Models and Concepts

APHG Review

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration• British sociologist (1834 – 1913)• Laws of Migrations:

1. Most migrants go only a short distance1. Distance Decay

2. Most migrations proceed step-by-step (Lee’s Model)3. If they do move a long distance, they are more likely to travel to a

big city (Gravity Model)4. Every migration flow produces a counterflow

1. Rural migrants move to city; city dwellers move to suburbs

5. Most migration is from rural to urban6. Families are less likely to make international moves than young

adults7. Most international migrants are young males

1. Changed with time; women comprise 40-60% of International migrants (55% of U.S. migrants)

Types of Migration

Voluntary Migration• Choose to migrate• Remember

– Must be permanent– If they return (guest workers,

time-contract workers) they are not included in these numbers

Forced Migration• a.k.a. Involuntary migration• Examples:

– Triangle Trade• Atlantic Arm

– Native American relocation in Great Plains region of U.S.

Global Migration Trends

• From less-developed Stage 2 countries

• To more-developed Stage 4 countries

• 3 largest migration flows– Asia to Europe– Asia to North America– Latin America to North America

• Net In Migration: Europe, North America & Oceania

• Net Out Migration: Asia, Latin America & Africa

U.S. Immigration Trends

• 3 Phases1. American colonies

– European settlement, mainly British– African slaves

2. Nineteenth-Twentieth Century1. 1840-1850: Western Europe 2. 1880s: Northern Europe 3. Beginning of Twentieth Century: Southern & Eastern Europe

3. 2nd Half of Twentieth Century1. Latin America & Asia

• Periods of Decline– U.S. Civil War, 1893 Depression, WWI, Great Depression, WWII

Key Terms Defined

• Push Factor: Factor that induces people to leave old residences.

• Pull Factor: Factor that induces people to move to a new location.

• Intervening Obstacle: An environmental or cultural feature of the landscape that hinders migration.

• Intervening Opportunity: A favorable environmental, economic or cultural feature that redirects migration.

Lee’s Model of Migration

Push Factors1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Source Region

InterveningObstacle

Migration

Pull Factors1.2.3. 4.5.6. 7. 8.

Destination

Push/Pull Factors(Lee’s Model of Migration)

1. Economic2. Environmental3. Cultural

• Economic & Environmental push/pull factors are generally associated with voluntary migration.

• Cultural push/pull factors are generally associated with forced migration

• Note: people tend to move on excessively positive images/expectations that may not always be accurate

Push/Pull Factors

Push Factors• Economic

– Poverty– Few job opportunities– Low wages

• Environmental– Hazardous regions– Adverse physical conditions– Too little water/too much water

• Cultural– Slavery– Political instablity– Religious/ethnic persecution

(refugees)

Pull Factors• Economic

– Higher standard of living– More job opportunities– Higher wages

• Environmental– Stable climates

• Cultural– Stable political conditions

Intervening Obstacle/Opportunity

• Examples of Obstacles– Environmental

• Mountains, rivers, bodies of water, etc.

– Cultural• Passport to leave/visa to come in

– Economic• Run out of money

• Examples of Opportunities– Economic

• New jobs along migration route

– Environmental• Jobs created to divert rivers for irrigation (economic as well)

– Cultural• Move into an ethnic enclave along route

Practical Application of Lee’s ModelSource Region Destination Region

Push Factors

- -- - -

Pull Factors

+ + +

+ +

Migration

Intervening Obstacle

Pull Factors+ +

+

+ +

Push Factors

- -- - - -

Return

Other Destination

Intervening Opportunity

Few ArriveMany

leave

Gravity model

• Interaction is proportional to the multiplication of the two populations divided by the distance between them (distance decay); based on Newton’s Law of Gravity

Language Classification

1. Language Families2. Language Branches3. Language Groups

4. Languages5. Dialects6. Accents

Universalizing vs. Ethnic Religions

Universalizing• 58% of the world• Organization

– Religion– Branch– Denomination– Sect

Ethnic• 26% of the world

Holy Sites

• Universalizing– Cities & places associated with founder’s life

• Ethnic– Distinctive physical environment of its hearth

Holy Days

• Universalizing– Commemorate events in the founder’s life

• Ethnic– Celebration of the seasons

Methods of Diffusion

• Universalizing Religions– Relocation diffusion• Christian missionaries

– Contagious Diffusion• Muslims marrying non-Arabs

– Hierarchical Diffusion• Emperor Asoka converting to Buddhism

• Ethnic Religions– Most lack diffusion

Buddhism

• Origins– Siddhartha Gautama, 563 BCE, son of a lord– Age 29, left his sheltered life & for 6 years

meditated in a forest in India– Emerged Buddha “enlightened one”– Spent 45 years preaching across India

