry.

Successful farming provided landown-ers with extra money. Many chose to invest,or put money, into new businesses. Moneyinvested in businesses is called capital. Agrowing middle class joined wealthylandowners and merchants in investingcapital in new industries.


Traveling by Early Railroad In the 1700s and early 1800s, the best way to travel inEngland was on horseback or by stagecoach. By the late 1840s, however, stagecoachcompanies were being forced out of business with a new invention: the steam locomotive.

The locomotive was invented in England in the early 1800s. It was first used to movecoal and iron ore from mines to factories. Thenpassengers started riding the trains.

Boarding and riding a grand locomotive,nicknamed the “iron horse,” was an excitingtrip. The wealthy bought tickets for first-classseats in fancy, enclosed passenger cars. Thesecustomers sat on plush cloth and leatherbenches with wood and brass handrails. Theseats were located behind the locomotive.

Early English train from the 1840s

Archive Photos

CHAPTER 19 Industry and Nationalism 727CHAPTER 19 Industry and Nationalism 727

Connecting to the Past1. What accommodations were provided for first-class

passengers?

2. Why did third-class passengers prefer to travel by trainthan by stagecoach?

Still another cause was the large num-ber of people available to work in industry.The enclosure movement forced manypeasants off the land. They then moved tothe cities and became workers in newindustries.

In the 1700s, Britain’s population grewrapidly. More and better food meant thatpeople were healthier, lived longer, andhad larger families. This increase in popu-lation also provided workers for the newfactories.

Finally, Britain’s natural resources andgeography also helped in the rise of indus-try. The British had large supplies of coaland iron. Coal replaced wood as the fuelfor running machines. Iron was used inbuilding and in making machines. Thecountry had many fine harbors and riversfor transporting goods. Rivers also pro-vided power for the earliest cotton mills.

New Inventions Britain also had a numberof talented inventors. Their inventionsmade the Industrial Revolution possible.Many of these first inventions were devel-oped in the late 1700s for the textile indus-try. James Hargreaves (HAHR • GREEVZ)invented a spinning jenny that could spincotton into thread very quickly. RichardArkwright (AHRK • RYT) developed a way topower a spinning machine with water, andEdmund Cartwright (KAHRT • RYT) created anew powered loom. This machine couldweave the thread into cloth as fast as thenew spinning machines produced it.

In 1769 James Watt designed a steamengine that could power the new machines.Steam soon replaced water as the majorsource of power.

As the need for machines grew, iron wasneeded to make machine parts. In 1753Henry Cort found a way to use coal to turn

where the smoke would rise above the train’s frontsection and not bother the riders.

People who bought cheaper tickets sat in the second-class section. Second-class railway cars were open to the air,and passengers had to wait their turn for a bench seat tobecome available. Third-class passengers could buy verycheap tickets and stand in train cars with open sides. Somehad benches. The smoke from the coal-powered steamengines often dirtied the riders’ clothes. They ignored thisdiscomfort because riding a train was faster and cheaperthan traveling in uncomfortable stagecoaches.

Interior of arailway car

Bettmann/CORBIS

iron ore into pure iron. As a result, ironbecame cheaper, production grew, and coalmining became a major industry. In 1856Henry Bessemer invented an inexpensiveway to make large amounts of iron into steel,which was harder and stronger than iron.Soon mining towns and steel centers grew inareas with supplies of iron ore and coal.

The Rise of Factories and RailroadsFactories were the major centers of theIndustrial Revolution. Why did theydevelop? Machines became too large andexpensive for home use. Factories broughtworkers and machines together in oneplace under managers.

As the Industrial Revolution began,business owners reorganized their compa-nies to raise the money they needed to buymachines and build factories. One way to

do this was to form a partnership wheretwo or more people owned the businessand pooled their own money. Another waywas to create a corporation (KAWR •puh •RAY •shuhn). A corporation raises money by sell-ing shares in the company to investors.Creating a corporation allowed businessleaders to build large factories with hun-dreds of workers.

New forms of transportation also led toindustrial growth. In 1807 Robert Fulton, anAmerican inventor, developed a boat pow-ered by a steam engine. The biggestimprovement in land transportation was therailroad. By the mid-1800s, steam-poweredlocomotives carried raw materials, finishedgoods, and people faster and cheaper thanany other kind of transportation.

Explain How did enclosurehelp to bring about the Industrial Revolution?

KeyKey

Water compartment

Coal bunker

Coal conveyer

Throttle Lever

Firebox

Boiler tubes

Smokebox

Blast pipe

Steam chest

Cylinder

Piston

Steam EngineSteam Engine

In a locomotive, coal is burned in the engine’s firebox. The hot gases from thefire travel through tubes and empty into the smokebox, after heating water inthe boiler and creating steam. The throttle releases steam into the steamchest, where a valve controls the movement of the steam into the cylinder. Inthe cylinder, the steam pushes the piston, which is connected to a drive rodthat turns the locomotive’s wheels. How did railroads affect industry?


The

Lib

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Con

gres

s The Spread of Industry The Industrial Revolution spread

beyond Great Britain’s shores to Europe and theUnited States.Reading Focus Important inventions fueled thespread of the Industrial Revolution. What inventions ofyour lifetime do you feel have had the greatest impacton your life today?

Britain’s advances in industrial technol-ogy gave it an advantage over other coun-tries. To protect that advantage, Britain’sParliament passed laws keeping ideas,inventions, and skilled workers from leav-ing the country. In spite of these laws, how-ever, the Industrial Revolution soon spreadto other areas.

Industry in Europe and America FromBritain the Industrial Revolution spread toFrance, Belgium, Germany, and the UnitedStates. European governments encouragedthe rise of industries. They helped build fac-tories, railroads, canals, and roads. By the1820s, British business owners andinvestors had made so much money fromindustry that they began to invest in facto-ries and railroads in Europe. Their invest-ments helped the Industrial Revolution getstarted in other countries.

The Industrial Revolution also tookhold in the United States. British investorsand American engineers built factories formaking textiles and shoes. Workers, includ-ing women and children, left rural areas towork in cities.

Like Britain, the United States hadmany natural resources. Americansquickly built roads and canals to movegoods and people across the vast nation.Fulton’s steamboat improved transporta-tion on inland waterways, and railroadssoon crisscrossed the country.

Edison’s Lightbulb 1879

Edison once said, “The electric light hascaused me the greatest amount ofstudy and has required the mostelaborate experiments.” For theseexperiments, Edison carefully made theglass bulbs in his own glassblowingshed. Inside each bulb was a filament,or thin strip of material. The bulbs wereincandescent,which means thatelectricity heatsthe filament,which becomeshot enough toglow and makelight. For Edison,the trickiest partwas finding thebest material forthe filaments.Eventually, hefound that acarbonized cottonthread filamentprovided the bestquality of light.Edison gave the first publicdemonstration of his incandescentlightbulb on December 31, 1879, at hislaboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey.Edison’s lightbulb made it possible forpeople to use small electric lamps intheir homes and led to other uses forelectricity.

Thomas Edison in his workshop

New Scientific Discoveries As the 1800scontinued, many scientific discoverieshelped to keep the Industrial Revolutiongoing. Iron was replaced by steel. Startingin the 1870s, steel became the leadingindustrial metal. Other inventions madeuse of electricity. Electricity could be con-verted easily to heat, light, or motion, andcould be sent through wires.

One important invention that used elec-tricity was the telegraph, invented by SamuelMorse in the 1830s. The telegraph made com-munication possible across great distancesby sending coded messages through wires.Other communications advances were thetelephone, invented by Alexander GrahamBell in 1876, and the radio, developed byGuglielmo Marconi in 1895.

