mining essentials - preliminary pages and table of contents
TRANSCRIPT
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 115
Mineral Exploration
and Mining EssentialsRobert Stevens
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 215
M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 415
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 515
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 615
M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
Robert StevensBritish Columbia Institute of Technology
P983137983147983137983159983137983157 G983141983151M983137983150983137983143983141983149983141983150983156 I983150983139P983151983154983156 C983151983153983157983145983156983148983137983149 B983154983145983156983145983155983144 C983151983148983157983149983138983145983137
983159983159983159983149983145983150983145983150983143983141983155983155983141983150983156983145983137983148983155983139983151983149
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 715
Copyright copy 2010 Robert Stevens All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in an electronic data-
base or transmitted in any form by any means electronic photocopying re-
cording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyrightholder
For training courses related to the material in this book see wwwbcitcamin-
ing or contact infominingessentialscom
Support for this book was provided by the British Columbia
Institute of Technology
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Stevens Robert Allan 1965-
Mineral exploration and mining essentials Robert Stevens
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-9867221-0-3
1 Mines and mineral resources 2 Mining geology 3 Mining engi-
neering 4 Abandoned mined lands reclamation 5 Mines and mineral
resources-- Economic aspects I Title
TN145S74 2010 622 C2010-906960-9
Pakawau GeoManagement Inc
1120 Fletcher Way
Port Coquitlam BC CanadaV3C 6B7
wwwminingessentialscom
Printed in Canada
Front coverFolded coal seams and sedimentary rocks from the lsquoA Northrsquo highwall at the Cardinal River Coal Mine in
southwestern Alberta (image courtesy of Teck Resources)
Frontispiece
Open pit at Barrick Goldrsquos Goldstrike Mine in Nevada in March 983090983088983089983088 (photo by Bryan Farbridge)
Previous page
Northern lights shine over an exploration field tent at the Revenue Camp Yukon (photo copyright Mark
Roden Northern Freegold Resources Ltd)
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 315
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 415
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 515
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 615
M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
Robert StevensBritish Columbia Institute of Technology
P983137983147983137983159983137983157 G983141983151M983137983150983137983143983141983149983141983150983156 I983150983139P983151983154983156 C983151983153983157983145983156983148983137983149 B983154983145983156983145983155983144 C983151983148983157983149983138983145983137
983159983159983159983149983145983150983145983150983143983141983155983155983141983150983156983145983137983148983155983139983151983149
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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Copyright copy 2010 Robert Stevens All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in an electronic data-
base or transmitted in any form by any means electronic photocopying re-
cording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyrightholder
For training courses related to the material in this book see wwwbcitcamin-
ing or contact infominingessentialscom
Support for this book was provided by the British Columbia
Institute of Technology
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Stevens Robert Allan 1965-
Mineral exploration and mining essentials Robert Stevens
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-9867221-0-3
1 Mines and mineral resources 2 Mining geology 3 Mining engi-
neering 4 Abandoned mined lands reclamation 5 Mines and mineral
resources-- Economic aspects I Title
TN145S74 2010 622 C2010-906960-9
Pakawau GeoManagement Inc
1120 Fletcher Way
Port Coquitlam BC CanadaV3C 6B7
wwwminingessentialscom
Printed in Canada
Front coverFolded coal seams and sedimentary rocks from the lsquoA Northrsquo highwall at the Cardinal River Coal Mine in
southwestern Alberta (image courtesy of Teck Resources)
Frontispiece
Open pit at Barrick Goldrsquos Goldstrike Mine in Nevada in March 983090983088983089983088 (photo by Bryan Farbridge)
Previous page
Northern lights shine over an exploration field tent at the Revenue Camp Yukon (photo copyright Mark
Roden Northern Freegold Resources Ltd)
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 315