Buddhism

• Major Branches– Theravada • Must renounce possessions & become a monk• Cite Buddha’s wisdom & stress meditation

– Mahayana • Less demanding, all encompassing

– Tantrayana

Buddhism

• Current Distribution = 400 million followers– Mahayanist = 56%– Theravadists = 38%– Tantrayanists = 6%

• Locations– M = China, Japan & Korea– Th = Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka & Thailand– Ta = Tibet & Mongolia

Christianity

• Origin– Founded on teachings of Jesus– Born in Bethlehem between 8 & 4 BCE– Died in Jerusalem in 30 CE– Christians believe the Jesus died for human sins

and was resurrected by God

Christianity

• Major Branches– Roman Catholic:

• teachings of Bible & Church Hierarchy (Pope)

– Orthodoxy• Split with Roman Catholicism beginning in the 5 c., finalized in

1054

– Protestantism• Reformation in 16th c.• Martin Luther

Christianity

• Current Distribution = 2 billion followers– 51% R.C. – 24% Protestant– 11% Orthodox– 14% other Christian churches

• Locations– R.C.: S & W Europe, Latin America– Protestant: N. America, N. Europe, Oceania– Orthodox: E. Europe

Islam

• Origin– Muhammad was born in 570 in Mecca– At 40, he received his first message from Allah

through the Archangel Gabriel– Quran is a record of God’s words as relayed to

Muhammad from the angel Gabriel– In 622, after much persecution Muhammad was

commanded to move to Yathrib (renamed Medina or “the City of the Prophet”)

Islam

• Major Branches– Sunni• Sunnis recognize the four caliphs after Muhammad as

legitimate religious leaders

– Shiites (Shia)• Shiites believe the only Ali (who was Muhammad’s son-

in-law) is the only legitimate caliph as he was Muhammad’s closest male heir

Islam

• Current Distribution – 1.3 Billion people– Sunni = 83%– Shiites = 16%

• Locations– Middle East

• North Africa to Central Asia

– Outside the Middle East = 50% of Muslims• Indonesia• Pakistan• Bangladesh• India

Distribution of Christianity in U.S.

Hinduism• Origin– 2500-1500 BCE, no single founder– Mingling of Aryan & Dravidian beliefs

• Holy Sites– Ganges & Mt. Kailās (Siva)

• Branches• Vaishnavism (Vishnu) = est. 70%• Sivaism (Siva) = 26%

– Autonomous religion• No set way to worship, no central authority

• Distribution– 97% clustered in India

Judaism• Origin

– Abraham moved to Canaan– Monotheistic, differed from polytheistic groups surrounding

• Holy Sites• Canaan (Bible), Palestine (Romans), Israel

• Distribution = 14 million– 1/3 in U.S.– 1/3 in Israel– 1/3 elsewhere– Diaspora

• Forced from Eastern Mediterranean by Romans during 70 CE

Difference between Ethnicity & Nationality

Ethnicity • Identity with a group of

people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions.

• Culture

Nationality

• Identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular place as a result of being born there.

• Location

Nation-States• Ethnicities became nationalities with the rise of

nation-states• Concept of nation-states developed in Europe

in the 19th c.• Examples– Iceland– Denmark– Poland– Japan

Part-Nation States

• A nation dispersed across and predominant in two or more states– Arab Nation

Multinational States

• Multiethnic state– Example: U.S.• Many ethnicities contributing to a single nationality

• Multinational state• Examples– U.K. : English, Scottish, Welsh & N. Irish– U.S.S.R : 15 republics = 15 largest ethnicities = 15

countries

Stateless nations• A nationality that

doesn’t have a territory of its own

• Kurds & Assyrian Christians in Iraq

• Palestinians• Roma• Chechnya• Basques

Hispanic/Latin Distribution• Distribution – Clustered in the Southwest– 87% of total Hispanic population in four states• California • Texas • New York • Florida