In 1831 Michael Faraday (FAR • uh • DAY)discovered that a magnet moving through acoil of copper wire produced an electriccurrent. Within 40 years, this discovery led

to the invention of electric generators.Thomas Edison developed the lightbulb,which used electricity to create light. Asdemand for electricity rose, investors inEurope and the United States funded thefirst power plants. These were powered bycoal or oil.

Major breakthroughs also took place intransportation. In the 1880s Germany’sRudolf Diesel and Gottlieb Daimlerinvented internal combustion engines thatproduced a lot of power by burning oil-based fuels. Within a few decades, internalcombustion engines powered boats. Theyalso made possible two other new kinds oftransportation: the car and the airplane. In1903 two American inventors, Orville andWilbur Wright, successfully tested theworld’s first powered airplane.

Cause and Effect Whichkey inventions resulted from the development ofelectricity?


Reading SummaryReview the • Changes in agriculture and plen-

tiful deposits of iron and coalhelped Great Britain lead the wayin the Industrial Revolution.

• France, Belgium, northernGerman states, and the UnitedStates soon followed GreatBritain into the Industrial Age.

1. What natural resources andfeatures helped industriesdevelop in Great Britain?

2. What important inventionswere created following thedevelopment of electricity?

Critical Thinking3. Organize Information Create

a table like the one below. Fill in inventors’ names and inven-tions.

4. Economics Link Describethe difference between a part-nership and a corporation.

5. Describe Describe the inven-tions that changed how peoplecommunicate.

6. Analyze What did RudolfDiesel and Gottlieb Daimlerinvent, and why was itimportant?

7. Expository Writing Choosethe invention or developmentfrom the chapter that youbelieve has had the greatestimpact on the world. Write anessay explaining your choice.

What Did You Learn?



Inventor Invention


Society andIndustry


What’s the Connection?In the last section, you read

about the causes of the IndustrialRevolution. In this section, you willlearn how industry changed society.

Focusing on the • The Industrial Revolution caused

cities to grow bigger and changedhow people lived and worked.(page 732)

• The Industrial Revolution led to newideas about politics, society, and theeconomy. (page 734)

• Artists, writers, and composersreflected the changes thatindustrialism brought to society.(page 736)

• Important scientific discoveriesduring the Industrial Revolutionchanged the way people lived andhow they understood the world.(page 738)

Meeting PeopleAdam Smith

Karl Marx

Louis Pasteur (LOO•ee pas•TUHR)Albert Einstein (EYEN•STYN)Charles Darwin (DAHR•wuhn)

Building Your Vocabularyurbanization (UHR•buh•nuh•ZAY•

shuhn)liberalism (LIH•buh•ruh•LIH•zuhm)socialism (SOH•shuh•LIH•zuhm)labor union

Reading StrategyContrasting Use a table like the onebelow to compare major ideas of theindustrial era.

c. 1780Romanticismbegins in the arts

1848Karl Marx writesCommunistManifesto

1859Charles Darwinpresents theoryof evolution

c. 1870Impressionismbegins in FranceNORTH

AMERICAEUROPE

LondonParis

New York

1800 1850 19001800 1850 1900

liberalism

Main Ideas

socialism

Industry Changes SocietyThe Industrial Revolution caused cities

to grow bigger and changed how people lived andworked.Reading Focus How is life in the country differentfrom life in the city today? How is it similar? Read tolearn about the new way of life rural people faced whenthey moved to the city during the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution broughtchanges in many areas of life. Thesechanges took place in Europe, NorthAmerica, and elsewhere by the 1860s.Industrial growth still changes the waypeople live today.

Cities Grow in Size One important changewas the rapid growth in the size of cities.Urbanization (UHR • buh • nuh • ZAY • shuhn) isthe movement of people from rural areas tocities. A nation is urbanized when most ofits people live in cities. Britain was the firstcountry to become urbanized. City popula-

tions also grew in the other parts of Europeand in the United States.

Why did cities grow so quickly? Asfarms used more machines, fewer workerswere needed. To find jobs, many ruralworkers headed to nearby cities hoping tofind work in the new factories.

What Was Industrial Life Like? Beforethe rise of industry, a person’s place in soci-ety was set by birth. Few were able to rise tohigher positions. The growth of industry,however, brought new opportunities.

In Europe, wealthy factory owners wereable to live like nobles. They had severalhomes and many servants to wait on them.Less wealthy people such as managers,lawyers, doctors, and engineers formed theindustrial middle class. Some of them alsocould afford servants and fine homes.

The growth of industry and cities alsocreated a large working class. The workingclass was made up of people who toiled inthe factories and mines. Their lives were


This scene shows workers in a steel mill inFrance.

This photograph from the late 1800s showshousing conditions in England. Why did citiesgrow so rapidly during the IndustrialRevolution?

(l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)Mary Evans Picture Library

much harder than those of the upper ormiddle classes.

Entire working-class families—childrenas well as adults—had to work to makeenough money to live. Working conditionsvaried from barely acceptable to dreadful.Hours were long—up to 16 hours a day, 6 days a week. Injuries were common inhot, dirty, and unhealthy factories andmines. Many children lost fingers or limbs.Death and injury occurred often.

Living conditions in the cities were oftenwretched. However, workers still flocked tocities to fill factory jobs because they couldnot find work on the farms. Despite the lowpay and long hours, most workers had bet-ter lives and more money than when theylived in the country. They found that citylife had many benefits. Cities offered manyleisure-time opportunities. These includedparks, education for adults and children,concerts, libraries, museums, andsports. Women discovered a new inde-pendence.

As time passed, working conditionsdid improve. Some reformers, includingmany religious people, were able to bet-ter the lives of workers. Hours werereduced for female and young workers.Living conditions in the cities remainedvery unhealthy, but some improvementsdid occur. New laws were passed thatmade factories safer and reduced pollu-tion and unclean food and water in thecities.

Life Changes for Women The IndustrialRevolution greatly changed women’s lives.At first, it was believed that a woman’splace was in the home. Her job was to raisechildren and do household tasks. Womenhad fewer legal rights than men. During the1800s, women worked to change their posi-tion and find new roles.

Working Conditions in Mills Forchildren working in mills and factories,the workday began early, often beforedawn. A regular shift began at 5 in themorning. Children who arrived late forwork usually did so in tears. They knewthat their wages would be cut and thatthey would be severely punished.

Children arrived for work hungry, butbreakfast was not allowed until 8 or 9o’ clock in the morning. Breakfastusually consisted of an oatcake and cansof boiled milk and water. Children atetheir breakfast standing up, still workingat their stations. Once a year, they wereserved cheese and brown bread for aspecial dinner. Because the childrenwere tired and hungry, they oftenbecame drowsy while working. When

this happened, theoverseer wokethem up bydunking themheadfirst into a vatof cold water.

Many childrendevelopedbreathing problemsand became sickwith an illnessknown as “millfever.” The air thatchildren breathedwas contaminatedwith dust, grease,oil, and gas.

Connecting to the Past1. Why were children afraid to arrive late for

work?

2. What was the cause of “mill fever”?

Child coal minersin England

Bettmann/CORBIS

The workplace played a major role inchanging the position of women. Womenfound jobs in both industry and governmentservice. There were also more opportunitiesfor education. A drop in family size duringthe 1800s helped to change the lives ofwomen as well.

During the 1800s, women began todemand equal rights with men. In theUnited States, Britain, and other countries,women challenged long-standing ideas.They especially demanded the right tovote.

Identify What developedin cities as people began to work fewer hours?

New Political Ideas The Industrial Revolution led to new

ideas about politics, society, and the economy.Reading Focus What does the word liberal mean toyou? Read to find out how a new philosophy with thisname affected society in the 1800s.

