MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA

COMRAT STATE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF NATIONAL CULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Admitted to Defense

Protocol ___ from ___ _______________2014Head of Department Sulac S.C., Ph.D., associate professorMASTER THESISLinguistic difficulties in Literary TranslationGeneral Training Trade 14:

Teaching Germanic Languages in Pre-university Institutions in Multiethnic Society

Reg. ________

Written byDate __________

Mincioglo Antonina I.

Academic AdvisorSofia Sulac

Ph.D., Associate ProfessorComrat 2014ContentIntroduction ..4 I. Literary translation : criteria varying according to the text type 61.1 The uniqueness of literary translation8

1.2 The dominant structures of literary texts . .101.3 Literary language (poetic language).121.4 Linguistic issues in translation of Poetry25II. Literary translation as a specific coding-encoding process 37 2.1 Literary translation as functional interaction of languages 37 2.2 Context and its role in literary translation 38 2.3 Literary translation of words having no correspondence in target language

..48

2.4 Style as a specific problem of literary translation..50III. Philological analysis of linguistic difficulties in literary translation .....58 3.1 Literary translation of specifically English grammatical forms

and constructions 60 3.2 Lexical transformations..63Conclusion...65Bibliography ...67Appendix ...70Introduction

Translation is a process and the result of turning a text from one language into another, which means expressing the same by the signs of a different language. Bearing in mind that every sign has two planes (plane of expression and plane of content) the essence of translation could be described as changing the elements of the plane of expression while the plane of content remains constant.

The language of the original text is called "source language", the language into which the text is translated is called "target language" (the corresponding Russian terms are " " and " ").One of the main difficulties of translating lies in the fact that the meaning of the whole text is not exhausted by the sum of meanings of its elements. The meaning of a text is made up by words (characterized by their denotative and connotative meanings and stylistic reference), syntactic meaning of sentences and utterances larger than sentences, suprasegmental elements and lexico-semantic connections between words and phrases. That is why this course work has a great importance in studying literary translation.

Topicality of the course work is importance of studying linguistic difficulties of literary translation, as adequate translation of literary texts has a great importance in the field of philology.

The aim of course work is to analyze the importance of the adequate translation and define linguistic difficulties that are faced in literary translation.

The objectives are:

- to give a general concept of literary translation;

- to define linguistic difficulties in literary translation;

- to give a classification of linguistic difficulties in literary translation;

- to determine the ways of solving these problems.

The subject of course work is translation of literary texts.

The object of course work is the linguistic difficulties of literary translation.

The methods of investigation are comparative analysis, descriptive analysis and studying linguistic and methodological literature.

The theoretical significance is in determining the theoretical statements of defining the linguistical difficulties of literary translation on the basis of native and foreign scientists works such as Komissarov V.N., Garbovski N.K., Breus E.V.,etc.The practical significance is in the fact that the materials of course work can be widely used in teaching process of disciplines as Theory and practice of translation, Translation problems, The basis of Translation.

The materials under analysis are works of native and foreign scholars in this field, books on the theory and practice of literary translation and supplements for the teachers and students of foreign languages institutes and departments.

The structure of the course work. The given course work contains Introduction, two parts: theoretical and practical, Conclusion, bibliography and Appendix. In introduction was considered the aim, objectives, subject, object, methods of investigation, theoretical, practical significances and materials under analysis of the course work. In the theoretical part Literary translation as a specific coding-encoding process have been considered following questions Literary translation as functional interaction of languages, Context and its role in literary translation, Literary translation of words having no correspondence in target language.

The practical part Philological analysis of linguistic difficulties in literary translation consists of two parts: Literary translation of specifically English grammatical forms and constructions and Lexical transformations.

In conclusion it is given a summary of the course work.

The bibliography contains 15 works of native and foreign scientists that were analyzed during the investigation.

In appendix it is offered a list of words that have difficulties in literary and adequate translation.

I. Literary translation: criteria varying according to text type

Literary translation has always been seen as more perplexing than the translation of other texts, such as business documents or instruction booklets for machinery or equipment. The translation of poems has traditionally been seen aseven more difficult, and there has always been much dispute about methods that can be used and the kind of result which is the aim ofsuch translation work.According to the definition of Robert Frost, Poetry iswhat gets lost intranslation.

This statement could be considered as a truthful one to a certain extent because there is no one-to-one equivalent when comparing two languages. Even if the translators obtain a profound knowledge in the source language (SL) they would not beable to create a replica of the original text. What should be preserved whentranslating poetry are the emotions, the invisible message of thepoet, the uniqueness of the style in order toobtain thesame effect in the target language as it is in the source. This is the conception of process of translation as the transmission of creative energy. When talking about the translation of poetry we could not but mention some of the numerous problems encountered during thisprocess. Many writers have struggled todefine the difficulties of translating poetry.

A problem that has bedevilled generations of translators is, What is a satisfactorytranslation? There exist numerous and varied answers to this question from different theoretical perspectives and from different translators and translation scholars. An insightful theory is Reisss functional theory, which holds that the criteria vary according to the text type. Reiss places great emphasis on equivalence at the communicative level, i.e. the function of the language of a text, stating that The transmission of the predominant function of the ST is the determining factor by which the TT is judged . She links the function of language related to a certain text type as follows:

1 Plain communication of facts: information, knowledge, opinions, etc. The language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential, the content or topic is the main focus of the communication, and the text type is informative.

2 Creative composition: the author uses the aesthetic dimension of language. The author or sender is foregrounded, as well as the form of the message, and the text type is expressive.

3 Inducing behavioural responses: the aim of the appellative function is to appeal to or persuade the reader or receiver of the text to act in a certain way. The form of language is dialogic, the focus is appellative and Reiss calls this text type operative.

4 Audiomedial texts, such as films and visual and spoken advertisements which supplement the other three functions with visual images, music, etc. categorizes the text types into specific genres. Reference work, reports, lectures, and operating instructions, in her opinion, are informative; the poem is highly expressive, focusing on its form and aesthetic value; electoral speeches and advertisements are operative in that they attempt to persuade somebody to buy or do something .She categorizes biographies and plays between expressive and informative, satire between expressive and operative, and sermons between informative and operative.

Discussion in Translation Studies today does not just assume that a translation should preserve things like function and text type. Instead, translation scholars nowadays especially those who follow the paradigm Descriptive Translation Studies dismiss translations from the restrictions of the equal value between the ST and TT, with unthroning the ST; they take that equivalence is a quality of all translations, and set about describing the many shifts and transformations that translations produce. Even more radically, in terms of cultural translation, translation is seen as a general activity between cultural groups, in which colonial and postcolonial processes displaced and mixed languages ; to this effect, it is as if all the colonizers and colonized are translators. The descriptive approaches do play a central role in the development of Translation Studies as an academic discipline , yet they have been criticised in that descriptions do not help train translators and the models all concern texts and systems, not people.

1.1 The uniqueness of literary translation

Literary text as an expressive text type by Reiss has a set of typical features. Thanks to Joness summary of a wide range of viewpoints from Stockwell , Venuti , Pilkington , and Berman , the features attributed to literary texts include the following: they have a written base-form, though they may also be spoken; they enjoy canonicity (high social prestige); they fulfil an affective/aesthetic rather than transactional or informational function, aiming to provoke emotions and/or entertain rather than influence or inform; they have no real-world truth-value i.e. they are judged as fictional, whether fact-based or not; they feature words, images, etc., with ambiguous and/or indeterminable meanings; they are characterized by poetic language use (where language form is important in its own right, as with word-play or rhyme). In other words, literary texts are in a written form, fictional, and canonical, and they have an aesthetic function, focusing on the expression of emotions, with poetic language, implicit meanings, heteroglossia, and deviations, most features of which will be covered in this thesis.