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 415
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 515
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 615
M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
Robert StevensBritish Columbia Institute of Technology
P983137983147983137983159983137983157 G983141983151M983137983150983137983143983141983149983141983150983156 I983150983139P983151983154983156 C983151983153983157983145983156983148983137983149 B983154983145983156983145983155983144 C983151983148983157983149983138983145983137
983159983159983159983149983145983150983145983150983143983141983155983155983141983150983156983145983137983148983155983139983151983149
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 715
Copyright copy 2010 Robert Stevens All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in an electronic data-
base or transmitted in any form by any means electronic photocopying re-
cording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyrightholder
For training courses related to the material in this book see wwwbcitcamin-
ing or contact infominingessentialscom
Support for this book was provided by the British Columbia
Institute of Technology
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Stevens Robert Allan 1965-
Mineral exploration and mining essentials Robert Stevens
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-9867221-0-3
1 Mines and mineral resources 2 Mining geology 3 Mining engi-
neering 4 Abandoned mined lands reclamation 5 Mines and mineral
resources-- Economic aspects I Title
TN145S74 2010 622 C2010-906960-9
Pakawau GeoManagement Inc
1120 Fletcher Way
Port Coquitlam BC CanadaV3C 6B7
wwwminingessentialscom
Printed in Canada
Front coverFolded coal seams and sedimentary rocks from the lsquoA Northrsquo highwall at the Cardinal River Coal Mine in
southwestern Alberta (image courtesy of Teck Resources)
Frontispiece
Open pit at Barrick Goldrsquos Goldstrike Mine in Nevada in March 983090983088983089983088 (photo by Bryan Farbridge)
Previous page
Northern lights shine over an exploration field tent at the Revenue Camp Yukon (photo copyright Mark
Roden Northern Freegold Resources Ltd)
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 415
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 515
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 615
M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
Robert StevensBritish Columbia Institute of Technology
P983137983147983137983159983137983157 G983141983151M983137983150983137983143983141983149983141983150983156 I983150983139P983151983154983156 C983151983153983157983145983156983148983137983149 B983154983145983156983145983155983144 C983151983148983157983149983138983145983137
983159983159983159983149983145983150983145983150983143983141983155983155983141983150983156983145983137983148983155983139983151983149
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 715
Copyright copy 2010 Robert Stevens All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in an electronic data-
base or transmitted in any form by any means electronic photocopying re-
cording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyrightholder
For training courses related to the material in this book see wwwbcitcamin-
ing or contact infominingessentialscom
Support for this book was provided by the British Columbia
Institute of Technology
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Stevens Robert Allan 1965-
Mineral exploration and mining essentials Robert Stevens
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-9867221-0-3
1 Mines and mineral resources 2 Mining geology 3 Mining engi-
neering 4 Abandoned mined lands reclamation 5 Mines and mineral
resources-- Economic aspects I Title
TN145S74 2010 622 C2010-906960-9
Pakawau GeoManagement Inc
1120 Fletcher Way
Port Coquitlam BC CanadaV3C 6B7
wwwminingessentialscom
Printed in Canada
Front coverFolded coal seams and sedimentary rocks from the lsquoA Northrsquo highwall at the Cardinal River Coal Mine in
southwestern Alberta (image courtesy of Teck Resources)
Frontispiece
Open pit at Barrick Goldrsquos Goldstrike Mine in Nevada in March 983090983088983089983088 (photo by Bryan Farbridge)
Previous page
Northern lights shine over an exploration field tent at the Revenue Camp Yukon (photo copyright Mark
Roden Northern Freegold Resources Ltd)
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 515
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 615
M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
Robert StevensBritish Columbia Institute of Technology
P983137983147983137983159983137983157 G983141983151M983137983150983137983143983141983149983141983150983156 I983150983139P983151983154983156 C983151983153983157983145983156983148983137983149 B983154983145983156983145983155983144 C983151983148983157983149983138983145983137