The Industrial Revolution broughtmany changes, both good and bad. Startingin the early 1800s, people looked for waysto understand issues and solve the prob-lems that industry had created. A numberof different ideas developed to addressthese concerns.

More women than men areentering colleges and universities in

Great Britain and the United States.Women can build successful careers in

most industries. However, in somecountries, many women still work in factories

under poor working conditions. How did therise of industry change job opportunities forwomen?

Women in the WorkforceThe Industrial Revolution brought jobs to

women in Great Britain and the United States—but at a cost for some. Even though womengained independence through employment,many were forced to work long hours inbad conditions and for little pay. Safetyissues were often overlooked andpollutants and dangerous machinescaused healthproblems.

Modern-day businesswomen

Woman worker in an Englishcotton mill

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What Is Liberalism? One of these newideas was liberalism (LIH • buh • ruh • LIH •zuhm). Liberalism is a political philosophybased on the ideas of the Enlightenment.The word liberal had a different meaning inthe 1800s than it does today in the UnitedStates. Liberals today agree with liberals ofthe 1800s about some ideas but disagree onothers. Earlier, you read about conserva-tives in the 1800s and how they too believeddifferent things than conservatives dotoday.

Liberals in the 1800s believed that allpeople have basic rights. These includeequality before the law and freedom ofspeech and the press. Many liberals wantedfreedom of religion. Liberals also believedthat the power of governments should belimited by written constitutions and thatelected assemblies should make laws.Liberals did not believe that everyoneshould be allowed to vote. Most thoughtthat this right should be restricted to menwho owned property.

Liberalism was popular among the newmiddle class. Middle-class businesspeoplebelieved that government should not inter-fere with business or society. British econo-mist Adam Smith defended this idea. Heargued that if government stayed out of theeconomy and let businesses compete, itwould lead to more prosperity and a bettersociety. This idea became known as “laissez-faire,” a French word meaning “to let be.”

Two British thinkers, however, wantedto use government to help make societybetter. Jeremy Bentham (BEHN • thuhm) and

John Stuart Mill were utilitarians. Theybelieved society should promote the greatesthappiness for the most people. Utilitarianism(yoo • TIH • luh • TEHR • ee • uh • NIH • zuhm)endorsed ideas like full rights for women,better education, and improved healthservices.

What Is Marxism? Another new idea ofthe 1800s was socialism (SOH • shuh • LIH •zuhm). Socialists believe that factories, land,capital, and raw materials—what theycalled the means of production—should be


The CommunistManifesto

In outlining their plan for society, KarlMarx and his friend Friedrich Engelsurged the working class to unite.

“In short, the Communists everywhere sup-port every revolutionary movement against theexisting social and political order of things. . . .

The Communists disdain [refuse] to con-ceal their views and aims. They openly declarethat their ends can be attained only by theforcible overthrow of allexisting social conditions.Let the ruling class trem-ble at a communist revo-lution. The proletarianshave nothing to lose buttheir chains. They have aworld to win.

Working men of allcountries, unite!”

—Karl Marx and FriedrichEngels, The Communist

Manifesto

What do Marx and Engels mean whenthey say that there is nothing to lose butchains?

Karl Marx

Web Activity Visit jat.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 19—Student Web Activityto learn more about the rise of industry.

Culver Pictures


owned and controlled by society, through the government. Many people developed the ideas of socialism, but the most important person was a German writernamed Karl Marx.

Marx was a German thinker who livedduring the 1800s. Marx believed that com-petition among social classes harmed soci-ety. He predicted that, over time, theworking class, which he called the prole-tariat (PROH • luh • TEHR • ee • uht), would riseup and create a communist society. Undercommunism, social classes would end andpeople would live in a classless society.

Marx’s ideas, later called Marxism, werevery influential. His ideas were the basicideas of socialist political parties in Germany,Britain, Scandinavia, and other countries.These socialist parties favored governmentcontrol of industry.

Another response to the horrors of factorylife was the growth of labor unions. A laborunion is an association of workers who uniteto improve wages and working conditions.Strikes, or work stoppages, often forcedowners to bargain with union leaders. Inmany European countries, unions sup-ported socialist political parties.

Describe What did JeremyBentham and John Stuart Mill believe?

New Art and LiteratureArtists, writers, and composers

reflected the changes that industrialism brought tosociety.Reading Focus Art, music, and literature are oftenshaped by the society in which they are created. How dotoday’s music, books, and movies reflect today’s society?

The rise of industry changed how peo-ple lived and worked. It also led to newmovements in art, literature, and music.The often ugly face of the new industrial-ized world caused some artists to turnaway from it. Others, however, chose toportray it.

Romanticism and Realism In the late1700s, artists and writers known as theromantics began to react against theEnlightenment. Instead of reason, theirmovement called romanticism valued feel-ings and the imagination as the best way tofind the truth.

Poets, such as Britain’s WilliamWordsworth and Germany’s Johann vonGoethe (yoh•HAHN fawn GUH•tuh), lookedto nature, the past, and the unusual as theirsubjects. In their works, these writers triedto express their inner feelings about life.Romantic painters, such as EugèneDelacroix (yoo • JEEN DEH • luh • KWAH) ofFrance, also chose strange and unusual sub-jects. The first great romantic musician wasLudwig van Beethoven (LOOD • wihg vahnBAY • TOH • vuhn). This German composer’smusic expressed strong emotion andintense drama.

By the mid-1800s, another movement—realism—took hold. Some artists turnedaway from the romantic emphasis on feel-ings. These writers and painters, known asrealists, tried to show life as it truly was.


This painting shows men, women, and childrenworking in an early factory. Why did laborunions develop?

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Novelists like Charles Dickens of GreatBritain, Honoré de Balzac (AHN • uh • RAYday BAWL • ZAK) of France, and Leo Tolstoy(tohl • stoy) of Russia focused on ordinarypeople in ordinary settings. They useddetails to create a picture of everyday life.Painters like France’s Gustave Courbet(GUS • TAHV kur • BAY) also showed figuresand scenes from ordinary life. Whileromantics tried to escape from industrial-ized society, realists chose to examine itclosely.

Modernism and Impressionism Twoother movements appeared later in the1800s. One was modernism. An importantpart of modernism was the study of socialproblems. Novelists such as Émile Zola ofFrance, and Theodore Dreiser of the UnitedStates, and dramatist Henrik Ibsen ofNorway explored social issues of the day.Subjects included crime, alcoholism, andwomen’s rights. Other modernists took adifferent approach. Symbolist poets believedthat the outer world was only a reflection ofan individual’s inner reality. They studieddreams and symbols for meaning and usedthem in their works.

A modernist movement in painting was called impressionism. Beginning in the 1870s, impressionists were especiallyinterested in the effect of light on differentoutdoor objects and surfaces. The mostfamous impressionists were French. They included Claude Monet (moh • NAY),Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas(duh • gah). Mary Cassatt of the United States was also a famous impressionistpainter. Composers, led by France’s ClaudeDebussy (DEH • byu • SEE), even translatedimpressionist ideas into dreamy, shimmeringmusic.

Describe What elementwas most important to modernists?

Nympheas by Claude Monet, 1907

Courbet painted scenes from everydaylife, while Monet focused on thebeauty of nature. Which artistrejected the artistic movement ofromanticism?

The Stonebreakers by Gustave Courbet, 1849

(l)SuperStock, (r)Christie’s Images/CORBIS

Science and MedicineImportant scientific discoveries during

the Industrial Revolution changed the way peoplelived and how they understood the world.Reading Focus Do you know why children often looklike their birth parents? Read to find out who discov-ered how characteristics are passed from one genera-tion to another.

