mo wai man teresa- honours projectlibproject.hkbu.edu.hk/trsimage/hp/11007273.pdf · 2 declaration...
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ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE SHOT PUT ATHLETES IN HONG
KONG
BY
MO WAI MAN TERESA
11007273
AN HONOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ARTS
IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS)
HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
APIRL 2013
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Hong Kong Baptist University
30th April, 2013
We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Miss MO Wai Man Teresa
entitled “Anthropometric Characteristics of Senior Secondary School Female Shot Put
Athletes In Hong Kong” be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Bachelor of Arts Honours Degree in Physical Education And Recreation
Management.
_________________________ _________________________
Prof. Chow Bik Chu Dr. Tong Kwok Keung Tom
Chief Adviser Second Reader
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this honours project “Anthropometric Characteristics of
Senior Secondary School Female Shot Put Athletes In Hong Kong” represents my
own work and had not been previously submitted to this or other authors were listed
in the references.
__________________
Mo Wai Man Teresa
30th April, 2013
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my chief advisor, Prof. Chow Bik
Chu, for her valuable advices, professional suggestions and guidance on the study.
Also, I would also like to express my gratitude to my second reader, Dr. Tong Kwok
Keung Tom, to his effort on this study.
On the other hand, I would also like to give thanks to Mr. Binh Quach the
technician of the laboratory of Dr. Stephen Hui Research Centre for Physical
Recreation and Wellness of Hong Kong Baptist University for arrange the date and
room for the measurement. Also, thanks must be given to the Physical Education
teachers of involved Secondary Schools for arranging the measurements of the
athletes. Last but not least, I would also like to express my appreciation to the athletes
for their participation in this study.
_______________________
Mo Wai Man Teresa
Department of Physical Education
Hong Kong Baptist University
Date: 30th April, 2013
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ABSTRACT
Many studies and researches have conducted in the western countries
concerning the anthropometric characteristic of shot put. Yet, there is no existing
information or reference about anthropometric characteristic in Hong Kong. This
study was to investigate the general anthropometric characteristics of senior
secondary school female shot put athletes in Hong Kong. Seventeen female shot
putters took part in this study. They were the participants in the Inter-school
Athletics Competition Division One (N=10) and Division Two (N=7) that
organized by HK Island &Kowloon Secondary Schools Regional Committee who
aged from 16 to 18± 0.81. Subjects would be measured on (1) Basic physical
characteristics (i.e. body height and weight, BMI and fat mass), (2) 8 skinfolds
sites, (3) 5 girths sites and (4) Arm Lengths (upper arm and lower arm).
According to the findings, the mean height (166.7cm ±3.97), weight (76.06kg ±
15.16) and BMI (27.33 ± 4.69) of the female shot putter were significantly higher
than the mean height (158.6±0.17), weight (51.1kg±0.12) and BMI (20.4±0.06) of
average girls. Second, measurements in fat mass, skinfold and girths were found
significantly large standard deviation indicating that the subjects had very
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different anthropometric characteristics. There was a very weak and
non-significant relationship between the result of shot put and the anthropometric
variables of the female shot putters.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 8
Statement of the Problem............................................................................ 9
Purpose of the Study.................................................................................. 10
Significance of the Study........................................................................... 10
Definition of the Terms.............................................................................. 11
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................... 13
Factors affecting the performance of shot put........................................... 13
Anthropometric characteristic of shot putters........................................... 16
Relationship between anthropometric characteristics and shot put
performance .............................................................................................. 17
Summary.................................................................................................... 18
3. METHOD .......................................................................................................... 20
Subjects ......................................................................................................20
Data Collection........................................................................................... 20
Measurement Procedure……………………………………………..……21
Delimitations.............................................................................................. 29
Limitations................................................................................................. 30
Data Analysis............................................................................................. 30
4. ANALYSIS OF DATA..................................................................................... 32
Results……………………………………………………………....…….32
Discussions................................................................................................. 35
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................................................................ 41
Summary.....................................................................................................41
Conclusions............................................................................................... 42
Recommendations of Future Studies......................................................... 43
CHAPTER Page
REFERENCES..................................................................................................... .44
APPENDIX............................................................................................................47
A. Consent Form to Athletes................................................................................ .47
B. Data Collection Sheet...................................................................................... .48
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
1. Values of physical characteristics of the subjects................................ 33
2. Values of skinfold measurements of the subjects................................ 33
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3. Values of girths of the subjects........................................................... 34
4. Values of arm length and result of the subjects...................................34
5. Relationship between the result and anthropometric variables..............35
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Shot put is one of the throwing events in track and field that involve the
putting of a heavy metal ball (i.e. the shot). In order to achieve good
performance in shot put, demonstrating an accurate shot put technique is one of
the keys. Among the shot putters, glide and spin are the two most common
techniques used (Silvester 2003). In order to achieve better performance, they
had been refining their skills on the release velocity of the shot and the height
of releasing angle since the result of this event is highly determined by these
factors (Zatsiorsky, Lanka & Shalmanov 1981).