983159983159983159983149983145983150983145983150983143983141983155983155983141983150983156983145983137983148983155983139983151983149
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
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Copyright copy 2010 Robert Stevens All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in an electronic data-
base or transmitted in any form by any means electronic photocopying re-
cording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyrightholder
For training courses related to the material in this book see wwwbcitcamin-
ing or contact infominingessentialscom
Support for this book was provided by the British Columbia
Institute of Technology
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Stevens Robert Allan 1965-
Mineral exploration and mining essentials Robert Stevens
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-9867221-0-3
1 Mines and mineral resources 2 Mining geology 3 Mining engi-
neering 4 Abandoned mined lands reclamation 5 Mines and mineral
resources-- Economic aspects I Title
TN145S74 2010 622 C2010-906960-9
Pakawau GeoManagement Inc
1120 Fletcher Way
Port Coquitlam BC CanadaV3C 6B7
wwwminingessentialscom
Printed in Canada
Front coverFolded coal seams and sedimentary rocks from the lsquoA Northrsquo highwall at the Cardinal River Coal Mine in
southwestern Alberta (image courtesy of Teck Resources)
Frontispiece
Open pit at Barrick Goldrsquos Goldstrike Mine in Nevada in March 983090983088983089983088 (photo by Bryan Farbridge)
Previous page
Northern lights shine over an exploration field tent at the Revenue Camp Yukon (photo copyright Mark
Roden Northern Freegold Resources Ltd)
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 615
M983145983150983141 983154983137983148 E 983160983152983148983151983154983137983156983145983151983150
983137 983150 983140 M 983145 983150 983145 983150 983143 E 983155 983155 983141 983150 983156 983145983137 983148 983155
Robert StevensBritish Columbia Institute of Technology
P983137983147983137983159983137983157 G983141983151M983137983150983137983143983141983149983141983150983156 I983150983139P983151983154983156 C983151983153983157983145983156983148983137983149 B983154983145983156983145983155983144 C983151983148983157983149983138983145983137
983159983159983159983149983145983150983145983150983143983141983155983155983141983150983156983145983137983148983155983139983151983149
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 715
Copyright copy 2010 Robert Stevens All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in an electronic data-
base or transmitted in any form by any means electronic photocopying re-
cording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyrightholder
For training courses related to the material in this book see wwwbcitcamin-
ing or contact infominingessentialscom
Support for this book was provided by the British Columbia
Institute of Technology
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Stevens Robert Allan 1965-
Mineral exploration and mining essentials Robert Stevens
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-9867221-0-3
1 Mines and mineral resources 2 Mining geology 3 Mining engi-
neering 4 Abandoned mined lands reclamation 5 Mines and mineral
resources-- Economic aspects I Title
TN145S74 2010 622 C2010-906960-9
Pakawau GeoManagement Inc
1120 Fletcher Way
Port Coquitlam BC CanadaV3C 6B7
wwwminingessentialscom
Printed in Canada
Front coverFolded coal seams and sedimentary rocks from the lsquoA Northrsquo highwall at the Cardinal River Coal Mine in
southwestern Alberta (image courtesy of Teck Resources)
Frontispiece
Open pit at Barrick Goldrsquos Goldstrike Mine in Nevada in March 983090983088983089983088 (photo by Bryan Farbridge)
Previous page
Northern lights shine over an exploration field tent at the Revenue Camp Yukon (photo copyright Mark
Roden Northern Freegold Resources Ltd)
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 715
Copyright copy 2010 Robert Stevens All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in an electronic data-
base or transmitted in any form by any means electronic photocopying re-
cording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyrightholder
For training courses related to the material in this book see wwwbcitcamin-
ing or contact infominingessentialscom
Support for this book was provided by the British Columbia
Institute of Technology
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Stevens Robert Allan 1965-
Mineral exploration and mining essentials Robert Stevens
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 978-0-9867221-0-3