In literary translation, the typical features of the source literary text not only need to be taken into account, but also the influential elements from the target perspective, such as the linguistic and cultural differences and the target readers. Emphasising both sides, with regard to the uniqueness of literary translation, this thesis will mainly focus on the following points.

First and foremost, literary texts distinguished from non-literary texts are characterized by rhetorical and aesthetic value, which is the essence expected to be captured and maintained in a literary translation. For example, unlike standard language, literary or poetic language has the feature of foregrounding. Reading and rewriting in translating is a cognitive process with aesthetic enjoyment. Literary works are created artistically by increasing the difficulty and length of perception, which leads to defamiliarization . Once the defamiliarization is comprehended by the translators or readers, a unique sensation is created. To reproduce the rhetorical and aesthetic value is one of the main tasks for literary translators.

Second, in literary translation the form interlinks with the content; while in non-literary translation the content may be considered detachable from the form or structure. Poetry appositely indicates the fact that the form makes sense; in Jakobsons words: Phonemic similarity is sensed as semantic relationship .In poetry, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhythm, verse, metre, and rhyme are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. Likewise, in prose a certain linguistic feature or level can also have a certain textual function. For instance, the repetition in Hemingways In Another Country contributes to express the characters tedious life .

Third, literary translators choices of wording are highly dependent on the target language (TL) and culture. Literary texts are solidly rooted in the source language (SL) and culture, yet due to linguistic or cultural differences, literal translations might fail to gain acceptability. There are a set of issues potentially impacting the translators choices: translation texts, translators, and institutional factors (including extensive cultural factors), among which linguistic and cultural differences are the main factors. How to cope with the linguistic and cultural differences is a crucial question for literary translators.

Fourth, a consideration of the target audiences is another important issue in literary translation. Literary translation always has a readership which is likely to be quite different from the one the writer originally had in mind. A good translation of any text from any period will, to some extent, only be good in the context of a particular audience at a particular time and place. So we have to keep this question of audience constantly in mind. For instance, a good studying translation is to some extent similar to studying physiology. Physiologists research about special bodies is like translation scholars examination of literary texts. To research upon a world champion boxer, a whole cluster of things such as the body, the balance, and the strength are supposed to be scrutinized. One physiologist may prefer to do research upon the champions muscles; while another may focus on his or her mental attitude. Neither of them is wrong; it is just selective. One thing is especially important, that is: how to identify the research topic. Stylistic approaches to translation studies supply a theoretical perspective, which identify the style as the essence of literary translations.

1.2 The dominant structures of literary texts

Many people think that the translation of literary works is one of the highest forms of rendition because it is more than simply the translation of text. A literary translator must also be skilled enough to translate feelings, cultural nuances, humour and other delicate elements of a piece of work. In fact, the translators do not translate meanings but the messages. That is why, the text must be considered in its totality. Alternatively, Peter Newmark delineates translation as rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text . A further point is that there are examples in which the source text contains facets that are advocated in an apt manner by Lawrence Venuti : discursive variations, experimenting with archaism, slang, literary allusion and convention.

Additionally, it is no less than potentially contradictory that the translator should be visible and make use of foreign sing attributes simultaneously, as foreign sing attributes, at any rate in the Schleiermacher tradition, were chiefly initiated into the Target Text (T.T) from the Source Text (S.T), not by the translators innovation.

A literary text is a set of related systems; the relation of parts to each other and to the whole is essential for a literary text. A literary text has its own individual structure, which will lay stress on certain linguistic features or levels and not on others . The dominant structure, i.e. the dominant linguistic features or levels, is the significance of the text, and hence needs to be adequately grasped. Bassnett points out that The failure of many translators to understand that a literary text is made up of a complex set of systems existing in a dialectical relationship with other sets outside its boundaries has often led them to focus on particular aspects of a text at the expense of others. She offers examples at greater length: the reader/ translator who does not acknowledge the dialectical materialist basis of Brechts plays or who misses the irony in Shakespeares sonnets or who ignores the way in which the doctrine of the transubstantiation is used as a masking device for the production of Vittorinis anti-Fascist statement in Conversazioni in Sicilia is upsetting the balance of power by treating the original as his own property. And all these elements can be missed if the reading does not take into full account the overall structuring of the work . Lotman is also aware of readers positions in terms of contents or structures in reading literary texts: (1) Where the reader focuses on the content as matter, i.e. picks out the prose argument or poetic paraphrase. (2) Where the reader grasps the complexity of the structure of a work and the way in which the various levels interact. The readers positions also link to a 23 translator since the translator is first a reader and then a writer. Position (1) is held by many problematic translators who in particular focus on content at the expense of formal structuring of the text. Position (2) would seem an ideal position for a literary translator. Nida claims that content and form mutually affect each other, yet which is to be given priority is determined by the different nature of the message. He believes that The content of a message can never be completely abstracted from the form, and form is nothing apart from content , but in some messages the content is of primary consideration, and in others the form is more important. Generally, in his opinion, since the content of poetry is restricted and reflected by its form, the form should be greatly emphasised. He stresses that In poetry there is a greater focus of attention upon formal elements than one normally finds in prose therefore, a lyric poem translated as prose is not a proper correspondence to the original; Though it may reproduce the conceptual content, it falls far short of reproducing the emotional intensity and flavour. He argues, however, that for the acrostic poems in the Old Testament of the Bible even though written in the form of poems in a religious text the content is far more important than the form, and the translators should give priority to the message.Compared with translating poetry, which mainly raises the issues of rhyme, metre, verse, etc., It seems to be easier for the (careless) prose translator to consider content as separable from form .1.3 Literary language (poetic language)

Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events, different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation, on the other hand.

Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translators primary task is to reproduce this quality in translation.

A literary text may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative character. Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translation may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The particular tasks inherent in the translation of literary works each genre is more literary than linguistic. The greet challenge to the translator is to combine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit.

The translator of a belles-lettres text is expected to make a careful study of the literary trend the text belongs to, the other works of the same author, the peculiarities of this individual style and manner and so on. This involves both linguistic considerations and skill in literary criticism. A good literary translator must be a versatile scholar and talented writer or poet.

So many problems of translating poetry have been discussed for centuries that one should just follow some of the good useful or bad and tricky recommendations of predecessors. One of the best is that provided by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, which asserts, the life blood of translation is this that a good poem shall not be turned into a bad one. Presumably, we know what a good poem is and how it differs from a bad one.

Whatever the versification system, each poem is unique. It has an individual flavour and, even within a most conservative traditional metric pattern, is market by a rhythm, pitch and infection of its own. It is a pointless exercise to pursue absolute fidelity to the original, but it is necessary at least at attempt to preserve at much as possible of the sources principle of poetic arrangement and imagery.

Ideas of now to approach of poetic translation have varied in Russia, but not greatly, from the beginning of the nineteenth century up to the present day. When a translator is to translate a poem, he may put it into one of two main categories according to its form. One is so-called free verse, or verse libre; the other is classically structured poetry, that is, verse based on regular metre, rhyme and stanza pattern. It is evident that the impact a free verse poems of on the reader differs greatly from that of traditional poetic harmony. It appeals to different points of perception: while a traditional poem speaks more to the emotions, vers libre tends to appeal to the reason rather than to the heart. Verse libre has properties of its own, which makes the reader seek other thinks in such a text than he would in a sonnet. Besides requires sophisticated decisions and techniques in translation.