On the other hand, the shot is the heaviest apparatus, therefore, muscles
strengthen and power were also factors that contributed to the performance.
Kyriazis, Terzis, Boudolos and Georgiadis (2009) suggested that leg muscles
power is a good parameter to rotational shot put result; Terzis, Kyriazis,
Karampatsos and Georgiadis (2012) stated that the performance of rotational
shot put is closely related to the muscle strengthen. And Judge et al. (2013)
suggested that strength exercise should be included in the training since this
helped to achieve better result.
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Owing to the nature of the sport, shot putters had unique anthropometric
measurements compared to other track and field athletes (Thorland, Johnson,
Fagot, Tharp and Hammer 1981) which they were found to be taller, heavier
and fatter. In later studies, for instance, Tešanović, Mihajlović, Bošnjak,and
Dragosavljević (2010) found that these special characteristics favor the
performance of shot put.
However, there were no studies or researches made on the shot putters in
Hong Kong. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the
anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school level female shot
putters in Hong Kong in a hope that provide some guidelines to coaches for
talent selection . The results of the study could serve as a reference for selecting
potential shot put athletes.
Statement of the Problem
There are many studies and researches have conducted in the western
countries concerning the anthropometric characteristic and biomechanics of shot
put. However, there are no existed and available researches concerning neither
the anthropometric characteristics nor the biomechanics of Hong Kong female
shot put athletes for reference. Also, studies have found that shot put result is
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related to some anthropometric characteristics like upper arm, chest and thigh
circumferences (K. Singh, P. Singh & C. Singh, 2012). It was wondered what
anthropometric characteristics of Hong Kong secondary school female shot put
athletes are like and if there are relationships between the shot put performances
and the various anthropometric characteristics.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the anthropometric
characteristics of senior secondary school level female shot putters in Hong
Kong.
Significance of the Study
Thorland et al. (1981), Tešanović et al. (2010) stated that anthropometric
characteristics play a part in the shot put performance. In other words,
anthropometric characteristics could indicate the ones’ ability on the
performance of shot put. This study is purposed to investigate the
anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school level female shot
putters in Hong Kong in a hope to provide guidelines and information to
coaches for talent selection. The results of the study could serve as a reference
for selecting potential shot put athletes. And to understand the general
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anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school female shot put
athletes in Hong Kong.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms were operationally defined especially for this study:
Anthropometry
Anthropometry referred to a study of the measurement of human body in
terms of bone, muscle, and adipose tissue. In this study, according to the
Restricted Profile provided by the International Standards for Anthropometric
Assessment (2001), the measurement of the subjects included body height,
body weight, body mass index, fat mass (in percentage), 8 skinfolds sites, 5
girths sites and 2 arm lengths.
Senior Secondary School Students
Senior secondary school students referred to the Form 4 to 6 students who
studied in the 3-3-4 scheme which operated in Hong Kong educational system
started form the school year of 2009 to 2010 according to the Education Bureau.
In this study, the senior secondary school female shot put athletes were defined
as those of Form 4 to 6 (aged 16 to 18) students from secondary schools in
Hong Kong who were participants in Division 1 and Division 2 Inter-school
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Athletics Competition organized by HK Island &Kowloon Secondary Schools
Regional Committee (HKSSF).
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This review of literature is divided into four sections: (1) factors affecting
the performance of shot put; (2) anthropometric characteristic of shot putters; (3)
relationship between anthropometric characteristics and shot put performance,
and (4) summary.
Factors Affecting The Performance Of Shot Put
Probst and Lawler (2007) stated that the height of release above the ground,
the release angle and the speed of release played an important role in the flight
dynamics and distance for the shot put. At the same time, Linthorne (2001)
conducted a study on assessing the accuracy of a method of calculating the
optimum release angle. He also found that each shot putter had him or her own
optimum angle of release that aided him or her to perform better result.
Nevertheless, Young and Li (2005) conducted a study on 7 top female shot
putters and thirty parameters were examined. The results showed that the
distance of shot put was positively correlated with release speed and shoulder
hip separation (r = 0.97, p < 0.0003; r = 0.72, p < 0.06) but negatively
correlated with release angle, rear knee angle at rear foot touchdown and rear
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knee angle at release (r = 0.74, p < 0.056 ; r = 0.93, p < 0.003; r = 0.76, p <
0.047). Yet, Lipovšek, Škof, Štuhec and Čoh, (2011) suggested that release
velocity could not sufficiently explain the effective shot acceleration where the
study was took place during the 2008 European Cup Winter Throwing in Split.
On the other hand, many researchers suggested that muscle power and
strength were significantly correlated to shot put performance. Terzis et al.