During the 1800s, scientists took manyimportant steps forward. Their work broughtmany practical benefits to society in the fieldsof medicine and health. It also enabled peo-ple to better understand the world.

Why Was Pasteur Important? One of thefirst important medical advances was thediscovery of vaccines to ward off disease. In

1796 the English doctor Edward Jennernoticed that dairy workers who caughtcowpox did not get the deadly smallpox.Jenner believed that vaccinating or injectingpeople with cowpox would make themimmune to smallpox. Jenner’s theoryproved correct.

It took a while, however, before the vac-cination process could be explained. Finally,in 1868, French chemist Louis Pasteur(LOO • ee pas • TUHR) discovered bacteria,or germs. He also proved that they causedisease. Pasteur showed that killing bacte-ria would prevent many diseases.

Early surgery was a gruesome process.The discovery of anesthesia, or pain-deadeningdrugs such as ether, was a great step for-ward. So were the methods developed byEnglishman Joseph Lister to sterilize med-ical equipment. Before Lister, many patientsdied after surgery due to infection.

An Austrian monk named GregorMendel was responsible for a key scientificbreakthrough. In the 1860s his work withpea plants finally solved an ancient mys-tery: to predict which characteristics ortraits get passed to the next generation.Based on his observations, Mendel devel-oped a system of rules that could predictwhether a living organism would inherittraits from its parents. Mendel’s ideasbecame very influential, and he is knowntoday as the father of the science calledgenetics.

Einstein and Physics By the end of the1800s, new ideas in the physical sciences, orphysics, changed the way people under-stand the world. Atomic theory is the ideathat everything is made up of tiny particlescalled atoms. Scientists gradually learnedmore about atoms, including the composi-tion of different elements and the qualitiesof X rays and electricity. They learned


Among his discoveries, Louis Pasteur developeda vaccine against rabies. How did Pasteur’sdiscovery of bacteria lead to the prevention ofdisease?

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

that atoms are composed of even smallerindividual particles. A Polish scientist,Marie Sklodowska Curie (kyu • REE), and herFrench husband, Pierre Curie, discoveredthe element radium in 1898. Radium isradioactive, which means it gives offenergy.

Within a few years, a German scientistnamed Albert Einstein (AL • buhrt EYEN •STYN) caused a revolution in people’s think-ing about the universe. Previously, youlearned that people during the 1600s cameto believe that the universe was a well-runmachine that obeyed natural laws. In 1905,however, Albert Einstein overturned theselong-held ideas about time, space, mass,and motion. His theory of relativity statedthat space and time were relative and

changing, rather than permanent andunchanging. As a result of Einstein’s theory,people were able to imagine a more fluid,unstructured view of reality.

Einstein also developed a famous equa-tion—E�Mc2—where E is energy, M is mass,and c is the speed of light. The equationshows that all physical things contain vastamounts of energy. Using this idea, scientistseventually created the atomic bomb andnuclear reactors.

Year Scientist

Major Scientific DiscoveriesMajor Scientific Discoveries

Discovery Impact

1803

1820s

1850s

1859

1890s

1890s

1898

1900

1905

1905

John Dalton

Mary Anning

Louis Pasteur

Charles Darwin

Wilhelm K. Roentgen

Ivan Pavlov

Marie and Pierre Curie

Max Planck

Albert Einstein

Nettie Stevens

provided proof to support the atomic theory

helped scientists learn more about the Jurassic period of history

allowed for doctors to fight disease more easily

questioned whether mankind originated from God or nature

allowed doctors to see a person’s bones from the inside

determined that, through training, any action could be learned

proved that atoms were active

influenced the study of the atom

led to the development of the atomic bomb

led to the advanced study of human genetic material

elements are composed of atoms

fossils of dinosaurs, including the plesiosaur

disease-causing bacteria

all living things evolve as their environment changes

X rays

actions are unconscious reactions

the element radium within atoms

energy is not continuous

theory of relativity

X and Y chromosomes determine gender


In the late 1800s and early 1900s, scientistsand inventors made tremendous advancesthat would affect the world for years tocome.1. During what years did important

advancements in the understanding ofatoms take place?

2. Which two scientists had the greatestimpact on medicine?

ALBERT EINSTEIN1879–1955

MARIE SKLODOWSKA CURIE1867–1934

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, both Albert Einstein and Marie

Curie helped to advance science.

Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Württemberg,

Germany. He grew up in Munich in a Jewish family. Einstein became a

teacher and then worked in a patent office in Switzerland. Einstein

earned many awards for his scientific theories, including the Nobel

Prize in physics. Einstein fled Nazi Germany and moved to the United

States in 1933. Although his famous equation E�Mc2 helped to

advance scientific knowledge, he was bothered by the fact that it also

made the atomic bomb possible. Late in his life, he began urging

nations to give up nuclear weapons. He died on April 18, 1955, in

Princeton, New Jersey.

Marie Curie was born Maria Sklodowska in Warsaw, Poland, in

1867. She graduated from high school at age 15, then attended

classes at the Floating University, an illegal night school forbidden

by Poland’s Russian rulers. When Maria enrolled at the Sorbonne

University in Paris in 1891, she became known as Marie. There she

met Pierre Curie. They were married in 1895

and had two daughters. She earned her

doctorate in 1903, and when Pierre died in

an accident in 1906, Marie took his position

teaching and researching at the Sorbonne.

During World War I, she used X-ray units to

help doctors treat wounds. She also helped

create the Curie Foundation in 1920 to

advance science and

medicine. Twice she

was awarded the

Nobel Prize in physics.

Marie died on July 4,

1934, in France.

“Imagination ismore importantthan knowledge.”

—Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein

Marie Curie

Both Einstein and Curie wanted their

discoveries to better society. Identify and

describe a topic or subject you would like to

study because you think advances in that area

could help people live better lives.

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Who Was Charles Darwin? Like many oth-ers, Charles Darwin (DAHR•wuhn) wonderedwhy there were so many different kinds oflife in the world. His research led him to aconclusion: plants and animals changevery slowly over time. The onesthat survive do so because theyare better adapted to their envi-ronment. They win the “bat-tle” for survival and produceoffspring. The offspring havethe same characteristics thathelped their parents adapt.

Darwin also believed thathumans developed from animalspecies. His ideas were—andremain—controversial. Some reli-gious people believed that his

theories contradicted the biblical story of cre-ation. Others believed it opened the door toa world without morals. Many people, how-ever, came to accept Darwin’s theory.

Some people believed that Darwin’sideas about competition between species

applied to society as well. This idea,called Social Darwinism, was popu-lar with those who supported lais-sez-faire economics. Why? Theybelieved that different individuals,companies, and countries engagedin economic competition, just like

species. Weaker ones would fail,while stronger ones would prosper.

Compare How wasthe work of Edward Jenner similar to thatof Louis Pasteur?

Reading SummaryReview the • The Industrial Revolution led to

the growth of cities and thecreation of the industrial working class.

• New political and economicphilosophies, such as liberalismand socialism, developed duringthe Industrial Revolution.

• A number of different artisticmovements arose during theIndustrial Age, including romanti-cism, realism, modernism, andimpressionism.

• Important scientific advancestook place in the fields of medi-cine, biology, and physics duringthe 1800s.

1. Describe the working condi-tions in Industrial Age factories.

2. How did the artistic movementknown as realism approach lifein the Industrial Age?

Critical Thinking3. Cause and Effect Draw a

diagram like the one below. Fillin causes that led to thegrowth of cities during theIndustrial Age.