Alliteration

Definition: Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound or a specific vowel group, the alliteration involves creating a repetition of similar sounds in the sentence. Alliterations are also created when the words all begin with the same letter. Alliterations are used to add character to the writing and often add an element of fun to the piece...Example: The Wicked Witch of the West went her own way.Alliteration in Poetry In relation to English poetry, poets can call attention to certain words in a line of poetry by using alliteration. They can also use alliteration to create a pleasant, rhythmic effect. In the following poetic lines, notice how alliteration is used to emphasize words and to create rhythm:"Give me the splendid silent sunwith all his beams full-dazzling!'Walt Whitman, "Give Me the Splendid Silent Sun"

They all gazed and gazed upon this green stranger,/because everyone wondered what it could mean/ that a rider and his horse could be such a color-/ green as grass, and greener it seemed/ than green enamel glowing bright against gold. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, translated by Benard O'Donohue

"Some papers like writers,some like wrappers. Are you a writer or a wrapper?" Carl Sandburg, "Paper I"

Alliteration also can add to the moods of poem. If a poet repeat soft, melodious sounds, a calm or dignified mood can result. If harsh, hard sound are repeated, on the other hand, the mood can become tense or excited. In this poem, alliteration of the s, l, and f sound adds to a hushed, peaceful mood:

"Softer be they than slippered sleepthe lean lithe deerthe fleet flown deer ." e. e. cummings "All in green went my love riding"

Alliteration in Rhetoric

Alliteration also serves as a linguistic rhetorical device more commonly used in persuasive public speaking. Rhetoric is broadly defined as the "Art of Persuasion", which has from earliest times been concerned with specific techniques for effective communication.Alliteration serves to "intensify any attitude being signified".Its significance as a rhetorical device is that it adds a textural complexity to a speech, making it more engaging, moving, and memorable. The use of alliteration in a speech captivates a person's auditory senses that assists in creating a mood for the speaker. The use of a repeating sound or letter forces an audiences attention because of their distinct and noticeable nature. The auditory senses, hearing and listening, seem to perk up and pay attention with the constant sounds of alliteration. It also evokes emotion which is key in persuading an audience. The idea of pathos solidifies that playing to a person's emotions is key in persuading them and connecting them to the argument that is being made. For example, the use of a "H" sound can produce a feeling of calmness. Other sounds can create feelings of happiness, discord, or anger, depending on the context of the alliteration. These feelings become memorable to a listener, which have been created by alliteration.

The most common example of this is in John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address, where he uses alliteration twenty-one times throughout his speech. The last paragraph of his speech is given as an example here.

"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we love , asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God's work must truly be our own." Other examples of alliteration in some famous speeches: "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character". -Martin Luther King."We, the people, declare today that the most evident of truths that all of us are created equal is the star that guides us still; just as it guided our forebears through Seneca Falls, and Selma, and Stonewall; just as it guided all those men and women, sung and unsung, who left footprints along this great Mall, to hear a preacher say that we cannot walk alone; to hear a King proclaim that our individual freedom is inextricably bound to the freedom of every soul on Earth". -Barack Obama."And our nation itself is testimony to the love our veterans have had for it and for us. All for which America stands is safe today because brave men and women have been ready to face the fire at freedom's front."Ronald Reagan, Vietnam Veterans Memorial Address."Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". -Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg AddressAssonance

Definition: Assonance refers to repetition of sounds produced by vowels within a sentence or phrase. In this regard assonance can be understood to be a kind of alliteration. What sets it apart from alliterations is that it is the repetition of only vowel sounds. Assonance is the opposite of consonance, which implies repetitive usage of consonant sounds.Example: A long song . (Where the o sound is repeated in the last two words of the sentence).

Assonance, in prosody, repetition of stressed vowel sounds within words with different end consonants, as in the phrase quite like. It is unlike rhyme, in which initial consonants differ but both vowel and end-consonant sounds are identical, as in the phrase quite right. Many common phrases, such as mad as a hatter, free as a breeze, or high as a kite, owe their appeal to assonance. As a poetic device, internal assonance is usually combined with alliteration (repetition of initial consonant sounds) and consonance (repetition of end or medial consonant sounds) to enrich the texture of the poetic line. Sometimes a single vowel sound is repeated, as in the opening line of Thomas Hoods Autumn: I saw old Autumn in the misty morn.Sometimes two or more vowel sounds are repeated, as in the opening lines of Shelleys The Indian Serenade, which creates a musical counterpoint with long i and long e sounds:

I arise from dreams of thee

In the first sweet sleep of night

Assonance at the end of a line, producing an impure, or off, rhyme, is found in La Chanson de Roland and most French verses composed before the introduction of pure rhyme into French verse in the 12th century. It remains a feature of Spanish and Portuguese poetry. In English verse, assonance is frequently found in the traditional ballads, where its use may have been careless or unavoidable. The last verse of Sir Patrick Spens is an example:

Haf owre, haf owre to Aberdour,

Its fiftie fadom deip:

And thair lies guid Sir Patrick Spence,

Wi the Scots lords at his feit.Rhythm & Rhyme

Definition: The concept of rhythm and rhyme refers to a pattern of rhymes that is created by using words that produce the same, or similar sounds. Rhythm and rhyme together refer to the recurrence of similar sounds in prose and poetry, creating a musical, gentle effect. Example: I am a teapot Short and stout; This is my handle And this is my spout. When the water s boiling Hear me shout; Just lift me up And pour me out

Types of rhyme

The word rhyme can be used in a specific and a general sense. In the specific sense, two words rhyme if their final stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical; two lines of poetry rhyme if their final strong positions are filled with rhyming words. A rhyme in the strict sense is also called a perfect rhyme. Examples are sight and flight, deign and gain, madness and sadness.

Perfect rhymes

Perfect rhymes can be classified according to the number of syllables included in the rhyme, which is dictated by the location of the final stressed syllable.

masculine: a rhyme in which the stress is on the final syllable of the words (rhyme, sublime)

feminine: a rhyme in which the stress is on the penultimate (second from last) syllable of the words (picky, tricky)

dactylic: a rhyme in which the stress is on the antepenultimate (third from last) syllable (cacophonies, Aristophanes)

General rhymes

In the general sense, general rhyme can refer to various kinds of phonetic similarity between words, and to the use of such similar-sounding words in organizing verse. Rhymes in this general sense are classified according to the degree and manner of the phonetic similarity:

syllabic: a rhyme in which the last syllable of each word sounds the same but does not necessarily contain stressed vowels. (cleaver, silver, or pitter, patter; the final syllable of the words bottle and fiddle are /l/, a liquid consonant.)

imperfect (or near): a rhyme between a stressed and an unstressed syllable. (wing, caring)

weak (or unaccented): a rhyme between two sets of one or more unstressed syllables. (hammer, carpenter)

semirhyme: a rhyme with an extra syllable on one word. (bend, ending)

forced (or oblique): a rhyme with an imperfect match in sound. (green, fiend; one, thumb)

assonance: matching vowels. (shake, hate) Assonance is sometimes referred to as slant rhymes, along with consonance.

consonance: matching consonants. (rabies, robbers)

half rhyme (or slant rhyme): matching final consonants. (bent, ant)

pararhyme: all consonants match. (tell, tall)

alliteration (or head rhyme): matching initial consonants. (ship, short)

Identical rhymes

Identical rhymes are considered less than perfect in English poetry; but are valued more highly in other literatures such as, for example, rime riche in French poetry.

Though homophones and homonyms satisfy the first condition for rhyming that is, that the stressed vowel sound is the samethey do not satisfy the second: that the preceding consonant be different. As stated above, in a perfect rhyme the last stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical in both words.

If the sound preceding the stressed vowel is also identical, the rhyme is sometimes considered to be inferior and not a perfect rhyme after all. An example of such a "super-rhyme" or "more than perfect rhyme" is the "identical rhyme", in which not only the vowels but also the onsets of the rhyming syllables are identical, as in gun and begun. Punning rhymes such are "bare" and "bear" are also identical rhymes. The rhyme may of course extend even farther back than the last stressed vowel. If it extends all the way to the beginning of the line, so that there are two lines that sound identical, then it is called a "holorhyme" ("For I scream/For ice cream").

In poetics these would be considered identity, rather than rhyme.