(2012) has conducted a longitudinal study on a male elite shot putter. The
subject was asked to perform his best on squat, bench press and snatch and
found out that his shot put performance was closely related to 1RM squat
strength (r = .93, p<0.01), bench press (r = .87, p<0.01), and snatch (r = .92,
p<0.01). The researcher concluded that muscle strength instead of lean body
mass.
Also, Terzis, Georgiadis, Vassiliadou, and Manta (2003) found out that
triceps brachii fiber type II play a significant part in shot put performance. The
research was conducted on 13 male students from physical education and
collected the data after five weeks of shot put training. The result showed that
the result of shot put was positively related with triceps brachii fiber type II (r
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=0.70, p<0.01). However, Kyriazis et al. (2009) indicated that that the leg
power was a good indicator for shot putters who use spinning technique. The
test was conducted on 9 shot putters before and after competition and was asked
to perform 1RM squat and coutermovement jump and found that shot put result
was significantly correlated to the muscular power and takeoff velocity during
coutermovement jump at competition period (r = 0.66, p <0.05 and r =0.70, p <
0.05).
What is more, Terzis, Karampatsos, and Georgiadis (2007) suggested that
the level of activation of the vastus lateralis , pectoralis major and triceps
brachii contributed to the shot put performance. The study was conducted on 8
experienced shot putters and required the shot putters to perform a maximum
(1RM) squat and a 1RM incline bench-press strength test. Then the quadriceps
vastus lateralis (VL), gastrocnemius internus, pectoralis major (PEC) and
triceps brachii (TRI) of the right side were recorded by electromyographic
(EMG). The results found that performance was positively correlated with 1RM
squat (r = 0.76, P < 0.05) and 1RM bench-press (r = 0.75, P < 0.05) also with
the average EMG from VL and PEC after taking the power position (r = 0.91, P
< 0.01 and r = 0.75, P < 0.05, respectively). However, there was a negative
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relationship between performance and the time to reach peak activation of right
TRI during the explosive strike of the throwing arm (r = -0.70, P < 0.05).
Anthropometric Characteristic Of Shot Putters
Malina, Harper, Avent and Campbell (1971), Thorland et al. (1981)
conducted research on 66 female track and field athletes who aged from 17.6 to
25 and 145 male and 133 female adolescent athletes who took part in track and
field, gymnastics, diving, and wrestling in the national competition respectively.
Both studies found that athletes in throwing events including shot put, were
taller, heavier and fatter compared to other athletes.
Also, Abraham (2010) conducted a study on 93 track and field athletes
where 20 of them were throwers whose mean age was 19. Subjects were
assessed on their height, weight, six skinfolds, two bicondylar breadths and two
girths. Throwers were found to be belonged to endomorphic mesomorphs body
types. They had the highest body fat percent (7.38±0.85%), which reflected in
the endomorphic components (i.e. 3.39±0.65). Throwers were found to have
significantly higher values of skinfold measurements than other groups.
However, comparing to other kinds of sport, shot putter were not not the ones
possessed the highest percentage body fat. According to Krawczyk, Sklad and
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Majle (1995), the percentage body fat of shot put athletes was 19.65 ±4.07 but
the percentage body fat of fencers, handball players, judoists and basketball
players were 21.89±4.48, 21.85 ±4.66, 20.26±7.74 and 20.07±4.79 respectively.
Relationship Between Anthropometric Characteristics
And Shot Put Performance
It had been a well known fact that the relationship established between
certain types of anthropometric characteristic could favor in certain types of
sport. As stated in Cater and Heath (1990), it could serve as a guideline to help
both children and adults to select the appropriate sports for both their present
and future potential body types.
Some researches indicated that certain anthropometric characteristics
could favor shot put performance. Shot putters who were better in performance
showed better anthropometric measurement. Singh et al. (2012) conducted a
study on 20 male shot putters who aged from 18 to 25. The height, weight,
widths, girths and skinfold thickness were assessed on the subjects. Researchers
found that for those who perform better in shot put were significantly taller
(p<0.01) and had significantly greater in all lengthen measurement. Also they
had significantly greater upper arm (p<0.05), forearm (p<0.01), chest (p<0.05),
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thigh (p<0.05) circumferences, bi-humerus (p<0.01), wrist (p<0.05),
bi-acromial (p<0.01), and hip (p<0.05) diameters when comparison made to
low performers. What is more, study found that lean body mass (p<0.05) was
significantly higher in better performers while in low performers, the
endomorphy (p<0.05) was significantly higher.
Also, Tešanović et al. (2010) concluded that “the anthropometric length
of the arm, the arm range and body mass can influence the achievement of
results in shot put, while the length of the legs plays no statistically important
role in the achievement of results”. Which a total of 112 male secondary school
students who aged 15 had tested on body mass index and anthropometric
dimensions that included height, length of leg and arm, and the shot put results.
The result was positive.