1 Mines and mineral resources 2 Mining geology 3 Mining engi-
neering 4 Abandoned mined lands reclamation 5 Mines and mineral
resources-- Economic aspects I Title
TN145S74 2010 622 C2010-906960-9
Pakawau GeoManagement Inc
1120 Fletcher Way
Port Coquitlam BC CanadaV3C 6B7
wwwminingessentialscom
Printed in Canada
Front coverFolded coal seams and sedimentary rocks from the lsquoA Northrsquo highwall at the Cardinal River Coal Mine in
southwestern Alberta (image courtesy of Teck Resources)
Frontispiece
Open pit at Barrick Goldrsquos Goldstrike Mine in Nevada in March 983090983088983089983088 (photo by Bryan Farbridge)
Previous page
Northern lights shine over an exploration field tent at the Revenue Camp Yukon (photo copyright Mark
Roden Northern Freegold Resources Ltd)
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 815
vi i
ContentsPreface ix
Meet the Author xiii
C H A P T E R 1 mdash I N D U S T R Y O V E R V I E W 1
The Mining Life Sequence 983090
Mineral Exploration and Mining 983092
Commodities 983095
Participants in Exploration and Mining 983097
Funding Mineral Exploration 983089983090
References 983089983091
C H A P T E R 2 mdash G E O L O G Y 1 5Plate Tectonics 983089983094
Geologic Time 983090983089
Minerals 983090983091
Rocks 983090983096
Structural Geology 983091983095
References 983092983093
C H A P T E R 3 mdash M I N E R A L D E P O S I T S 4 7
The Formation of Mineral Deposits 983092983096
Mineral Deposit Terminolog y 983093983093
Styles and Forms of Mineralization 983093983096
Mineral Deposit Types 983094983091
References 983089983088983096
C H A P T E R 4 mdash M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 1 1 3
Stages of Exploration and Types of Exploration Properties 983089983089983092
Option Agreements 983089983090983093
Joint Ventures and Exploration Alliances 983089983090983097
Exploration Targets 983089983091983088
Mineral Exploration Techniques 983089983091983088
Geological Methods 983089983091983096
Geochemical Methods 983089983092983088
Geophysical Methods 983089983093983089
Drilling Methods 983089983093983096
References 983089983094983095
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 915
vi ii
C H A P T E R 5 mdash M I N E R A L R E S O U R C E S A N D R E S E R V E S A N D
M I N I N G T E C H N I C A L S T U D I E S 1 6 9
Mineral Resources and Reserves 983089983095983088
Preliminary Economic Assessments Pre-feasibility and Feasibility
Studies 983089983096983094Reporting and Disclosure Standards for Exploration and Mining
Companies (Canadarsquos NI43-101) 983089983097983091
References 983089983097983095
C H A P T E R 6 mdash M I N I N G 1 9 9
Types of Mining Operations 983090983088983088
Surface Mining (Open-Pit Mining) 983090983088983092
Underground Mining 983090983089983093
C H A P T E R 7 mdash M I N E R A L P R O C E S S I N G 2 3 1Crushing and Grinding 983090983091983090
Treating GoldplusmnSilve r Ores 983090983091983095
Treating Base Metal Ores 983090983092983092
C H A P T E R 8 mdash E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2 5 3
The Modern Mining Environment 983090983093983092
Sustainable Development 983090983093983094
Environmental Assessment 983090983093983097
Environmental Practices at Operating Mines 983090983094983090
Acid Rock Drainage 983090983094983094
Closure and Reclamation 983090983094983096
References 983090983095983092
CHAPTER 9mdashEVALUATING
EXPLORATION COMPANIES
A N D T E C H N I C A L N E W S R E L E A S E S 2 7 7
Evaluating Exploration Companies 983090983095983096
Interpreting Technical News Releases 983090983096983090
A P P E N D I X A mdash C O N V E R S I O N F AC T O R S 2 8 7
A P P E N D I X B mdash G R A D E A N D T O N N A G E T A B L E S 2 8 9
G L O S S A R Y 2 9 7
I N D E X 3 1 7
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1015
ix
P RE FA CE
Te Mineral Exploration and Mining Industry
Te mineral exploration and mining industry is a dynamic high-tech and di- verse sector that is vital to our modern world It combines science and engi-
neering with business and finance and it is fuelled by a drive for discovery
It is an industry requiring the expertise of a vast array of participants where
technical and business professionals work alongside entrepreneurs risk takers
and creative thinkers to discover develop operate and decommission mines
Te mining industry is a primary wealth creation industry It provides the raw
products needed for almost all other sectors and it supports the economic de-
velopment of countries and communities across the globe Te mining indus-
try continuously strives to operate more efficiently and to limit its impact on
the environment while supporting the economic and social development ofcommunities and countries As we move toward a more sustainable way of life