Eye rhyme or sight rhymes or spelling rhymes refer to similarity in spelling but not in sound where the final sounds are spelled identically but pronounced differently Examples in English are cough, bough, and love, move.Some early written poetry appears to contain these, but in many cases the words used rhymed at the time of writing, and subsequent changes in pronunciation have meant that the rhyme is now lost. Mind rhyme

Mind rhyme is a kind of substitution rhyme similar to rhyming slang, but it is less generally codified and is heard only when generated by a specific verse context. For instance, this sugar is neat / and tastes so sour. If a reader or listener thinks of the word sweet instead of sour, then a mind rhyme has occurred. Classification by position

Rhymes may be classified according to their position in the verse:

tail rhyme (also called end rhyme or rime coue): a rhyme in the final syllable(s) of a verse (the most common kind)

When a word at the end of the line rhymes with a word in the interior of the line, it is called an internal rhyme.

Holorhyme has already been mentioned, by which not just two individual words, but two entire lines rhyme.

Off-centered rhyme is a type of internal rhyme occurring in unexpected places in a given line. This is sometimes called a misplaced-rhyme scheme, or a Spoken Word rhyme style

Broken rhyme is a type of enjambement producing a rhyme by dividing a word at the line break of a poem to make a rhyme with the end word of another line.

Cross rhyme matches a sound or sounds at the end of a line with the same sound or sounds in the middle of the following (or preceding) line.

A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyming lines in a poem.

Old English poetry is mostly alliterative verse. One of the earliest rhyming poems in English is The Rhyming Poem.

As English is a language in which stress is important, lexical stress is one of the factors affecting the similarity of sounds for the perception of rhyme. Perfect rhyme can be defined as the case when two words rhyme if their final stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical.

Some words in English, such as "orange", are commonly regarded as having no rhyme. Although a clever writer can get around this (for example, by obliquely rhyming "orange" with combinations of words like "door hinge" or with lesser-known words like "Blorenge", a hill in Wales), it is generally easier to move the word out of rhyming position or replace it with a synonym ("orange" could become "amber").

One view of rhyme in English is from John Milton's preface to Paradise Lost:

The Measure is English Heroic Verse without Rime, as that of Homer in Greek, and of Virgil in Latin; Rime being no necessary Adjunct or true Ornament of Poem or good Verse, in longer Works especially, but the Invention of a barbarous Age, to set off wretched matter and lame Meeter; grac't indeed since by the use of some famous modern Poets, carried away by Custom...

A more tempered view is taken by W. H. Auden in The Dyer's Hand:

Rhymes, meters, stanza forms, etc., are like servants. If the master is fair enough to win their affection and firm enough to command their respect, the result is an orderly happy household. If he is too tyrannical, they give notice; if he lacks authority, they become slovenly, impertinent, drunk and dishonest.

Forced or clumsy rhyme is often a key ingredient of doggerel.

The first issue of Rhythm was a summer 1911 edition. It was a quarterly until after the Spring 1912 issue, when it began to publish monthly. The final issue under the name Rhythm was published in March 1913; in May 1913, the magazine resumed publication under the name The Blue Review. After publishing additional issues in June and July 1913, the magazine then ceased publication.

The magazine, sometimes referred to as a "little magazine", was focused primarily on literature, music, art, and theatre.

Throughout its history, the magazine was edited by John Middleton Murry, with Katherine Mansfield serving as the associate editor from June 1912 until the magazine folded. Its title was borrowed from a major painting of a female nude (a drawing of which appears on its front cover) by J. D. Fergusson who became its art editor. The magazine went through three separate publishers: it began with St Catherine Press; when it became a monthly, it was published by Stephen Swift & Co. Under the name The Blue Review, it was published by Martin Secker.Unlike text types such as scientific texts, documentary texts, scripts for spoken language, etc., literary texts are the act of expression and an art with aesthetic values. Literary language has a different function from standard language. The main difference lies in the fact that literary language has the function of foregrounding the utterance. Foregrounding, however, does not exclusively exist in literary texts; it can also be found in journalistic texts and in essays . Yet it is worthy of attention that it is in literary texts that foregrounding serves the act of expression itself. Mukaovsk explicates it so clearly: The function of poetic language consists in the maximum of foregrounding of the utterance. Foregrounding is the opposite of automatization, that is, the deautomatization of an act; the more an act is automatized, the less it is consciously executed; the more it is foregrounded, the more completely conscious does it become. Objectively speaking: automatization schematizes an event; foregrounding means the violation of the scheme The standard language in its purest form, as the language of science with formulation as its objective, avoids foregrounding Foregrounding is, of course, common in the standard language, for instance, in journalistic style, even more in essays. But here it is always the subordinate to communication: its purpose is to attract the readers (listeners) attention more closely to the subject matter expressed by the foregrounded means of expression In poetic language foregrounding achieves maximum intensity to the extent of pushing communication into the background as the objective of expression and of being used for its own sake; it is not used in the services of communication, but in order to place the foreground of the act of expression, the act of speech itself. In other words, for the purpose of expressing, poetic language foregrounds the utterance through breaching the norms of the standard language; while ordinary language focuses on the subject matter always having a pragmatic function.

The importance of aesthetic valuation in literary texts is underscored. In the arts, aesthetic valuation necessarily stands highest in the hierarchy of the values contained in the work, whereas outside of art its position vacillates and is usually subordinate.

Likewise, the leading Formalist Jakobson declares that The subject of literary science is not literature, but literariness, i.e. that which makes a given work a literary work.Instead of seeking abstract qualities like imagination as the basis of literariness, the Formalists start to define the observable devices by which literary texts (especially poems) foreground their own language, in metre, rhyme, and other patterns of sound and repetition.

Defamiliarization is central to the concept of literariness. To put it simply, defamiliarization is to make the text unfamiliar, and it is the renewing and prolonging of perception that refreshes and attracts the readers subconsciously. Prague School structuralists and Russian formalists consider the notion of defamiliarization the set towards the message leading to a new and fresh perception of reality. Defamiliarization was the basic aim of art, according to

Shklovsky. The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged A work is created artistically so that its perception is impeded and the greatest possible effect is produced through the slowness of the perception. Shklovsky highlights the slowness of perception as a characteristic of literariness; in other words, works are created artistically by increasing the difficulty and length of perception. The effects of a host of techniques and craft involve this cognitive process. For instance, the metaphor as a non-literal expression of a certain proposition or propositions often entails greater interpretive efforts, which enforce the aesthetic value.