Summary
The performance of shot put was determined by multiple factors: The height
of release above the ground, the release angle and the speed of release (Probst
& Lawler ,2007), muscle power, muscle strength (Kyriazis et. al., 2009), Terzis
et al., 2012) and the level of activation of the muscles also contributed to the
performance (Terzis et al. 2007). Beside these factors, anthropometric
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characteristics also played an important role in gaining better result in shot put.
As studies have found that many top shot putters shared the similar
anthropometric characteristics (Abraham, 2010 ; Thorland et al.,1981), further
researches were conducted on the correlation between the anthropometric
characteristics and shot put performance. And researches indicated there was a
positive correlation between better anthropometric measurement and better shot
put performance (Singh et al. 2012; Tešanović et al. 2010).
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CHAPTER 3
METHOD
The main purpose of this investigation was to collect the data of
anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school female shot put
athletes in Hong Kong.
The method of this study was divided into the following sections: (a) subjects;
(b) data collection; (c) measurement procedure, and (d) data analysis.
Subjects
A total of 17 female shot putters were invited to this study. They were the
participants in the Inter-school Athletics Competition Division One (N=10) and
Division Two (N=7) that organized by HK Island &Kowloon Secondary
Schools Regional Committee. They were all the Grade A athletes who studied
in Form 4 to 6 and aged from 16 to 18. Prior to the study, they were fully
informed of the purpose, benefits and risks of the study and all provided written
informed consent voluntarily.
Data Collection
In order to ensure the reliability of the measurement, there would only
have 1person do the measurement and 1 person do the recording. All the
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measurements would be measured on the right side of the body. Two
measurements would be made on each site and it would be measured in
succession to avoid experimenter bias that a complete data set would be
obtained before repeating the measurements for the second time. Then the mean
value would be recorded. Also, subjects were asked to wear minimal clothing
and not to wear any shoes.
Measurement Procedure
Subjects were informed of the purpose, benefits and risks of the study
and all provided written informed consent voluntarily. In the study, the
procedure and measuring instrument used would follow the procedures,
instructions and methods provided by the International Standards for
Anthropometric Assessment (2001). For this study, subjects would be measured
on the followings 4 categories: (1) Basic physical characteristics, (2) Skinfolds,
(3) Girths and (4) Arm Lengths.
Basic physical characterisics
In this part, body height, body weight, body mass index and fat mass would be
measured. In which body height was measured by a wall mounted stadiometer at
mid inspiration. The measurement was record to the nearest 0.1cm; body weight,
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body mass index and fat mass were recorded by TANITA TBF410 BIA scale
(TANITA Corp., Tokyo, Japan) which the measurements were recorded to the
nearest 0.1.
Skinfolds
In this part, skinfold thickness was measured by skinfold caliper which the
measurements were recorded to the nearest 0.01cm. There were a total of 8 sites
to be measured: (1)Triceps, (2)Subscapular, (3)Biceps,(4) Iliac Crest,(5)
Supraspinale, (6)Abdominal, (7)Front Thigh and (8) Medial Calf. All the
procedures, instructions and methods were stated below were from the
International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).
(1)Triceps. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the left
arm hanging by the side. The right arm should be relaxed with the
shoulder joint slightly externally rotated and elbow extended by the side
of the body. Method: The fold is parallel to the long axis of the arm
(p.71).
(2)Subscapular. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with
the arm hanging by the sides. Method: The line of the skinfold is
determined by the natural fold lines of the skin (p.72)
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(3)Biceps. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the left
arm hanging by the side. The right arm should be relaxed with the
shoulder joint slightly externally rotated and elbow extended by the side
of the body. Method: This skinfold is parallel to the long axis of the arm
(p.73).
(4)Iliac Crest. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the
left arm hanging by the side. The right arm should be either abducted or
placed across the trunk. Method: The line of the skinfold generally runs
slightly downward posterior-anterior, as determined by the natural fold
lines of the skin (p.74).
(5)Supraspinale. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with
the arms hanging by the sides. Method: The fold runs medially downward
at about a 45° angle as determined by the natural fold of the skin (p.75).
(6)Abdominal. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the
arms hanging by the sides. Method: This is a vertical fold. It is
particularly important at this site that the measurer is sure the initial grasp
is firm and broad since often the underlying musculature is poorly
developed. This may result in an underestimation of the thickness of the
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subcutaneous layer of tissue (p.76).
(7)Front Thigh. The subject assumes a seated position at the front edge
of the box with the torso erect and the arms hanging by the sides. The
knee of the right leg is usually bent at a right angle. In some subjects, this
skinfold may be easier to take with the knee extended. Method: (As there
were 3 methods of measuring this site, Method A would be used.) The
measurer stands facing the right side of the subject on the lateral side of
the thigh. The skinfold is raised at the marked site. The skinfold
measurement is taken while the knee is bent (p.77).
(8)Medial Calf. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the
arms hanging by the sides and the right foot placed on the box. The right
knee is bent at about 90°. Method: The subject’s right foot is placed on a
box with the calf relaxed. The fold is parallel to the long axis of the leg
(p.79).