• 2/3 of all Hispanic Americans come from Mexico

Distribution of African-Americans• Distribution • Clustered in the Southeast– Other areas of high concentration• Washington D.C. = 52.2%

– Very few African Americans• Northeast• Northern border states

Asian American Distribution• Distribution • Clustered in the West– Other areas of high concentrations• New York = 8.2%

– Lower concentrations• South

American Indian & Alaska Native Distribution

• Distribution– California – Oklahoma – Arizona – Texas – New York

• Majority in all American Indian & Alaska Native in 10 states– California, Oklahoma, Arizona, Texas & New York– New Mexico– Washington– North Carolina– Florida– Michigan

Theorists

• Carl Sauer– Origins of agriculture = “lands of plenty”– Allow for experimentation with plants & animals

• Thomas Malthus– Projected that population growth would outpace food

supply• Esther (Ester) Boserup

– Population growth influences agricultural innovations– Opposed Malthus

First Agricultural Revolution

• Neolithic Revolution• Carl Sauer– 1st hearth = Southeast Asia 14,000 yrs ago– Argued multiple independent hearths over

1000s of years• Fertile Crescent 10,000 yrs ago– Seed crops– Cultivation of seed crops led to the First

Agricultural Revolution

Different Kinds of Agriculture

Subsistence• Shifting Cultivation

– Slash-and-burn– Pastoral nomadism

• Intensive– Lots of work

• Extensive– Not as much work

Commercial• Dairy• Grain• Livestock• Mediterranean• Commercial gardening• Plantation (LDCs)

Second Agricultural Revolution

• 17th & 18th centuries• Developed in Europe• Coincided with Industrial Revolution

Changes• New climates opened to agriculture• Increased the sizes of farms• Fewer people in agriculture• Four-Field rotation– Maintains fertility

• New technologies• Selective Breeding

Third Agricultural Revolution• Green Revolution– 1930s

• Increase yields– New fertilizers– Genetically modified seeds (biotechnology)– “Miracle Seed”

von Thünen• Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1783 – 1850)– German Farmer

• As moved further away from the city one crop ended & another began– Set in concentric circles around the city• First ring: Market gardening & dairy• Second ring: Lumber• Third ring: Grains & extensive crops• Fourth ring: Ranching & livestock

Economic Activities Review

• Primary Sector– Extraction

• Secondary Sector– Processing & manufacturing

• Tertiary Sector– Services, sales & exchanging goods

• Quaternary Sector– Exchange of information

• Quinary Sector– High level decision-making & research

Basic vs. Non-basic

• Basic industry – an industry critical to the health of an area’s economy.– Generates revenue from outside the local area

• Non-basic industry – Industries that sell their products primarily to consumers in the community.– Generates revenue from within the community– Money is circulated between members of the

community• Grocery stores, barbershops, etc.

Immanuel Wallerstein

• World Systems Theory– Theory of a global core, periphery and semipeiphery

• Economic & political

– Development occurred faster in global core due to exposure to new technologies

• Core Periphery Model maps level of development– Underdeveloped countries (periphery) dependent on…– Developed countries (core)

PolarProjection

Characteristics

Core• Wealthy/rich• Tertiary sector or above• High literacy rates• Low CBRs• In-migration• Gender equality• Democratic• Colonizers

Periphery• Poor• Primary/secondary sector• Low literacy rates• High CBRs• Out-migration• Gender roles• Not democratic• Colonies/colonized

Examples

Core• Countries

– United States– U.K.– Belgium– Germany– France– Canada

• Regions– North America– Western Europe

Periphery• Countries

– Peru– Democratic Republic of Congo– Yemen– North Korea– Afghanistan

• Regions– Sub-Saharan Africa

Semiperiphery?

• Semiperiphery shares characteristics of both core & periphery

• Countries: BRIC– Brazil– Russia– India– China

• Others– Mexico– South Africa– Indonesia

Rostow’s Stages of Development

• Attempt to explain the stages that a country goes through as it moves from LDC/periphery to MDC/core

Stage 1: The traditional society

Description• Economic

– Predominantly primary sector (esp. subsistence agriculture)