4. Economics Link Describe theeconomic philosophy of AdamSmith. Which members ofBritish society agreed with hisideas?

5. Summarize What is a laborunion, why did they becomepopular, and how did theyforce businesses to negotiate?

6. Analyze How were Darwin’sscientific theories applied tosociety?

7. Writing Questions Imagineyou are a newspaper writerinterviewing Karl Marx. Writethree or four questions youmight ask him about hisbeliefs. Include possibleanswers.

What Did You Learn?



Growth of Cities

Charles Darwin

Bettmann/CORBIS


742

The Industrial Revolution:Benefits vs. Problems

Many people, particularly factory own-

ers, landowners, and financial investors,

believed that the changes brought about

by the Industrial Revolution benefited

people of all classes. Lower-class men,

women, and children worked in factories.

Men of the middle class often served as

managers. Men of the upper class were

often factory owners.

Many debated the issue of child

labor. One journalist published the fol-

lowing report:

“[T]he industry of the young not only

contributes to the increase of our national

wealth, but also to their own advantage.

In many factories they are not only usefully

employed, but, at the same time, are

trained up in those habits of morality and

good feeling which are most likely to

ensure their own lasting happiness and to

make them valuable members of society.”

—from The Penny Magazine,

November 16, 1833

Benefits of the Industrial Revolu-

tion included the following:

• new inventions and technology,

such as lightbulbs, refrigerators,

electric ovens, and medicine

• factories made goods at low cost,

which made food and goods

affordable for more people

• development of new forms of

transportation and communi-

cation, such as railroads,

steamships, automobiles, air-

planes, and telephones

• growth of the middle class

• rapid growth of cities

• greater job opportunities

• greater independence for

women

• greater opportunities for

education

Benefits

Rolls Royce Silver Ghost, an early automobile from 1906

742Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS

743

ProblemsOther people, such as social reform-

ers, doctors, and the lower-class factory

workers themselves, believed that the

Industrial Revolution not only created

many problems, but that it seriously

harmed those who worked in factories

day after day. A young boy who started

working in a textile factory at the age of

six wrote this account:

“I have frequently worked at the frame

till I could scarcely get home, and in this

state have been stopped by people in the

streets who noticed me shuffling along, and

advised me to work no more in the facto-

ries; but I was not my own master. During

the day, I frequently counted the clock, and

calculated how many hours I had still to

remain at work; my evenings were spent in

preparing for the following day—in rubbing

my knees, ankles, elbows, and wrists with

oil, etc. I went to bed, to cry myself to

sleep, and pray that the Lord would take me

to himself before morning.”

Problems created by the Industrial

Revolution included the following:

• dangerous factory machinery

caused serious accidents and

deaths

• people worked in cramped, hot, and

dimly lit factories

• long working hours—up to 16 hours

a day, 6 days a week

• low pay

• unhealthy living conditions in

crowded cities

• pollution from factories dirtied the

air and rivers

• rise of cities broke up traditional

small village communities

• people had to spend much more

time traveling to and from work

• families did not work together all

day on a farm; instead each family

member had to go to separate jobs

743

Workers at a mine in England

Checking for Understanding1. What were two benefits of the

Industrial Revolution? What weretwo problems?

2. What problems caused by theIndustrial Revolution are stillproblems today?

3. Do you think the benefits createdby the Industrial Revolution out-weighed the problems? Write abrief essay that explains yourview. Be sure to use facts to support your position.

Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS

Nationalism andNation-States

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

EUROPE

RomeBerlin

Washington, D.C.


What’s the Connection?The French Revolution and the

Industrial Revolution led to increasedfeelings of nationalism.That desire forself-rule led to reforms and revolutionsin many parts of the world.

Focusing on the • Two powerful ideas, nationalism and

reform, helped reshape Europepolitically during the mid-1800s.(page 745)

• In the mid-1800s, two new countries,Italy and Germany, were created.(page 747)

• In the early 1800s, the people ofLatin America rebelled and gainedtheir independence. (page 749)

• Nationalism in the United States ledthe country to expand its borders,but differences between the Northand South led to a bloody civil war.(page 751)

Meeting PeopleWilliam Gladstone

Giuseppe Garibaldi (joo•ZEHP•payGAR•uh•BAWL•dee)

Otto von Bismarck (AHT•oh fawnBIHZ•MAHRK)

Simón Bolívar(see•MAWN boh•LEE•VAHR)

Building Your Vocabularykaiser (KY•zuhr)caudillo (kow•THEE•yoh)abolitionism

(A•buh•LIH•shuhn• IH•zuhm)

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to list Latin Americanleaders and their achievements.

1803U.S. buysLouisianaTerritory

1832British middle-class men gainthe vote

1821Mexico gainsindependence

1871Germanyis united

1800 1835 18701800 1835 1870

Leader Achievements

Lond

on A

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Table of the HouseBills that are being

debated are placed here.Opposition BenchesMembers who are not

in the ruling party sit here.

Government BenchesThe prime minister andother members of theruling party sit here.

Speaker’s ChairThe speaker is a member ofParliament who is chosen to

oversee the activities of the House.

The British Parliament is divided intotwo main bodies: the House of Lordsand the House of Commons (left). TheHouse of Commons is made up ofofficials elected by the public, and theHouse of Lords is made up of peopleappointed by members of the nobility.The two houses meet in separate roomswithin the great Palace of Westminster.

The British ParliamentThe British Parliament

Nationalism and ReformTwo powerful ideas, nationalism and

reform, helped reshape Europe politically during themid-1800s.Reading Focus What does the term self-rule mean toyou? What does it include? Who should have it?

Nationalism is the desire of people withthe same history, language, and customs forself-rule. During the 1800s, nationalism,along with demands for political reform,led to dramatic and important changes inEurope and the Americas.

Democracy in Great Britain While warand revolt raged in most of Europe, change

came peacefully to Britain. In the early1800s, nobles ran Britain’s government, andthe middle and working classes could notvote. This situation soon changed. In 1832 aliberal British government passed a lawthat gave voting rights to most middle-classmen. New industrial cities gained moreseats in Parliament. Industrial workers,however, still did not have the vote. In the1840s their supporters, known as Chartists,demanded the vote for all men and the useof secret ballots.

The Chartists failed to get the govern-ment to agree to their demands. Britain’spolitical parties continued to make reforms,however, especially after William Gladstonebecame prime minister in 1868. Gladstone

The Palace of Westminster, which includesthe giant clock tower Big Ben, was originallybuilt in 1050. Two fires, in 1529 and 1834,destroyed much of the building, but it wasfully restored by 1870 when the Parliamentmoved its headquarters into the building.Who presides over the debate in the Houseof Commons?

led the Liberal Party, which was backed bymany middle-class voters. He served fourterms as British prime minister, or politicalleader. Gladstone’s reforms allowed votersto cast their ballots in secret and reorgan-ized electoral districts to give more equalrepresentation.

Gladstone’s great political rival wasBenjamin Disraeli, leader of theConservative Party. Disraeli served twoterms as prime minister. In 1867 his govern-ment gave the vote to many workers. In1900 a new political party was created.Claiming to represent the working class,this party was known as the Labour Party.It eventually replaced the Liberals as themain rival of the Conservatives.

In the early 1900s, British womenknown as suffragettes pushed for women tohave the right to vote. They staged demon-strations and hunger strikes. In 1918Parliament gave all women over 30 theright to vote.

The Revolutions of 1848 In 1848 revolu-tions swept across Europe. Their startingpoint was France. Protests in support ofpolitical reforms erupted in Paris. TheFrench king Louis-Philippe was drivenfrom his throne, and France became arepublic.

Events in France sparked revolts inother parts of Europe. Seeking self-rule,Hungarians, Italians, and Germans allrebelled against their monarchs. Theserevolts failed, but the ideas of nationalismand political reform remained strongamong Europe’s middle and workingclasses.