Girths
In this part, anthropometric tape was used to measure the girths which the
measurements were recorded to the nearest 0.1cm. There were a total of 5 sites
to be measured: (1)Arm (relaxed), (2)Arm (flexed and tensed), (3)Waist
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(minimum), (4)Gluteal (hips) and (5)Calf (maximum). All the procedures,
instructions and methods were stated below were from the International
Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).
(1)Arm (relaxed). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with
the arms hanging by the sides. The subject’s right arm is abducted
slightly to allow the tape to be passed around the arm. Method: The girth
of the arm is measured at the marked level of the Mid-acromiale-radiale®.
The tape should be positioned perpendicular to the long axis of the arm
(p.86).
(2)Arm (flexed and tensed). The subject assumes a relaxed standing
position with the left arm hanging by the side. The subject’s right arm is
raised anteriorly to the horizontal with the forearm supinated and flexed
at about 45-90°to the arm. Method: The flexed and tensed arm girth is
measured at the level of the peak of the contracted Biceps. The measurer
stands to the side of the subject and with the tape loosely in position. The
subject is asked to partially tense the elbow flexors to identify the
probable peak of the contracted muscles. The subject is encouraged to
contract the arm muscles as strongly as possible and hold it while the
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measurement is made at the peak of the Biceps. If there is no obvious
peak of the Biceps this girth should be measured at the level of the
Mid-acromiale-radiale landmark (p.87).
(3)Waist (minimum). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position
with the arms folded across the thorax. Method: This girth is taken at the
level of the narrowest point between the lower costal (10th rib) border
and the iliac crest. The measurer stands in front of the subject who
abducts the arms slightly allowing the tape to be passed around the
abdomen. The stub of the tape and the housing are then both held in the
right hand while the measurer uses the left hand to adjust the level of the
tape at the back to the adjudged level of the narrowest point. The
measurer resumes control of the stub with the left hand and using the
cross-hand technique positions the tape in front at the target level. The
subject is instructed to lower their arms to the relaxed position. The tape
is then readjusted as necessary to ensure it has not slipped and does not
excessively indent the skin. The subject should breathe normally and the
measurement is taken at the end of a normal expiration (end tidal). If
there is no obvious narrowing the measurement is taken at the mid-point
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between the lower costal (10th rib) border and the iliac crest (p.91).
(4)Gluteal (hips). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with
the arms folded across the thorax. The subject’s feet should be together
and the gluteal muscles relaxed. Method: The girth is taken at the level of
the greatest posterior protuberance of the buttocks which usually
corresponds anteriorly to about the level of the symphysis pubis. The
measurer passes the tape around the hips from the side. The stub of the
tape and the housing are then both held in the right hand while the
measurer uses the left hand to adjust the level of the tape at the back to
the adjudged level of the greatest posterior protuberance of the buttocks.
The measurer resumes control of the stub with the left hand, and using
the cross-hand technique, positions the tape in front and the sides so that
the tape is held in a horizontal plane at the target level. The tape is then
readjusted as necessary to ensure it has not slipped (p.92).
(5)Calf (maximum). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position
with the arms folded across the thorax. The subject stands with the feet
slightly apart and mass equally distributed on both feet.Method: The girth
of the thigh is taken 1 cm below the level of the Gluteal fold,
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perpendicular to the long axis of the thigh. It is usually helpful to have
the subject stand on a box or stool for this measure. The measurer passes
the tape between the lower thighs and then slides the tape up to the
correct plane. The stub of the tape and the housing are both held in the
right hand while the measurer uses the left hand to adjust the level of the
tape to the target level. The measurer resumes control of the stub with the
left hand and using the cross-hand technique positions the tape so that it
is held in a perpendicular plane. The tape is then readjusted as necessary
to ensure it has not slipped and does not excessively indent the skin
(p.95).
Lengths
In this part, anthropometer was used to measure the arm lengths which
the measurements were recorded to the nearest 0.1cm. There were two arm
lengths which are acromiale-radiale length and radiale-stylion length. All the
procedures, instructions and methods were stated below were from the
International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).
Acromiale-radiale. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with
the arms hanging by the sides.The right forearm should be pronated.
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Method: This represents the arm length. It is the distance between the
previously marked Acromiale and Radiale landmarks. One branch of the
caliper or segmometer is held on the Acromiale while the other branch
isplaced on the Radiale. If the branches of the segmometer are too short
to allow clearance of the Deltoids, a large sliding caliper should be used
(p.102).
Radiale-stylion. The subject assumes a relaxed position with the arms
hanging by the sides. The right forearm should be slightly externally
rotated to a mid-pronated position. Method: This represents the length
of the forearm. It is the distance between the previously marked Radial
and Stylion landmarks. One caliper (or segmometer) branch is held
against the Radiale and the other branch is placed on the Stylion
landmark (p.103).