Turning to literary translation, the complexity of poetic language and the subtleness of the effects raise a great challenge for the literary translator especially for the prose translator to recognize or be aware of them in the source literary texts. Many translation scholars have underscored the importance of a thorough understanding of the source text. For example, Steiner argues that translation has an interpretive nature and indicates the importance of understanding the source text in translating, claiming that the main task for the translator as a complete reader is to establish the full intentional quality of the source text states that The claim that translation generally falls under interpretive use is significant in that it offers an explanation for one of the most basic demands standardly made in the literature on translation that is, that a thorough understanding of the original text is a necessary precondition for making a good translation. It is manifest that a thorough understanding of the source text would be a good starting point; the problem, however, is: how do we know someone has a thorough understanding of the source text? Stylistics assists us in searching for the answer to this question.1 Even though a strictly thorough understanding is impossible due to the openness of literature, stylistics a literary linguistic method to do literature can hopefully interpret the source text and the target text in a systematic way, and attempt to develop the fundamental concerns of the another related challenge is that poetic language as opposed to standard language tends to be non-standard and hence the translation does take the risk of being unfamiliar. The nonstandard language in translation which involves the use of some strategy to force us to look is interestingly at variance with a common theme in translation: that of smoothness, neutrality, readability .Bassnett points out that Again and again, translators of novels take pains to create readable target language texts, avoiding the stilted effect that can follow from adhering too closely to source language syntactical structures, but fail to consider the way in which individual sentences form part of the total structure. Bassnett suggests that What the translator must do, therefore, is to first determine the function of the SL system and then to find a TL system that will adequately render the function, which shows her view of giving priority to the aesthetic function. Here to determine the function of the source language does require the translators knowledge of the style, which guides the translators to consider the way in which individual sentences form part of the total structure. With regard to the translation strategy here to maintain the non-standard feature of language or adapt it into the standard (smooth and neutral) target language the translators criterion is the function of the source language system. It is worth noting that to maintain the non-standard language of a literary text does not necessarily mean to translate word for word and hence produce unsmooth translation; creatively producing the correspondence in smooth and acceptable target language is also one of the strategies. Gutt sees the essence of poetic language or non-standard language to be the communicative clue which guides us to the authors intention and alerts us to the speakers wish to draw attention to a particular word, phrase or passage . In other words, it is not the words in the source text that are the most significant; while it is the alerting function of the non-standard language that indicates the meaning. In Boase-Beiers words, The style of the utterance, which provides clues to the intended interpretation, is of paramount importance . To this extent, a creative translation which can function to induce a similar attention in the target readers is often justified.1.4 Linguistic issues in translationAnne Cluysenaar, in her book on literary stylistics, makes some important points about translation. The translator, she believes, should not work with general precepts when determining what to preserve or parallel from the SL text, but should work with an eye on each individual structure, whether it be prose or verse, since each structure will lay stress on certain linguistic features or levels and not on others. She goes on to analyse C.Day Lewis translation of Valrys poem, Les pas and comes to the conclusion that the translation does not work because the translator was working without an adequate theory of literary translation. What Day Lewis has done, she feels, is to have ignored the relation of parts to each other and to the whole and that his translation is, in short, a case ofperceptual bad form. The remedy for such inadequacies is also proposed: what is needed, says Cluysenaar, is a description of the dominant structure of every individual work to be translated. Cluysenaars assertive statements about literary translation derive plainly from a structuralist approach to literary texts that conceives of a text as a set of related systems, operating within a set of other systems. As Robert Scholes puts it: Every literary unit from the individual sentence to the whole order of words can be seen in relation to the concept of system. In particular, we can look at individual works, literary genres, and the whole of literature as related systems, and at literature as a system within the larger system of human culture.

The failure of many translators to understand that a literary text is made up of a complex set of systems existing in a dialectical relationship with other sets outside its boundaries has often led them to focus on particular aspects of a text at the expense of others. Studying the average reader, Lotman determines four essential positions of the addressee:

(1) Where the reader focuses on the content as matter, i.e. picks out the prose argument or poetic paraphrase.

(2) Where the reader grasps the complexity of the structure of a work and the way in which the various levels interact.

(3) Where the reader deliberately extrapolates one level of the work for a specific purpose.

(4) Where the reader discovers elements not basic to the genesis of the text and uses the text for his own purposes.

Clearly, for the purposes of translation, position (1) would be completely inadequate (although many translators of novels in particular have focused on content at the expense of the formal structuring of the text), position (2) would seem an ideal starting point, whilst positions (3) and (4) might be tenable in certain circumstances. The translator is, after all, first a reader and then a writer and in the process of reading he or she must take a position.

So, for example, Ben Belitts translation of Nerudas Fulgor y muerte de Joaqun Murieta contains a statement in the Preface about the rights of the reader to expect an American sound not present in the inflection of Neruda, and one of the results of the translation is that the political line of the play is completely changed. By stressing the action, the cowboys and Indians myth element, the dialectic of the play is destroyed, and hence Belitts translation could be described as an extreme example of Lotmans third reader position.

The fourth position, in which the reader discovers elements in the text that have evolved since its genesis, is almost unavoidable when the text belongs to a cultural system distanced in time and space. The twentieth-century readers dislike of the Patient Griselda motif is an example of just such a shift in perception, whilst the disappearance of the epic poem in western European literatures has inevitably led to a change in reading such works. On the semantic level alone, as the meaning of words alters, so the reader/translator will be unable to avoid finding himself in Lotmans fourth position without detailed etymological research. So when Gloucester, in King Lear, Act III sc.vii, bound, tormented and about to have his eyes gouged out, attacks Regan with the phrase Naughty lady, it ought to be clear that there has been considerable shift in the weight of the adjective, now used to admonish children or to describe some slightly comic (often sexual) peccadillo. Much time and ink has been wasted attempting to differentiate between translations , versions, adaptations and the establishment of a hierarchy of correctness between these categories. Yet the differentiation between them derives from a concept of the reader as the passive receiver of the text in which its truth is enshrined.

In other words, if the text is perceived as an object that should only produce a single invariant reading, any deviation on the part of the reader/translator will be judged as a transgression. Such a judgement might be made regarding scientific documents, for example, where facts are set out and presented in unqualifiedly objective terms for the reader of SL and TL text alike, but with literary texts the position is different. One of the greatest advances in twentieth-century literary study has been the reevaluation of the reader. So Barthes sees the place of the literary work as that of making the reader not so much a consumer as a producer of the text,5 while Julia Kristeva sees the reader as realizing the expansion of the works process of semiosis . The reader, then, translates or decodes the text according to a different set of systems and the idea of the one correct reading is dissolved. At the same time, Kristevas notion of intertextuality, that sees all texts linked to all other texts because no text can ever be completely free of those texts that precede and surround it, is also profoundly significant for the student of translation. As Paz suggests all texts are translations of translations of translations and the lines cannot be drawn to separate Reader from Translator.

Quite clearly, the idea of the reader as translator and the enormous freedom this vision bestows must be handled responsibly. The reader/ translator who does not acknowledge the dialectical materialist basis of Brechts plays or who misses the irony in Shakespeares sonnets or who ignores the way in which the doctrine of the transubstantiation is used as a masking device for the production of Vittorinis anti-Fascist statement in Conversazioni in Sicilia is upsetting the balance of power by treating the original as his own property. And all these elements can be missed if the reading does not take into full account the overall structuring of the work and its relation to the time and place of its production. Maria Corti sums up the role of the reader in terms that could equally be seen as advice to the translator.

Every era produces its own type of signedness, which is made to manifest in social and literary models. As soon as these models are consumed and reality seems to vanish, new signs become needed to recapture reality, and this allows us to assign an information-value to the dynamic structures of literature. So seen, literature is both the condition and the place of artistic communication between senders and addressees, or public. The messages travel along its paths, in time, slowly or rapidly; some of the messages venture into encounters that undo an entire line of communication; but after great effort a new line will be born. This last fact is the most significant; it requires apprenticeship and dedication on the part of those who would understand it, because the hypersign function of great works transforms the grammar of our view of the world.

The translator, then, first reads/translates in the SL and then, through a further process of decoding, translates the text into the TL language. In this he is not doing less than the reader of the SL text alone, he is actually doing more, for the SL text is being approached through more than one set of systems. It is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. The interlingual translation is bound to reflect the translators own creative interpretation of the SL text.

Moreover, the degree to which the translator reproduces the form, metre, rhythm, tone, register, etc. of the SL text, will be as much determined by the TL system as by the SL system and will also depend on the function of the translation. If, as in the case of the Loeb Classics Library, the translation is intended as a line by line crib on the facing page to the SL text, then this factor will be a major criterion. If, on the other hand, the SL text is being reproduced for readers with no knowledge either of the language or the socioliterary conventions of the SL system, then the translation will be constructed in terms other than those employed in the bilingual version. It has already been pointed out that criteria governing modes of translation have varied considerably throughout the ages and there is certainly no single proscriptive model for translators to follow.