In France, Napoleon’s nephew, LouisNapoleon, was elected president and lateremperor. Under Napoleon III, Franceenjoyed economic advances, but the gov-ernment was not democratic.

In 1870 Napoleon III declared war onPrussia. The powerful German state won aneasy victory, and Napoleon III’s govern-ment fell. The defeat stirred unrest inFrance. Workers seized control of Paris andset up a socialist government known as theCommune. A bloody civil war broke out.Troops supported by the upper-class gov-ernment crushed the workers. In 1875France became a republic once again.Distrust between its upper and workingclasses remained strong, however.

Reform in Austria and Russia During thelate 1800s, rulers in Austria and Russia triedto prevent political reform and weakennationalist movements. Humiliating defeatsin war, however, forced both Austria andRussia to make some changes.

In Austria, the government made a dealwith the Hungarians, who wanted theirfreedom. In 1867 Hungary became a sepa-rate kingdom linked to Austria. Togetherthey ruled the Austro-Hungarian Empire.The Hungarians were now satisfied, butother groups in Austria-Hungary were not.Their demands for self-rule continuedthroughout the rest of the 1800s.

In Russia, military defeat made the gov-ernment realize that the country was farbehind industrialized Europe. CzarAlexander II decided to create new indus-tries and improve farming. In 1861 he freedthe serfs—peasants who had to stay on theland where they were born and farm it fortheir landlords. Not enough land was givento the newly freed peasants, however, andthey remained dissatisfied. Many writersand philosophers opposed to the czar’s rulebegan calling for revolution.

Explain How did politicalchange in Britain differ from political change inother parts of Europe?


The Rise of Italy and GermanyIn the mid-1800s, two new countries,

Italy and Germany, were created.Reading Focus Which do you think is more impor-tant for a nation: democracy or a strong economywhere everyone has a job? Why? Read to find out abouthow two newly united countries answered this question.

In the early 1800s, the countries weknow today as Italy and Germany did notyet exist. Instead, these areas were dividedinto many small, independent states. By the1850s, the rise of nationalism in Europestrengthened the desire of many Italiansand Germans to create united countries.

How Did Italy Become a Country? In 1848most of Italy’s states were dominated byAustria. Piedmont, in northern Italy, wasindependent, and it was ruled by King VictorEmmanuel and the prime minister, Camillodi Cavour (kah•MEEL• loh dee kuh •VUR).

Both of these men wanted to unite Italy.After Piedmont helped Britain and Francein a war with Russia, France agreed to helpPiedmont drive Austria out of Italy. In1859, with France’s help, Piedmont won awar against Austria. This victory was thefirst step toward uniting Italy. Soon, peo-ple in other northern Italian states revoltedagainst their rulers and united withPiedmont.

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Chamberlin Trimetric projection200 km0

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Hanover

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SaxonySilesia

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LorraineW¨urttemberg

HolsteinSchleswig

RUSSIANEMPIRE

EASTPRUSSIA

Munich

Nuremberg

Breslau

Warsaw

K¨onigsberg

DresdenLeipzigCologne

TrierMainz

StrasbourgVerdun

Frankfurt

Brussels

Amsterdam

Berlin

Hamburg

The Rise of Italy and Germany 1859–1871

Growing nationalism helped lead to theunification of both Italy and Germany.1. Looking at the map, explain the sequence of

events in Italy.2. When was Schleswig Holstein added to the

German state?

Piedmont before 1859Added to Piedmont,1859Added to Piedmont,1860Added to Italy, 1866Added to Italy, 1870

KEY

Prussia before 1866KEY

Added 1866–1867as the North GermanConfederationAdded in 1871Annexed in 1871after the Franco-Prussian War

At the same time, nationalists led revoltsin southern Italy. Their leader was GiuseppeGaribaldi ( joo • ZEHP • pay GAR • uh • BAWL •dee). This revolutionary leader gained con-trol of the island of Sicily in 1860. Garibaldiwas a master of guerrilla warfare (guh • RIH •luh WAWR • FEHR), a form of war in whichsoldiers make surprise attacks on the enemyand then go back into hiding. Garibaldi’sarmy landed on Italy’s mainland andgained control over more territory. People inthe south then voted to join a united Italy.

In 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was set upas a constitutional monarchy under VictorEmmanuel. Two areas remained outsideItaly. One was Rome, which was under the

pope’s control. The other was an area ofnortheast Italy, which remained Austrian.By 1870, wars had brought both areas intothe new Italian kingdom, and the unity ofthe country was complete.

Bismarck Unites Germany Nationalismwas also strong in the German states. Manyof these states’ rulers were not willing togive up their political power though.Nationalists, however, had strong supportfrom the northern German state of Prussia,which had grown powerful and prosper-ous. Prussia was ruled by William I, whodreamed of uniting all German states underhis leadership. In 1862 he appointed Ottovon Bismarck (AHT • oh fawn BIHZ • MAHRK)as his prime minister.

Bismarck was a deeply conservativeJunker (YUNG • kuhr), or wealthy landowner.He vowed to govern Prussia by “blood andiron” rather than by votes and speeches.Bismarck quickly raised money andstrengthened the army. He used the army toeasily defeat neighboring Denmark andAustria in two short wars.

As Bismarck hoped, these successeshelped him unite all of northern Germanyin Prussia’s new empire. The mostlyCatholic southern German states feared thepower of Protestant Prussia. They fearedFrance more, however. In 1870 Bismarckfought a war with France, known as theFranco-Prussian War.

This conflict was a great success forPrussia and a disaster for France. Prussiagained two of France’s border territories.More importantly, the southern Germanstates agreed to unite with Prussia. OnJanuary 18, 1871, William was proclaimedkaiser (KY • zuhr), or emperor, of a unitedGermany.

Explain What role did KingVictor Emmanuel play in the unification of Italy?


King Victor Emmanuel (left) ruled a unitedKingdom of Italy. Otto von Bismarck (right)served as prime minister under William I ofPrussia and helped unite the German states.What did Bismarck mean when he said he wouldunite Germany by “blood and iron”?

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1,000 kilometers0Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

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EQUATOR

20°S

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40°W 20°W60°W80°W100°W120°W

COLOMBIA1821

VENEZUELA1830

ECUADOR1830

ARGENTINA1816

B R A Z I L1 8 2 2

URUGUAY 1828

PARAGUAY1811

FrenchGuiana

MEXICO1821

GUATEMALA 1823EL SALVADOR 1840

COSTA RICA 1838PANAMA 1903

NICARAGUA 1838HONDURAS 1838BELIZE 1981

SURINAME 1975

GUYANA 1966

CUBA 1902JAMAICA

1962

BOLIVIA1825

CHILE1818

PERU1821

DOMINICANREPUBLIC 1844

Puerto Rico

HAITI 1804

ATLANTICOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

Nationalism in Latin AmericaIn the early 1800s, the people of Latin

America rebelled and gained their independence.Reading Focus Do you want to be independent?What does that word mean to you? Read to learn whathappened when people in Latin America fought fortheir independence.

While nationalism advanced in Europe,the European-ruled colonies of LatinAmerica were moving toward independence.The American and French Revolutionsstirred the people of Latin America to action.Everywhere, colonists tried to take charge oftheir own affairs.

New Nations in Latin AmericaThe first successful revolt againstEuropean rule took place in Haiti,an island territory in theCaribbean Sea. There, François-Dominique Toussaint-Louvertureled enslaved Africans in a revoltthat eventually threw off Frenchrule in 1804.

In Spanish and PortugueseLatin America, the fight for free-dom increased in the next decade.In Mexico, two Catholic priests,Miguel Hidalgo and José MaríaMorelos, urged poorer Mexicansto fight for freedom. Both menwere defeated and executed.