Delimitations
The study was delimited to the followings:
1. The subjects were delimited to 17 female athletes who were participants in
the Inter-School Athletics Competition Division One and Two that held by
the HK Island &Kowloon Secondary Schools Regional Committee
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(HKSSF).
2. All the subjects were aged from 16 to 18 ±0.81.
3. The selected anthropometric measures were conducted in the laboratory of
Dr. Stephen Hui Research Centre for Physical Recreation and Wellness of
Hong Kong Baptist University.
Limitations
The study was limited to the following factors:
1. Owing to the small sample size (N=17), the results of this study could not
create a good generalization.
2. The ideal anthropometric measurement is required subjects to put on
swimming suits. In this study, subjects were only required to put on minimal
clothing, thus, it might affect the findings of the measurement.
3. Since the subjects came on different days and time to conduct the
measurement thus might affect the unity and accuracy of the measurements.
Data Analysis
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 18.0) was used to analyze the
data collected. Mean, standard deviations, minimum and maximum were
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calculated for each variable. And the Spearman’s rho correlation was used to
determine the relationship between the result and the measured and calculated
anthropometric variables.
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Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Results
Seventeen shot putters from Inter-school Athletics Competition Division
One (N=10) and Division Two (N=7) that was organized by HK Island
&Kowloon Secondary Schools Regional Committee were invited to participate
in this study. The purpose of this study is to find out the anthropometric
characteristics of secondary-school-level female shot putters. The researcher
also wanted to find out the correlation between athletes’ results and other
variables.
The descriptive statistics of the subjects’ age, body height, body weight,
BMI, fat mass, skinfold, girths, arm length and result were summarized from
Table 1. to Table 4:
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Table 1
Values of physical characteristics of the subjects (N=17)
Variables Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation
Age 16.00 18.00 16.82 0.81
Height
(cm)
161.00 173.00 166.68 3.97
Weight
(kg)
53.00 99.70 76.06 15.16
BMI 19.70 34.70 27.33 4.69
Fat
Mass
(%)
0.24 0.52 0.35 0.08
Table 2
Values of skinfold measurements of the subjects (N=17)
Variables
(cm)
Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation
Triceps 2.00 4.14 2.53 0.66
Subscapular 2.02 4.14 2.74 0.70
Biceps 1.07 4.17 1.77 0.79
Iliac Crest 2.00 4.16 2.89 0.69
Supraspinale 1.16 4.15 2.73 0.93
Abdominal 2.01 6.05 3.39 1.05
Front Thigh 1.00 4.18 2.22 1.05
Medial Calf 1.02 3.11 1.80 0.69
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Table 3
Values of girths of the subjects (N=17)
Variables
(cm)
Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation
Arm(relaxed) 23.00 34.50 29.04 3.74
Arm(flexed
& tensed)
25.10 37.35 30.86 3.54
Waist
(minimum)
67.00 100.00 80.50 9.59
Gluteal
(hips)
92.00 114.50 102.95 7.47
Calf
(maximum)
34.00 46.00 39.58 3.43
Table 4
Values of arm length and result of the subjects (N=17)
Variables Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation
Acromiale-radiale
(cm)
27.25 32.50 30.04 1.40
Radiale-stylion
(cm)
22.00 26.70 23.96 1.21
Total arm length*
(cm)
50.35 59.05 54.00 2.40
Result (m) 6.78 9.43 7.94 0.97
*Total arm length was the sum of Acromiale-radiale and Radiale-stylion
The Spearman’s rho correlation was used to determine the relationship
between the result and the measured and calculated anthropometric variables
that were computed in Table 5.
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Table 5
Relationship between the result and anthropometric variables
r p
Height 0.39 0.12
Weight 0.38 0.13
BMI 0.34 0.17
Fat Mass 0.24 0.34
Skinfold (sum)** 0.28 0.40
Arm(relaxed) 0.47 0.053
Arm(flexed &
tensed)
0.29 0.24
Waist (minimum) 0.35 0.16
Gluteal (hips) 0.20 0.44
Calf (maximum) 0.35 0.16
Total arm length 0.21 0.40
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
**Skinfold (sum) was the sum of the 8 skinfold sites
In the above, the result could show only the weak relationships between
female athletes’ best shot put results and anthropometric measures which were
not significant at the 0.05 level (p< 0.05).
Discussions
This discussion chapter is divided into three parts: (a) anthropometric
characteristics and the result of the shot putters; (b) relationship between the
result of shot put and the anthropometric measures; and (c) factors affecting the
result of this study.
Anthropometric characteristics and the result of the shot putters in
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secondary school level
In this study, a total of 17 anthropometric variables (i.e. height, weight,
BMI, fat mass, 8 skinfold sites, 5 girths sites, upper arm and lower arm length)
were measured.