• Social– Hierarchical social structure

• Political– Landowners

• Cultural values– Resistant to change

• Country – Afghanistan

• U.S. – Pre-Independence

Stage 2: Preconditions for takeoff

Description• Economic

– Surplus of agriculture– Expanding secondary sector

• Social– Some urbanization

• Political– Centralized national

government

• Cultural values– Progress & openness

• Country – India

• U.S. – First half of 1800s

Stage 3: Takeoff

Description• Economic

– New technologies in few sectors

• Social– Entrepreneurial class emerges

as dominant• Political

– Factions push for modernization

• Cultural values– Investment of capital for profit

• Country – Thailand

• U.S. – Middle of the 1800s

Stage 4: Drive to Maturity

Description• Economic

– New technologies emerge in all sectors

• Social– Urbanization

• Political– Industrial leaders

increasingly influential

• Cultural values– Expectation of progress

• Country– South Korea

• U.S. – Late 1800s

Stage 5: Age of Mass Consumption

Description• Economic

– Tertiary sector dominant

• Social– Emergence of middle class

& suburbs

• Political– Push for social welfare

• Cultural values– Increased demand for

consumer goods

• Country – Japan

• U.S. – Early 1900s

Least Cost Theory

• Must weigh the cost of transportation, labor & advantages of agglomeration

• Transportation– Must account for transportation of raw materials & finished

product– Based on weight

• Bulk-gaining industry– Finished product heavier than input parts– Locate close to market

• Bulk-reducing industry– Finished product lighter than input parts– Locate close to raw materials

• Locational triangle– Balance the cost between the market & two raw

materials

Human Development Index (HDI)

• Measure of development conducted by the UN• Measures development in terms of human welfare

rather than money• 3 dimensions (four indicators)– Health

• Life expectancy at birth

– Education (average of two indices)• Mean years of schooling (at 25)• Expected years of schooling (at start of schooling)

– Living Standards• GNI per capita (NOT GDP)

HDI by Region

MDCs• Japan: 0.96• North America: 0.95• Europe: 0.93• Oceania: 0.90• Russia: 0.73

LDCs• Latin America: 0.82• East Asia: 0.77• SW Asia & N. Africa: 0.74• SE Asia: 0.73• Central Asia: 0.70• South Asia: 0.61• Sub-Saharan African: 0.51

Brandt Line

• Also known as the North/South divide• Divides the more developed North (generally

core) with the less developed South (periphery)

Deindustrialization

• Examples:– Rust Belt

• Effects:– Shift to tertiary sector– Improved environment– High unemployment (temporarily)

Maquiladoras

• Maquiladoras– Factories built by U.S. companies in Mexico near

the U.S. border to take advantage of much lower labor costs

– Low-wage workers– Foreign-owned factories– Import raw materials/components (do not use

local resources, beyond labor)– Export finished goods

EPZs

• Attempt to attract foreign business with favorable business climates

• Maquiladoras are EPZs in Mexico– Situated at/near the border– Free of import tariffs

• Special Economic Zones are EPZs in China– Situated near major port cities

Self-Sufficiency

• Spread investment across as many sectors as possible

• Modest but fair• Development more evenly distributed• Limits imports (limits competition)– High tariffs– Quotas on imports

• Example: India & China– Most countries don’t use self-sufficiency any more

International Trade Approach

• Must identify unique economic assets• Must produce better quality at lower price

then other countries• Examples– Four Asian Tigers– Arabian Peninsula countries

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)

• Measure to gauge how involved women are in improving their status– Economic power• Female income as % of male income• % of professional & technical jobs held by women

– Political power• % of administrative jobs held by women• % of national parliament that are women

Other Definitions

Urban Areas• Nucleated

– Core area– Central Business District

(CBD)

• Non-agricultural jobs

City• Louis Wirth• 3 Characteristics:

– Large Size– High Density– Social Heterogeneity

• Does not apply to MDCs anymore– All but 1% hold “urban” jobs

Historical Patterns of Urbanization

• First urban revolution– Innovation of the city

• 5 Urban Hearths1. Mesopotamia (3500 B.C.E.) (10k-15k pop.)2. Nile River Valley (10k-15k pop)3. Indus River Valley4. Huang He (Yellow)/Wei (Yangtze) Valleys5. Mesoamerica– Sometimes Peru is said to be the 6th urban hearth

Rank-Size Rule

• Relatively developed societies produce a ranking in the hierarchy of their cities according to a mathematical formula– The nth largest settlement in a region is 1/n the

population of the largest settlement in the region– Felix Auerbach (1913) suggested– George Zipf (1941) created formula • Zipf’s Law

• Generally applies more to MDCs than LDCs

Urban Primacy

• In less developed countries/regions, the largest city is overly populated.