Despite many battles, Mexicansdid not gain their independenceuntil 1821. After a shortperiod of rule under anemperor, Mexico became arepublic in 1823. Soon after,many people in CentralAmerica broke free fromMexican rule and began toform their own countries.

In the northern part of South America,Simón Bolívar (see • MAWN boh • LEE • VAHR),a wealthy military leader, led the fight forfreedom. Between 1819 and 1825, forcesunder Bolívar’s command defeated theSpanish and won independence for thepresent-day countries of Venezuela,Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, and Bolivia.

While Bolívar fought for freedom in thenorth, a soldier named José de San Martín(hoh • SAY day SAN • mahr • TEEN) was fight-ing for freedom in the south. In 1817 SanMartín led his army from Argentina acrossthe Andes mountain ranges and into Chile,taking the Spanish forces by surprise. A fewyears later, San Martín and Bolívar jointlydefeated the Spanish in the Pacific coastalcountry of Peru.

New Nations in Latin America

Most Latin Americans gained theirindependence in the early 1800s,but many of the countries that existtoday were formed much later.1. Which South American country

gained independence first? 2. When were each of the countries

of Central America established?

SIMÓN BOLÍVAR1783–1830

Simón Bolívar was born July 24, 1783, in Venezuela.

Although many people who lived in the area were poor, the

Bolívars were rich and owned land. By age nine Simón’s parents

had died. His uncle hired tutors for him, but the young boy

became bored and began to misbehave. When Bolívar was

11 years old, a man named Simón Rodríguez became his teacher

and lifelong friend. Rodríguez introduced Bolívar to the ideas of

European thinkers who believed in equality and freedom.

The two Simóns stayed together for many years, until

Rodríguez left Venezuela in 1797. When Bolívar was 16, he

visited his teacher and the two traveled across Europe. When

he was 18, Bolívar married a young Spanish woman named

María Teresa, and they moved back to Venezuela. She died

eight months later, and Bolívar never married again.

Bolívar went to Paris and watched as Napoleon

Bonaparte was crowned emperor. As Bolívar saw thousands

cheering Napoleon, he realized he could earn the respect of

the Venezuelan people if he freed them from Spain’s harsh

government. Bolívar traveled to Rome and on top of Monte

Sacro, he pledged:“I swear before you, I swear

before the god of my fathers . . .

that I shall not rest until I have broken the chains that

oppress us [keep us down].”

He led many battles throughout South America before his

goal to liberate his homeland came true. He became known

among them as “El Libertador,” which means “The Liberator.”

“We have already seenthe light, and it is notour desire to be thrustback into darkness.”

—Simón Bolívar, The Jamaica Letter

Simón Bolívar

Statue of Simón Bolívarin Caracas, Venezuela

Identify other leaders who freed a territory or

group of people. Why did they get involved?

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What Problems Did Latin America Face?By the end of the 1820s, most of Spain’scolonies in Latin America had won theirindependence. During the 1820s, Brazil alsobroke away from Portugal without blood-shed. Brazil was a monarchy before becom-ing a republic in 1889.

After Latin America won its indepen-dence, the United States made it knownthat it would protect the region. In 1823,United States president James Monroewarned the European powers not to inter-fere in the countries of Latin America. Hisstatement, called the Monroe Doctrine,guided U.S. actions toward Latin Americain the years ahead.

After gaining independence, most LatinAmericans hoped their countries wouldbecome democratic and prosperous. Thesegoals, however, were difficult to reach.

One major problem was frequent politi-cal conflict. Latin Americans quarreled overthe role of religion in their society.Individual countries fought over boundarylines. Tensions developed between the richand the poor.

At the same time, a series of strong lead-ers made it difficult for democracy andprosperity to develop. These were knownas caudillos (kow • THEE • yohs). Caudilloswere usually rich men, supported by theupper class. They often ruled as dictators.Some built roads, schools, and new cities.Many, however, favored the wealthy overthe poor. Wealthy Latin Americans ownedalmost all of the land. The caudillos didnothing to help workers in the countryside,who remained landless and struggled tomake a living. The wide divide betweenrich and poor is still a major problem inparts of Latin America today.

Identify Who were the caudillos?

Nationalism in the U.S.Nationalism in the United States led the

country to expand its borders, but differencesbetween the North and South led to a bloody civil war.Reading Focus Do you feel a spirit of nationalism?How do you express it? Find out how Americans of anearlier time expressed their nationalism.

Nationalism also helped shape theUnited States during the 1800s and led to asteady growth in the size of the country.Many Americans believed expansion wouldmake the young country richer and morepowerful. However, nationalism also led toconflicting ideas about the nation’s future.

The United States Expands West Duringthe 1800s, the United States graduallyexpanded its borders westward. In 1803 thecountry doubled in size by buying theLouisiana Territory from France. Duringthe first 50 years of the 1800s, the UnitedStates also gained Florida from Spain andthe Oregon Territory from Britain. Many

During the mid-1800s, many American settlersheaded west to lands in the Oregon Territory.What was Manifest Destiny?

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Americans came to believe in the “ManifestDestiny” of the United States, or the ideathat the United States should stretch fromthe Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.

In 1845, the United States annexedTexas, which had previously declaredindependence from Mexico. This greatlyangered Mexico. A dispute over the Texas-Mexico border caused more trouble. Bythe following year, Mexico and the UnitedStates were at war. The United Statesdefeated Mexico. In 1848 the peace treatyending the war gave the United States thearea that today includes California andseveral other western states.

Westward expansion brought newopportunities to settlers. They set up com-munities and built states in the new lands.The expansion also brought suffering—lossof land, culture, and often life—to NativeAmericans who had lived in the AmericanWest for centuries.

The American Civil War As the UnitedStates expanded westward, different waysof life developed in the Northern andSouthern states. By the mid-1800s, these dif-ferences had begun to threaten nationalunity. The South was rural. Its agriculturaleconomy depended on raising cotton.

In the United States,slavery in the Southhelped cause theAmerican Civil War.What crop in theSouth depended onthe use of enslavedworkers?

African Americansoldiers prepare for battle duringthe Civil War

Female suffragists marchingfor the right to vote

Immigrants arriving in theUnited States at Ellis Island

Growth of the United StatesGrowth of the United States

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Cotton growing, in turn, depended on mil-lions of enslaved African American workers.On the other hand, the North was buildingmore and more industries. People, includ-ing new immigrants, or arrivals from over-seas, were flocking to the growing cities.Some Northerners believed in abolitionism(A • buh • LIH • shuhn • IH • zuhm), a movement toend slavery.

The disagreement over slavery grewmore and more heated. By 1860, the UnitedStates consisted of both free, or non-slave,states and slave states. That year, AbrahamLincoln, an opponent of slavery, was electedpresident. Fearing that Lincoln would try to

end slavery, 11 states by early 1861 hadseceded, or left, the United States. Theyformed a new nation: the Confederate Statesof America. Fighting erupted in April, andthe American Civil War began.

The North had a much larger populationand more factories and railroads than theSouth. In spite of this huge advantage, theConfederate States won most of the earlybattles. Gradually, however, the North’smany resources gave it the upper hand. Thewar ended after four years of bloody fight-ing. More than 600,000 Americans died.

The war had other effects as well. TheNorth’s victory united the country. Millions

By 1848, the United States stretched from theAtlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.1. Which present-day states contain territory

gained by the United States in 1783?2. In what year did the United States first

expand to the west coast?

Expansion of the United States 1783–1898

Original 13 statesGained 1783Gained 1795Gained 1803Gained 1818Gained 1819Gained 1842Gained 1845Gained 1846Gained 1848Gained 1853Gained 1867Gained 1898

KEYTerritory gained bythe United States

Civil War cannon

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What Did You Learn?