According to So et al. (2008), the mean height of girls in the year of 2005
to 2006 who were aged 16 was 158.4 cm (± 5.4), girls aged 17 was 158.7 cm (±
5.4), girls aged 18 was 158.7cm (± 5.7) and the mean of these three age groups
was 158.6 cm (± 0.17). In comparison to this, the mean height of the subjects
was 166.7 cm (±3.97) which was significantly taller than the average girls’
height. The mean weight of girls in the year of 2005 to 2006 who aged 16 was
51.1kg (± 9.1), girls aged 51.1 kg (± 9.5), girls aged 18 was 51.3 kg (± 8.3). The
mean weight of the subjects was 76.06 kg (± 15.16) which was significantly
heavier than the mean weight, 51.1kg (± 0.12), of those three age groups. The
mean BMI of girls in 2005 to 2006 who aged 16 was 20.4 (± 3.4), girls aged 17
was 20.3 (± 3.6), girls aged 18 was 20.4 (± 3.8). The mean BMI of the subjects
was 27.33 (± 4.69) which was significantly higher than the mean BMI, 20.4 (±
0.06), of the three age groups.
The standard deviation in the measurement of (1) fat mass, (2) skinfold
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and (3) girths were significantly large: (1) The fat mass of the subjects varied
from 24.2% to 51.8% (± 8%); (2) The standard deviation of triceps, subscapular,
biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf were
±0.66, ±0.70, ±0.79, ±0.69, ±0.93, ±1.05, ±1.05, and ±0.69 respectively; (3)
The standard deviation of arm (relaxed), arm (flexed & tensed), waist
(minimum), gluteal (hips) and calf (maximum) were ±3.74, ±3.54, ±9.59, ±7.47,
and ±3.43 respectively. This indicated that there was heterogeneity of
anthropometric characteristic of the subjects. For the arm length, there was no
significant difference among subjects with standard deviation for
acromiale-radiale was ±1.4 cm, radiale-stylion was ±1.2cm
and total arm length was ±2.4cm.
Comparing to other types of sports, shot putters in this study had
significantly high percentage body fat (i.e. 35±8). According to Krawczyk et al.
(1995), the percentage body fat of athletes among the track and field events
were as followed: vertical jump, sprints, long-distance runs, long-distance walk
and heptathlon were 13.41 ±2.21, 14.89 ±2.88, 17.89 ±3.66, 17.98 ±3.66 and
15.12 ±2.07 respectively. Whereas the percentage body fat of athletes from
other types of sports were as followed: kayaking 16.26 ±4.32, rowing
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17.71±3.82, skiing 16.98±1.76, biathlon 17.24±3.92, judo 20.26±7.74, fencing
21.98±4.48, handball 21.85±4.66, basketball 20.07 ±4.79, tennis 17.74±1.53
and swimming 15.51±2.52.
The mean result of the subjects ,7.94m ±0.97, was significantly lower than
the record of Inter-School Athletics Competition , 12.86m, held by Ho Yin
Chiu, 2012. This indicated that the secondary school level female shot putters in
the year 2012 to 2013 had lower performances.
Relationship between the result of shot put and the anthropometric
measures
In this study, the findings showed that there were weak relationships
between the shot put performances and the height (r=0.39, p<0.12), weight
(r=0.38, p<0.13), BMI (r=0.34, p<0.17), fat mass (r=0.24,p<0.34), skinfold
(sum) (r=0.28, p<0.40), arm (relaxed) (r=0.47, p<0.053), arm (flexed & tensed)
(r=0.29, p<0.24), waist (minimum) (r=0.35,p<0.16), gluteal (hips) (r=0.20,
p<0.44), calf (maximum) (r=0.35, p<0.16) and total arm length (r=0.21,
p<0.40).
Despite the fact that there was no significant correlation between the
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result and the measured anthropometric variables, the arm (relaxed) (r=0.47,
p<0.053) had the relatively closest significant level (p<0.05) among all the
variables examined. Therefore, it might be the factor that had the highest
potential to affect the performance of shot put.
As there were weak relationships found between the shot put results and
anthropometric measurements, other variables might contribute more to
performance. Young (2004) stated that the distance of the shot is determined by
the release height, angle of release, the velocity of release and the release
position relative to the point of measurement. Skillful athletes have higher
abilities in controlling these parameters than the less skilled ones. Therefore,
shot putters who have higher anthropometric measurements cannot outperform
the skilled ones. Also muscle power and strength are important in achieving
better performances as stated in Kyriazis et al. (2009), Terzis et al. (2012) and
Judge et al. (2013).
All in all, since these anthropometric characteristics could not show a
strong relationship with the result, this might not be a good indicator in talent
selection in secondary school girls who are aged 16 to 18 in Hong Kong.
Factors affecting the result of this study
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Measuring error. Although the measurements of the skinfold, girths and
arm length were measured twice, measuring error still exists by using the
caliper, measuring tape and anthropometer. Also, the optimal clothing for
anthropometric measurements was swimsuit. The subjects were asked to put on
minimal clothing only in order to lower the level of embarrassment. What was
more, it took three weeks to finish the measurement. Subjects came on different
days and time in those three weeks thus might affect the unity and accuracy of
the measurements.