Asdiscussed, that, of alltypesof translation, the mostelusive one is translation of poetry. Two of our distinguishedscholar-critics Sri Aurobindo and K.R.S. Iyengar have cautioned us while translating poetry into a second language. Iyengar says: Poetry by its very nature is untranslatable. Ideas can be translatedfrom language to language, but poetry is theidea touched withthe magic of phrase and incantatory music.Competent translator can, however, play the goodbroker between the poet and the reader,and surpassing the mere prose of statement can give intimations of thepoets sovereign utterance. Goodtranslation can create trust and stimulate interest. Through translation we understand others and their civilization, therefore, we are interested to do it carefully and sincerely, because mistakes in this field may be disastrous. The meaning of culturally marked words is often difficult to understand without cultural knowledge and poses translation problems, particularly when the words are associated with cultural domains. Words encoding cultural information are difficult to translate since they involve cultural knowledge and a cultural background. Each language describes the world in a different way.

Translators need to be well informed of two languages, and need, ideally to be familiar with the subjects of the texts they are translating. Translation plays an important role in filling the gaps between different cultures and nations. Literary translations in particular help these different nations reach a universal culture on a common ground. A good translation is not simply concerned with transferring the propositional content of the source language text (SLT), but also its other pragmatic features. The attention given to pragmatic facts and principles in the course of translation can enhance the understanding of the text and improve the quality of translation. Since the concept of culture is essential to understanding the implications for literary translation and culture-specific items in translation, many translation theorists have dealt with definition of culture. In 1984 Larson defines culture as a complex beliefs, attitudes, values, and rules which a group of people share . He notes that the translator needs to understand beliefs, attitudes, values, and the rules of the SL audience in order to adequately understand the ST and adequately translate it for people who have a different set of beliefs, attitudes, values, and rules. In 1998, Newmark remarks that culture is the way of life and its manifestations are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression . Here, he asserts that each language group has its own culturally specific features. Indeed, one of the most difficult problems in translating literary texts is found in the differences between cultures. People of a given culture look at things from their own perspective. Larson notes that different cultures have different focuses. Some societies are more technical and others less technical. Therefore, if the SL text originates from a highly technical society it may be much more difficult to translate it into the language of a nontechnical society. However, in the case of similar cultures the conditions are not the same. When the cultures are similar, there is less difficulty in translating. This is because both languages will probably have terms that are more or less equivalent for the various aspects of the culture. When the cultures are very different, it is often difficult to find equivalent lexical items. Translation plays an important role in increasing awareness and understanding among diverse cultures and nations. Literary translations in particular help these different cultures reach a compromise. The increasing interest in the literature of other languages has required a more studious regard for the problems of literary translation. A translator deals with a text which involves linguistic, pragmatic and cultural elements. Such problems often pose problems to target readers. More often than not, translators pay more attention to linguistic and cultural elements than to pragmatic aspects of a source text.

The linguistic problems in translating verse is two fold; the words and meaning onone hand, whereas the flowand rhythm onthe other hand.The words and meaning embody certain issuesrelatedto the images, similes, metaphors, culture-specific words, phrasal verbs,idioms, punnedexpressions, enjambment andgrammar of boththeTL text and the SL text.According to Ezra Pound,

an image is that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time.

In Pounds definition, the image is not just a standin for something else; it is a putting-into-word of the emotional, intellectualand concrete stuff that we experience in anygiven moment. It is also important to note that animage in poetry, contrary topopular belief, is not simply visual. It can engage anyof the senses. Andin fact, for it tobe animage, it must engage at leastone of thesenses by using sensory detail. This is agreat challenge for a translator, as s/he hasto put the same sensory effectin thetranslatedformaswell.Another problem in translating poems is regarding the metaphors. Metaphor is the concept of understanding one thing interms of another. A metaphor is a figure of speech that constructs an analogy between two things or ideas, the analogy isconveyed by the use of a metaphorical word in place of some other word. Metaphor is or was also occasionally used to denoterhetoricalfiguresof speech that achieve theireffectsvia association, comparison or resemblance (e.g. antithesis, hyperbole,metonymy and simile, which are then all considered typesof metaphor).The mostdifficult challengewhile translatingliterary textsis foundin thedifferencesbetween cultures. People of a givenculture look at thingsfromtheir own perspective. Larson notesthat different cultures have different focuses. Some societiesare more technical and other less technical. This differenceis reflectedin theamount of vocabulary which isavailable totalk about aparticulartopic . Larsonaddsthatthere may alsobe both technicalandnon-technicalvocabulary which is available totalk aboutthesame thing within a givensociety. Therefore, iftheSLtext originatesfrom ahighly technical society it may bemuch more difficult totranslate it into the language of a nontechnical society. However, inthe case of similar cultures the conditions are not the same:When the cultures are similar there is lessdifficulty in translating. This is because both languages will probably haveterms that are more or lessequivalent for the variousaspectsof the culture.Whenthe cultures are very different, it is often difficult to find equivalent lexical items. Other difficulties of translation are regarding the idioms and phrasal verbs. An idiomis an expression peculiar to a languageandnotreadily understandable fromits grammatical construction or fromthe meaning of its parts. It is considered that theliving language of any country is idiomatic. In other words, idiommeansa groupof words having unique meaning of theindividual word in the group. Similarly, phrasal verb is a combination of verb + adverb or preposition or verb to havedifferent meaning compared tothe meaning of theverb. The unique meaning of the idioms and phrasal verbsbecome difficult totranslate. Punnedexpressionshave appeared in literature since thetime of Homer .Shaw definesthistermasa playon words; the humorous use of a word emphasizing different meaningsor applications. However, it does not seemappropriateto consider puns as merely a humour device. According to Nash , we take punning for a tawdry and facetiousthing, one of the less profound forms of humour, but that is the prejudice of our time; a pun may beprofoundly serious, orcharged with pathos.

Hence, translating these expressions into another language becomes another problematic issue.According to the structuralist point of view, grammar is the study of the rules governing the use of a language. That set ofrules is also called the grammar of the language, andeach language hasits own distinct grammar. Hence, for any translator,grammar becomes a matter of concern. As the complete language systemof any society dependson its grammaticalrules, so,for the translator, grammatical knowledge of both, the TL andSL becomes necessary. Flow and rhythmcause another problemin translation. As the rhyme,rhythm, alliteration, assonance, consonance, etc,produce musicality in any poem,hence its existence becomes important. But most of the time it is observed thatthese musicalelements, that are the beauty of the poems, are somewhat lost in translation.

Aesthetic values or poetic truth in a poem are conveyed in word order and sounds, as well as in cognitive sense (logic). And these aesthetic values have no independent meaning, but they are correlative with the various types of meaning in the text.Hence,ifthe translator destroysthe word choice, word order,and the sounds, s/heimpairsand distorts thebeautyof the original poem. Delicacy and gentleness, for instance, ruinsifthe translator providescrude alliterationsfor the original carefully-composedalliterations. So, the problemin translating a verse is how to retain theaesthetic valuesin the TL text. The aesthetic values, are dependent on the structure (or poetic structure), and sound. Poetic structure includes the plan of the original poem as a whole, the shape and the balance of individual sentence in each line. While sound is anything connected with sound cultivation including rhyme, rhythm, assonance, onomatopoeia, etc. A translator cannot ignore any of them although s/he may order them depending on the nature of the poem translated. The first factor is poetic structure. It is importantto note that the structure meant here is the plan of the poemas a whole,the shape andthe balance of individual sentence of each line. So, it does not have torelate directly tothe sententialstructures orgrammar of a language, evenin fact it is very muchaffectedby the sententialstructure. Thus, maintaining the original structure of the poemmay mean maintaining the original structure of each sentence. Another literary or aesthetic factor is sound. Asstatedbefore, sound is anything connectedwith soundcultivation including rhythm, assonance; onomatopoeia etc. a translator musttry tomaintain them in the translation. AsNewmark further states, In asignificanttext, semantic truthis cardinal [meaningis not more or lessimportant, it is important!], whilst ofthethree aesthetic factors, sound(e.g. alliteration or rhyme) islikely torecede in importance... rhyme is perhapsthemost likely factor to give- rhymingis difficult andartificialenough in one language, reproducingline is sometimesdoubly so.In short, if the translation is faced with the condition where s/he has to make a sacrifice, s/he should sacrifice the sound.