on Earth the products of the mining industry will continue to play a vital role
in the development of emerging industries such as renewable energy technol-
ogies Te mining industry is not an industry of the past it is an industry cru-
cial to the present and the future It is exciting to participate in and to learn
about
Tis book is aimed at non-technical individuals and professionals who are
working or interested in the mineral exploration and mining industry It will
also be of benefit to students investors community leaders regulators and
the general public Te book provides an overview of the industry from ex-
ploration to mine closure and should serve as a valuable reference that can be
reviewed and re-read over time It is hoped that the book will lead to more in-
formed business and investment decisions will assist with the advancement
of professional careers and will support the effective review and evaluation of
mineral development proposals by financiers governments and communities
OrganizationTe book is divided into nine chapters that more or less follow the typical
path of a mining project from exploration through mine development op-
eration and closure Each chapter stands alone but a broader appreciation of
the mining industry as presented in the book will be enhanced by reviewing
each chapter sequentially Chapter 983089 provides an overview of the mineral ex-
ploration and mining industry in a global context introduces the participants
in the industry and discusses the sources of funding Chapters 983090 and 1048627 provide
a brief review of geology and mineral deposits Because the mineral explora-
tion and mining industry is built around evaluating and extracting rocks and
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1115
x
mineral deposits it is important to have a basic understanding of these tech-
nical topics Where possible the linkages between basic geology and mineral
exploration or mining applications have been highlighted Chapter 1048627 also in-
cludes a survey of 983089983088 common mineral deposit types that will serve as a valu-
able future reference Chapter 1048628 discusses mineral exploration and includesbusiness aspects such as option agreements and technical aspects such as geo-
chemical and geophysical surveys and drilling methods Chapter 983093 covers top-
ics that represent the transition from mineral exploration to mining includ-
ing mineral resource and reserve estimates and feasibility studies It also in-
cludes a review of Canadarsquos national securities instrument 10486281048627-983089983088983089 (98315098314510486281048627-983089983088983089)
Chapters 983094 and 983095 discuss mining and mineral processing and review both sur-
face and underground mining and the recovery of precious and base metals
Chapter 983096 touches on a number of environmental considerations that are im-
portant to the industry such as sustainability environmental assessment and
closure and reclamation Chapter 983097 outlines some of the factors that shouldbe considered when evaluating exploration companies and technical news re-
leases particularly from an investment point of view
AcknowledgementsTis book has benefitted from the support of a wide range of individuals
companies and organizations It is has grown out of a manual that the au-
thor developed for courses on mineral exploration and mining for the busi-
ness and investment sector and for governments and communities Te feed-
back from many participants in these courses was an important driver lead-
ing to the development of this book and their comments have significantly
improved the manual over the years Te first version of the manual was for
a British Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) course called ldquo983149983145983150983141 983089983088983089983088
Exploration and Mining for Investment Advisors and Investorsrdquo Tis course
is part of a collection of courses that the mining program at 983138983139983145983156 has run in
partnership with the Association for Mineral Exploration BC (983137983149983141 983138983139) Both
organizations are thanked for their support in the development of this book
In particular 983138983139983145983156 is thanked for providing the author with the time and re-
sources needed to complete this book for providing a supportive and dynam-
ic environment in which to work and for its commitment to high quality ed-
ucation Paul Razzell from the Learning and eaching Centre at 983138983139983145983156 provid-
ed invaluable help in editing and in the design and layout of the book
Earlier dras of this book have benefitted from the careful reviews by a
number of colleagues Te author would like to thank the following individ-