Subjects’ background. As the subjects were not the elite athletes but
were only in secondary school level. they were not truly shot put athletes. Some
subjects claimed that they mainly played basketball or volleyball and they were
not really good at shot put. They took part in the competition just because they
were asked by their physical education teachers. This could significantly affect
the results of the study.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
As this study was to find out the anthropometric characteristics of
secondary-school-level shot putters, the correlation of the shot put performance
and anthropometric variables were also examined.
A total of seventeen female shot put athletes aged from 16 to 18 who took
part in Inter-school Athletics Competition Division One (N=10) and Division
Two (N=7) were invited to participate in this study and their participation were
solely voluntary.
For this study, the subjects would be measured in the followings 4
categories: (1) Basic physical characteristics, (2) Skinfolds, (3) Girths and (4)
Arm Lengths which the procedures, instructions and method were provided by
the International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).
Statistical Package for the Social Science 18.0 was used for analyzing the
data collected. Descriptive statistics of the subjects’ age, height, weight, BMI,
fat mass, skinfold, girths, arm length and result were calculated and Spearman’s
rho correlation was used to analyze the relationship between the shot put
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performance and the anthropometric variables.
The results of this study were summarized in the following:
1. The mean height (166.7cm ±3.97), weight (76.06kg ± 15.16) and BMI
(27.33 ± 4.69) of the female shot putter were significantly higher than the
mean height (158.6±0.17), weight (51.1kg±0.12) and BMI (20.4±0.06) of
average girls according to So et al. (2008).
2. Measurements in fat mass, skinfold and girths had a significantly large
standard deviation indicating that the subjects had very different
anthropometric characteristics.
3. There was a very weak and non-significant relationship between the result
of shot put and the anthropometric variables of the female shot putters.
4. The arm (relaxed) (r=0.47, p<0.053) had the relatively closest significant
level (p<0.05) among all the variables examined. Therefore, it might be the
factor that had the highest potential to affect the performance of shot put.
Conclusions
The findings can be concluded that the subjects’ average height (166.7cm
±3.97), weight (76.06kg ± 15.16) and BMI (27.33 ± 4.69) of the subject are
higher than the average height (158.6±0.17), weight (51.1kg±0.12) and BMI
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(20.4±0.06) of normal girls with same age as stated in So et al. (2008). The
obvious differences in fat mass, skinfold and girths among the subjects
indicated that the anthropometric characteristic of the subjects varies. Also, the
relationship between the shot put performance and the anthropometric variables
is very weak.
Recommendations for future studies
1. The sample size can be extended to Division Three athletes, so a more
complete outlook of the anthropometric characteristics of female secondary
school shot putters can be developed.
2. Subjects can be divided into high performance group and low performance
group so as to study if there are differences between the two groups in terms
of anthropometric characteristics.
3. Muscles power and strengthen of lower extremities can be included in the
study since they are good indicators of better performance.
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APPENDIX A
Consent From to Athletes
Dear athletes,
Anthropometric Characteristics
Of Senior Secondary School Female Shot Put Athletes In Hong Kong
I am Mo Wai Man Teresa, a year 3 student in Hong Kong Baptist University
majoring in Physical Education and Recreation Management, is now going to
complete my Honors Project on the above mentioned topic.
In this study, wearing minimal clothing is required to undertake the following
measurements: 1) Basic physical characteristic which include height, weight and fat
mass, 2) Skinfold on 8 sites, 3) Girths on 5 sites, and 4) Length of the upper arm and
lower arm.
Should there be any queries or if you want to get a copy of this research report,
please contact Mo Wai Man Teresa, cell phone: 6180 5937.
Thank you.
Yours sincerely,
Mo Wai Man Teresa
Date:
I, , understand my involvement of doing this
measurement test is voluntary, and I have been told that my name will be kept
confidential, I have the right to ask for the completed report.
Signature Date
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APPENDIX B
Data Collection Sheet
Date: Venue: Measurer: Mo Wai Man Teresa
Subject’s Name: Age: School:
Result:
Basic physical characteristic
Variables Measurement
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
BMI
Fat Mass (%)
Skinfold (8)
Variables Measurement 1(cm) Measurement 2 (cm) Mean (cm)
Triceps
Subscapular
Biceps
Iliac Crest
Supraspinale
Abdominal
Front Thigh
Medial Calf
Girths (5)
Variables Measurement 1 (cm) Measurement 2 (cm) Mean (cm)
Arm (relaxed)
Arm (flexed &
tensed)
Waist (minimum)
Gluteal (hips)
Calf (maximum)
Lengths (2)
Variables Measurement 1 (cm) Measurement 2 (cm) Mean (cm)
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Acromiale-radiale
Radiale-stylion