On the other hand, the translator has to balance where the beauty of a poem really lies. If the beauty lies more on sounds rather on the meaning (semantic), the translator cannot ignore the sound factor. Cultural Issues Wordsor expressions that contain culturally bound word(s) create certain problems. Thesocio-cultural problems exist in thephrases, clauses, or sentencescontainingword(s) related to the four major culturalcategories, namely:ideas, behavior ,productandecology . The ideas includes belief, values, and institution; behaviors includescustoms orhabits, products includesart, music,and artifacts, and ecology includesflora, fauna, plains, windsand weather. In translating culturally-bound expressions, like in other expressions, a translator may apply one or some of the procedures: Literal translation, transference, naturalization , cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, description equivalent, classifier,componential analysis, deletion, couplets, note addition, glosses, reduction, and synonymy. In literal translation, a translatordoes unit-to-unit translation. The translation unit may vary from word to larger units such as phrase or clause. One applies transference procedure if s/he convertsthe SL word directly intoTLword by adjustingthe alphabets(writing system) only. The result is loan word. Whens/hedoesonly adjust the alphabets, butalsoadjust it into thenormalpronunciation of the TL word, s/he appliesnaturalization .In addition, the translator may find the cultural equivalent word of the SLor, if s/he cannotfindone, neutralize or generalize theSLword to result functional equivalents. Whenthetranslator modifiestheSLword withdescriptionof formin theTL,the result is description equivalent. Sometimesa translator provides ageneric or super ordinate termfor a TLword and the result in the TL is called classifier.Andwhen the translator just supplies the near TLequivalent for the SLword, s/he uses synonymy. In componential analysis procedure the translator splits up a lexical unit into its sense components, often one-to-two, one-to-three, or more translation. Moreover, a translator sometimesaddssome information, whether he putsit in a bracket or in otherclause or even footnote or even deletes unimportant SL word in translation to smooth the result for the reader.The writer does not assert that one procedure is superior to others;it dependson the predicament considering the aestheticand expressive functions a poem is carrying. A translator should try to find the cultural equivalent (synonym)first before trying the other procedure.It also dependson the translator that s/he should say both- what the author says and what s/he means. Otherwise, translationwould forfeit itssplendor andthe translator, his/her credibility.

II. Literary translation as a specific coding-encoding process2.1 Literary translation as functional interaction of languages

Usually when people speak about translation they are seldom specific about the meaning. The presumption is quite natural - everybody understands the meaning of the word. However, to describe translation intuitive understanding is not sufficient - what one needs is a definition. Translation means both a process and a result, and when defining translation we are interested in both its aspects.

In order to explain translation it is important to compare the original (source) text and the resulting (target) one. Every language is characterized by a specific structure of its lexico-grammatical fields and has its own lexical, morphological and syntactic systems. It may result in lack of coincidence between the means of expressing the same content in SL (source language) and TL (target language).

That is why good practical knowledge of the two languages is quite necessary but not sufficient for translating. Besides this knowledge one must possess a number of skills and be guided by a number of principles worked out by the theory of translation. These principles are connected both with linguistic and extralinguistic aspects. In translation we deal with two languages (two codes) and to verify the information they give us about the extralinguistic objects (and concepts) we should consider extralinguistic situation, and background information.

In short, translation is functional interaction of language and to study this process we should study both the interacting elements and the rules of interaction .

While translating one must keep in view typological characteristics of both the languages and remember that the same idea may be expressed lexically in one of them and grammatically in the other.One of the main demands upon a person translating any text is that he should be well acquainted with its subject matter. If all these principles are taken into consideration there will be no danger of so-called "literal" translation, which means a word-for-word translation. This type of translation with all its seeming accuracy ignores both linguistic and extralinguistic factors discussed above. It leads to preserving the meanings of separate words and at the same time it distorts the meaning of the whole text, thus often creates an undesirable comic effect.

Also we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.

In this work it is considered literary translation. Literary translation deals with literary texts, for example, works of fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translators primary task is to reproduce this quality in translation.

Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translations may subdivide in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The particular tasks inherent in the translation of literary works of each genre are more literary than linguistic. The great challenge to the translator is to combine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit.

All branches of the theory of translation are concerned with important aspects of the translators work and constitute a body of theoretical thought of indisputable practical value.

2.2 Text and Context and its role in literary translation

Text may be taken for a specific language medium which enables the formation of cognitive ideas with the aim of imparting information and forming/interpreting a coherent sequence of utterances. It is supposed to be endowed with referential continuity and logical reasoning. For this reason, to create, understand and translate a text means to form a specific cross connection between its semantic contents. Within the ambit of text linguistics, text was initially viewed as an organized unit larger than a sentence which consists of a sequence of formally (i.e. morphosyntactically) and semantically linked utterances unified thematically as well. This means that a text was understood as a network made of intertwined syntactic wholes: individual sentences and paragraphs. This, by a long way, oversimplified formal conception of a text was substantially altered after the so-called communicative pragmatic turn in linguistic studies at the outset of the 1990s when a text started to be conceived of as text-in-function, text-in-situation, as a socio-communicative functional unit). Hand in hand with this, one of the central issues became the elaboration of the notion of textuality: which properties does a text have to possess in order to be called a text? In this regard, de Beaugrande and Dressler interpret text as a communicative occurrence which must meet certain standards/criteria of textuality, these being: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality. If any of these standards is not considered to have been satisfied, the text will not be communicative and in turn, non-communicative texts are treated as non-texts. Gpferich offers the following definition of text in her article in the seminal German publication Handbuch Translation by Snell-Hornby: A text is a thematic and/or functionally oriented, coherent linguistic or linguistically figurative whole which has been formed with a certain intention, a communicative intention and which fulfils a recognizable communicative function of the first or second degree and represents a functionally complete unit in terms of content (for the communicative function of the first or second degree). As it follows from the recent definition of text given above, the modern perception of text takes it beyond a mere list of sentences and emphasizes the communicative act-insituation providing the framework in which the text has its place. Nowadays, the linguistic and semiotic fashioning of text seems determined by its communicative function and the requirements for the above-said thematic orientation, intentionality, a recognizable communicative function, coherence and completion, seem common for the majority of text definitions available.

In linguistics, context carries tremendous importance in disambiguation of meanings as well as in understanding the actual meaning of words. Therefore, understanding the context becomes an important task in the area of applied linguistics, computational linguistics, lexical semantics, cognitive linguistics, as well as in other areas of linguistics as context triggers variation of meaning and supplies valuable information to understand why and how a particular word varies in meaning when used in a piece of text. Keeping this question in mind, I have made an attempt here to understand the nature, type, and role of context in the act of meaning disambiguation of words used in a language. In contrast to the observation of earlier scholars, I have identified four types of context that can help us to understand the actual meaning of a word. At certain situations, although reference to the local context appears to be the most suitable proposition, reference to other contexts also becomes equally important to decipher the actual meaning of a word in a natural language text.

A word, when used in a piece of text, usually denotes only one meaning out of multiple meanings it inherently carries. Although it is still unknown to us how does it happen, the general observation is that it is the context that determines which meaning of the word should be considered. This observation, as a logical consequence, leads us to identify the context responsible for meaning variation of a word. The general conviction is that identification of context depends heavily on intuitive ability of a language user. I argue that natural language texts are the best resources for the task, since words are usually represented within these texts with all kinds of context-based information. Language corpora, made with different kinds of natural text, contain numerous examples of contextual use of words to provide useful information for understanding meaning variation of words as well as for deciphering their actual context-based meanings.