Review the • The idea of nationalism and the

need for reform led to uprisings,wars, and political changes inEurope in the mid-1800s.

• Leaders like Garibaldi in Italy andBismarck in Germany helpedunite their respective countries.

• Colonies in Central and SouthAmerica became independentcountries following revoltsagainst Spanish rule.

• The United States expanded tothe Pacific coast, and then foughta terrible civil war over the issueof slavery.

1. How did Bismarck unite theGerman states?

2. What were caudillos and howdid they affect society in LatinAmerica?

Critical Thinking3. Summarize Draw a diagram

like the one below. Fill in theouter ovals with territoriesgained by the United Statesduring the 1800s.

4. Describe Describe the reformattempted in Russia in the1800s, why it occurred, andwhether it was a success.

5. Citizenship Which of thecountries discussed in thechapter became more demo-cratic in the 1800s?

6. Compare and ContrastCompare the Northern andSouthern states before the Civil War.

7. Expository Writing In ashort essay, define nationalismand tell whether you think it is still a powerful idea in theworld today.

United States Expansion

of African Americans were freed from slav-ery. The federal government was strength-ened. Also, new factories, railroads, andcities were built at an ever-increasing speed.

A New Society As industry grew, so did theUnited States’s population. Between 1870and 1900, the number of Americans doubled.

Immigrants contributed greatly to thisgrowth. Before the Civil War, most immi-grants came from northern Europe, mainlythe British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia.Then, during the late 1800s, immigrationfrom southern and eastern Europe increased.After landing at Ellis Island in New York,most of these immigrants headed to thecities to find work.

Communities of Asian immigrantsthrived along the west coast by the late 1800sas well. Chinese immigrants first came toCalifornia in the late 1840s to find gold and

stayed to work in the mines and build rail-roads. By 1900, immigrants from Japan alsoarrived in the country.

Political Rights During the 1800s, theUnited States, like countries in Europe,became more democratic. The election ofAndrew Jackson as U.S. president in 1828was seen as a victory for the “common peo-ple.” Jackson’s election was made possibleby the spread of voting rights to almost alladult white males.

As the 1800s moved forward, womenalso began to demand political equality.Women suffragists fought hard for women’sright to vote. Finally, in 1920, the NineteenthAmendment to the Constitution was rati-fied, or approved. This guaranteed womenin all states the right to vote.

Contrast How were theSouth and the North different during the periodleading up to the American Civil War?


Society and Industry

Nationalism and Nation-States


The French Revolution and Napoleon

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Section

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SectionVocabularyestates bourgeoisie coup d’etat

Vocabularyindustrialism textilecapitalpartnershipcorporation

Vocabularyurbanization liberalism socialism labor union

Vocabularykaiser caudilloabolitionism

Focusing on the • The French Revolution began because the people were treated unfairly and

because their country had serious economic problems. (page 715)

• French radicals used terror to enforce their reforms. (page 717)

• Napoleon Bonaparte used his military success to take control of the Frenchgovernment. (page 719)

• Through military conquests, Napoleon built a huge, but short-lived, empirein Europe. (page 720)

Focusing on the • The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain because of the enclosure

movement, Britain’s natural resources, and new British inventions. (page 725)

• The Industrial Revolution spread beyond Great Britain’s shores to Europeand the United States. (page 729)

Focusing on the • The Industrial Revolution caused cities to grow bigger and changed how

people lived and worked. (page 732)

• The Industrial Revolution led to new ideas about politics, society, and theeconomy. (page 734)

• Artists, writers, and composers reflected the changes that industrialismbrought to society. (page 736)

• Important scientific discoveries during the Industrial Revolution changedthe way people lived and how they understood the world. (page 738)

Focusing on the • Two powerful ideas, nationalism and reform, helped reshape Europe

politically during the mid-1800s. (page 745)

• In the mid-1800s, two new countries, Italy and Germany, were created.(page 747)

• In the early 1800s, the people of Latin America rebelled and gained theirindependence. (page 749)

• Nationalism in the United States led the country to expand its borders,but differences between the North and South led to a bloody civil war.(page 751)


Study anywhere, anytime!Download quizzes and flash cardsto your PDA from glencoe.com.

www.glencoe.com

Review VocabularyMatch the word in the first column with itsdefinition in the second column.___ 1. capital a. way of life based

on machinery and factories

___ 2. labor union b. money invested in businesses

___ 3. coup d’etat c. association of united workers

___ 4. bourgeoisie d. German emperor___ 5. kaiser e. sudden govern-

ment takeover___ 6. urbanization f. French middle class___ 7. industrialism g. movement from

rural areas to cities

Review Main IdeasSection 1 • The French Revolution and

Napoleon8. What caused the unrest among the French

people that led to revolution? 9. What was the result of Napoleon

Bonaparte’s military successes?


Understanding Concepts Reading for Meaning

To review this skill, see pages 712–713.

Section 2 • The Industrial Revolution10. In which country did the Industrial

Revolution begin? 11. Which other areas were affected by the

Industrial Revolution? Section 3 • Society and Industry12. How was industrialism reflected by artists,

writers, and composers? 13. What was the result of important scientific

discoveries during this time period? Section 4 • Nationalism and Nation-States14. Identify two ideas that reshaped Europe

during the mid-1800s. 15. How did nationalism affect Italy and

Germany?

Critical Thinking16. Explain Why did French leaders decide to

execute Robespierre? 17. Cause and Effect What new ideas

resulted from the factory system? 18. Contrast How were the ideas of

romanticism different from those of the Enlightenment?

19. Read the following sentences from pages 718–719. Based on the information, write a para-graph defining what Robespierre might have meant when he called for a “Republic ofVirtue.”

During this time, Robespierre tried to create a “Republic ofVirtue.” He thought the revolution should inspire people to begood citizens. Under Robespierre’s lead, the Committee openednew schools, had new farming skills taught to the peasants,and worked to keep prices under control.

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AnalyzeCaptain Kincaid was a member of theDuke of Wellington’s Rifle Brigade. Hedescribed this moment near the end ofthe battle at Waterloo.“Presently a cheer which we knew to beBritish commenced far to the right, and madeeveryone prick up his ears; it was LordWellington’s long-wished-for orders toadvance. . . . Lord Wellington galloped up tous at the instant, and our men began to cheerhim; but he called out, ‘No cheering, my lads,but forward, and complete our victory!’”

—Captain J. Kincaid, “Waterloo,18 June 1815: The Finale”

27. Why did Wellington tell the soldiers not to cheer for him?

28. Why do you think the soldiers wereeagerly waiting for the orders toadvance?

Self-Check Quiz To help you prepare for the Chapter Test, visit jat.glencoe.com

Iron ore fieldsCoal fieldsRailways, 1850Industrial centers

KEY

Geography SkillsStudy the map below and answer the follow-ing questions.20. Region What resources gave England an

advantage in developing industries? 21. Location Which two industrial centers

are located near both coal and iron orefields?

22. Analyze Why do you think there were norailroads in northern Scotland and Ireland?

Read to Write23. Expository Writing Write an essay

comparing the events and results of therules of Bismarck and Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon). What personal char-acteristics did each man have that con-tributed to his accomplishments?

24. Using Your Work in a smallgroup to create a poster or other visual aidusing the information written on one ofyour foldable tabs. For example, your groupmay choose to reflect Society and Industryby showing pieces of art and literature thatresulted from each social movement.

Using Technology25. Research Unity is still a goal of many

Europeans. Use the Internet and your locallibrary to research efforts to unify Europe.Share your findings with the class.

Linking Past and Present26. Compare How are the Declaration of

the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the U.S. Constitution similar?


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