• These large cities are known as primate cities– The largest settlement in a country, if it has more

than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement.

Primate Cities

Primate Cities• Mexico City, Mexico

– 8,605,239

• London, UK– 8,174,100

• Paris, France– 2,234,105

2nd Largest City• Guadalajara

– 1,646,183

• Birmingham– 1,074,300

• Marseilles– 853,000

Central Place Theory

• A.K.A. Christaller’s Theory– Walter Christaller: The Central Places in Southern

Germany (1933)• Central Place Theory– Determines where places in the urban hierarchy

(hamlets, villages, towns & cities) are located spatially & functionally

– Establishes a central place surrounded by the market area

Market Areas

• The area surrounding a central place from which people are attracted to use the place’s goods and services.

• Market area varies based:– Range• The max distance people will travel for a service

– Threshold• The minimum number of people needed to support a

service

Concentric Zone

• E.W. Burgess– Concentric Zone = Burgess Model

• 1923• Based on Chicago• 5 rings

1. CBD: nonresidential activities1. Can be subdivided into other sub districts (theater, retail, government, etc.)

2. Zone in Transition (ZIT): Industry & lower-income housing3. Working-class homes4. Zone of middle-class homes5. Commuter zone

• As areas expand, zones will overflow into subsequent zones (invasion) causing current residents to move further away (succession)

Sector Model

• Homer Hoyt• Late 1930s• Response to the limitations of the Burgess

model– Impact of transportation routes

• City develops in sectors, not rings– Industry will develop along good transportation

lines

Multiple Nuclei

• Harris and Ullman• 1945• CBD losing its dominance– Multiple centers (polycentric) emerge around

various activities– These centers might attract other activities

• More complex than concentric zone or sector

Urban Realms Model

• James E. Vance• 1964• Attempt to improve the multiple nuclei model• Based on San Francisco, CA• City is made up of small “realms” which are self-

sufficient• Most geographers believe this is more accurate

than traditional models• Development of edge cities

Latin America

• A.K.A. Griffin-Ford Model• 1980• Combines traditional Latin American culture with

forces of globalization• CBD– Traditional market sector– Modern high-rise sector– Commercial Spine

• Housing– SES decreases as distance increases from city center

Europe

• Cities are much older• Streets – Narrow (pre-automobile)

• Residential– SES decreases as distance increases

• Skyscrapers located farther from city center• Greenbelts– Used to prevent urban sprawl

SE Asia

• T.G. McGee• 1967• Port– Central part of the city– No CBD

• Broken into areas surround port (government zone, etc.)

• “Alien Commercial Zone”– Dominated by the Chinese

• Often has smaller zones within other larger zones

Sub-Saharan Africa

• CBD– 3 CBDs• Colonial (former)• Market zone• Traditional CBD

• Residential– Often along ethnic lines

Islamic City

• Climate– Light-colored surface– Twisting streets to maximize shade

• Religion– Mosque at the center of the city, main focal point– Promote privacy

• Other characteristics– Open-air markets

Borchert’s Model

• Model of interstate (or international) travel1. Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790 – 1830)2. Iron Horse Epoch (1830 – 1870)3. Steel-Rail Epoch (1870 – 1920)4. Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920 – 1970)5. Satellite-Electronic-Jet Propulsion Epoch

(1970 - ?)1. Not a formal stage of Borchert’s model

Ghettoization & Urban Decay

• More affluent families leave the inner city for suburbs

• As people leave, the tax base diminishes• Cities then become the center of poverty– In North America

Redlining & Filtering

• As affluent houses are vacated– Owners will subdivide the house & rent it out to

multiple renters (Filtering)• As the city decays– Banks identify areas that they refuse to loan

money to (Redlining)– Illegal

Gentrification

• Low-income areas attract middle-class groups for a number of reasons– Larger residences– Stable construction– Cheaper– Attractive architectural designs– Location near downtown employment, services,

entertainment• Groups– Groups that have limited/no family obligations & higher

incomes (Yuppies, SINKS, DINKS, empty nesters)

Squatter Settlements

• UN: 175 million people live in squatter settlements– 43% of LDC urban population live in these

settlements• Periphery of city• Built with whatever people can find• Limited/no services• Most people employed informally or illegally