Context refers to an immediate linguistic environment (rarely detached or isolated) in which a particular word occurs. Since it is not always explicit, it may be hidden within the neighboring members of a word used in a piece of text. If we cannot extract the information relevant to the meaning of a word from its immediate linguistic environment, we need to take into account the topic of discussion as a sphere of necessary information. Taking these factors into consideration, Miller and Leacock have classified context into two types: (a) local context, and (b) topical context. While the local context refers to one or two words immediately before and after the key word (KW) under investigation, the topical context refers to the topic of the text where the KW has been used. According to these scholars, reference to the two contexts is more of less sufficient in understanding the actual contextual meaning of the KW used in a text. In certain readings, information acquired from the local context and the topical context may be sufficient, but these are not enough for understanding all possible meaning variations of a word.

A language is way to see and understand the world. It is the vehicle of our ideas, thoughts and perspectives of our world. However since human being is essentially a social animal we perpetually interact with our environment. This interaction with environment is a factor of time and space. When and where we are interacting determines what actually we are meaning. For example March is an act as well as month. The meaning depends on when, where and how. Translationis understood as an act of carrying the meaning of a text from one language to another. This process involves interpretation of meaning of the source text and producing the same meaning in another language. Text however cannot exist out of context. By context what is meant is the entire environment in which the word or sentence is expressed or stated. So a translator has to go into the background of the text to understand the text. Thus translator first de-contextualizes the original text and re-contextualizes it for the target text. This forms a good contextualized translation.While seeking the context of a text there may be two categories of factors that may influence the meaning of the text- linguistic context or the situational context.

Linguisticcontext cites the linguistic factors influencing the meaning of the text. Any word in the text is not present in isolation but interacts with other words in the text and with the whole text at large. This interaction among words determines their meaning rather than its isolated meaning. For example see the use of word press in these sentences. A). press my shirt. B). I work in a press. C). press the button. Linguistic context too can either be immediate or remote. Immediate context refers to the words or sentences that make the context evident then and there through the whole text. Remote context pertains to existence of word or sentence somewhere else. It may refer to author using the word somewhere else or there may be special reasons to use that word or phrase. Situational context refers to the factors of situation and circumstances influencing the meaning of a text. These factors are little harder to be recognized than linguistic ones. The situational factors may pertain to the facial expressions, gestures and stances at micro level and the social, political and economical milieu and the culture at large. Conventions and the whole value system differ from one culture and society to another. What is right and what is wrong differs. Ideologies may also be a factor to refer to the context. Language therefore should be considered a part of culture and understood in its context. Translator must be giving over the top stress to understand the context so as to produce a good contextualizedtranslation. The meaning of equivalents practically does not depend on the context, so to translate them literary one should merely look them up in a dictionary. The demand to consult dictionaries is essential. No guesswork is allowed in translation. It is much more difficult to translate those words of SL which are characterized by partial correspondence to the words of TL. Such words are mostly polysemantic. That is why in order to translate them correctly it is necessary first of all to state which particular meaning of such a word is realized in the utterance. The most reliable indicator in this case is the context in which the word is used. They usually differentiate, as it has been mentioned above, between linguistic context and extralinguistic context (or context of situation). Linguistic context in its turn is subdivided into narrow (context of a phrase or a sentence) and wide (utterance-length context or sometimes context of the whole text). Very often the meaning of a word is revealed in the minimum context, i.e. in a phrase ("green" , , , etc., but there is no problem in translating the phrase "green trees" - " " or "green years" - " "). However, there are such cases when we need at least a sentence to see what the word means, e.g. "I'll be sitting in the 3rd carriage from the front of the train" - " ". The whole sentence is necessary here to understand the meaning of the word "carriage" and to choose the variant "" but not ", ". Sometimes linguistic context is closely connected with extralinguistic factors. So literary translation of any word begins with contextual analysis of its meaning after which it becomes possible to choose correctly the corresponding word of TL. All types of context can help to identify the meaning of words in SL characterized by partial correspondence to the words of TL, as well as the meaning of words that do not correspond to any words of TL. Literary translation of the latter group causes many difficulties and requires special means.

Although it must be admitted that not much attention has been paid to the issueof the definition of literature over the past two decades or so, what has attracted interest, as Culler contends, is that literature is seen as a historical and ideological category with its social and political functioning. Nowadays, definitions of literature tend to be functional and contingent rather than formal or ontological, as illustrated by Eagleton who argues in his influential textbook Literary Theory that literature is best defined as a highly valued kind of writing. On the other hand, Culler adopts in his Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction a two pronged approach: the designation literature serves as institutional label, denoting a speech act or textual event that elicits certain kinds of attention . However, for historical reasons attention of the literary kind has been focused on texts displaying certain features, notably such things as foregrounding of language, the interdependence of different levels of linguistic organisation, the separation from the practical context of utterance, and the perception of texts as both aesthetic objects and intertextual or self-reflexive construct. This specificity of literature is also confirmed by Toury who depicts it by means of the presence of a secondary, literary code superimposed on a stratum of unmarked language. In order to grasp the specifics of literary translation, it is deemed reasonable to look at the properties of a literary text first. These are pre-determined by the realm of literature, which has an innate capacity to appeal to ones feelings and unfetter ones imagination. Bearing this in mind, it might seem appropriate to pose a question why most people usually enjoy literary texts much more than their non-literary counterparts. It would not be an overstatement to suggest that literary texts guarantee entertainment on the basis of their artistic quality, provide the recipient with the authors experience or world-view which may motivate them to think, act and re-evaluate their attitudes. Clearly, the most important feature of a literary work of art is that it is a bearer of an aesthetic function. Literary text comes into existence as a subjectively transformed reflection of the objective reality in tune with the aesthetic-emotional intent of the author: he/she endeavours to convey his/her ideas, thoughts and emotions, which is enabled by his/her orientation towards experience. From the point of view of the language resources choice, an immense lexical variability coupled with the 22 uniqueness of expression comes to the fore here. Another crucial feature of literary text is connected with the release of the polysemy of words for an adequate understanding of the text is achieved only through a careful mapping of its entire denotative and connotative dimension. Besides, it is claimed that the principal feature of literary text rests on its focus on the message, not on content.

Consequently, literary translation must be approached as a kind of aesthetically-oriented mediated bilingual communication, which aims at producing a target text intended to communicate its own form, correspondent with the source text, and accordant with contemporary literary and translational norms of the receptor culture. In the ambit of literary translation, the translator delves in the aesthetic pleasures of working with great pieces of literature, of recreating in a TL a work that would otherwise remain beyond reach or effectively encrypted. One of the exasperatingly difficult things about literary translation in general is the translators ability to capture and render the style of the original composition. Notably, in literary translation how one says something may be as significant, sometimes even more significant, than what one says. In technical translation, for instance, style is not a consideration as long as the informational content makes its way unaltered from SL to TL. Landers illustrates this issue by using a vivid freight-train analogy: in technical translation the order of the cars is inconsequential if all cargo arrives intact.

In literary translation, however, the order of the cars which is to say the style can make the difference between a lively, highly readable translation and stilted, rigid, artificial rendering that strips the original of its artistic and aesthetic essence, even its very soul.

Ideally, the translator should take pains to have no style at all and endeavour to disappear into and become indistinguishable from the style of the author he/she translates now terse, now rambling, sometimes abstruse but always as faithful to the original as circumstances permit. However, all literary translators have their individual styles, i.e. characteristic modes of expressions, which they more or less consciously or unconsciously display. More specifically, literary translation traditionally splits into translation of poetry, translation of prose (fiction) and translation of drama, reflecting three major strands of literary texts. While in the translation of poetry, achievement of the same emotional effect on the TT recipient is intended, in drama the relationship between te