uals for their support and for their improvements to earlier versions of the
book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1215
xi
Aeroquest Surveys
Alex Doll
AMEC Americas Limited
Association for Mineral Exploration
BC
Atlas Copco
Aurelian Resources Inc
Barrick Gold Corporation
BC Institute of echnology
BC Securities Commission
Bill Lebarge
Bryan Farbridge
Canplats Resources Corp
Capstone Mining Corp
Carol Stoker
Chris Rowan
Colin Dunn
Continental Minerals Corporation
Te Crystal Caves
Derek Torkelson
Diamonds North Resources Ltd
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc
Equity Exploration Consultants Ltd
Flassig Reiner
G Wilson
Geological Association of Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
Geovic Energy Corp
Gold One International
Highland Valley Copper Mine
Imperial Metals Corporation
International Institute for
Sustainable Development (IISD)
James Leader
Kirstie Simpson
Kiska Metals Corporation
Malik L Papis Greengems
Mark Roden
Metals Economics Group
National Institute for Occupational
Health and Safety (NIOSH)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Natural Resources Canada
Newmont Mining Corporation
Northern Freegold Resources
NovaGold Resources Inc
Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Barbara Henderson Pacific Rim Mining Corp
Paul Razzell Learning and Teaching Centre 983138983139983145983156
Michael Assouline Raymond James Limited
Russell Hartlaub Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156
Anoush Ibrahimi Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration 983138983139983145983156 Alex Doll Alex Doll Consulting Ltd
Greg Gossan 983137983149983141983139 Americas Limited
An important part of this book is the photos images and graphics that sup-
port the text Many companies individuals and organizations provided these
images oen spending time tracking down high resolution copies and sug-
gesting interesting alternatives to images the author had selected Kiska Met-
als Corporation and eck Resources Limited are particularly acknowledged
for providing a large number of high quality photographs
Te author would like to acknowledge the following companies organiza-tions and individuals for providing images and other material for this book
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1315
xi i
Placer Dome Inc
Raw Materials Data
Rio into
Robert Marschik
Roca Mines IncRussell Hartlaub
Sandvik AB
Saskatchewan Research Council
Scott McAlpine
Sean McKinely
Selwyn Resources Ltd
Siemens AG
Silvercorp Metals Inc
Stealth Minerals Limited
eck Resources Limited
era Grady
errane Metals Corp
TyssenKrupp Foumldertechnik
immins Gold CorpUnited States Geological Survey
(USGS)
Uranerz Energy Corporation
Vivian Hui
Wikimedia Commons
Wyoming Mining Association
Xstrata
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1415
xiii
M E E T T H E A U T H O R
Robert Stevens PhD PGeo
Robert Stevens is a professional geologist who is well known for his involve-
ment in the mineral exploration community in Vancouver and for deliver-
ing dynamic and enlightening courses on the mineral exploration and mining
industry to various industry participants and stakeholders in western North
America Dr Stevens is the Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the Brit-
ish Columbia Institute of echnology (983138983139983145983156) prior to which he was a facul-
ty member and head of the Mining and Mineral Exploration echnology de-
partment at 983138983139983145983156 for 10 years He received his PhD in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alberta with a focus on structural geology and tectonics and an
Honours BSc in geology from the University of Waterloo He has worked
across Canada for a number of exploration companies and for provincial and
federal geological surveys
Dr Stevens has been a director of the Association for Mineral Exploration
BC since 2001 and was the Chairman from 2008-2010 In 2005 while on sab-
batical from 983138983139983145983156 he was the Executive Director of Geoscience BC a position
that involved initiating and directing Geoscience BCrsquos programs and develop-
ment in its inaugural year Dr Stevens is passionate about the mineral explo-
ration and mining industry and enjoys the mix of science engineering busi-
ness discovery and entrepreneurialism that are integral to the industry
Robert Stevens on an outcrop overlooking Vancouver British Columbia in October 983090983088983089983088
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia
8102019 Mining Essentials - Preliminary Pages and Table of Contents
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullmining-essentials-preliminary-pages-and-table-of-contents 1515
The mineral exploration and mining industry is a
dynamic diverse and wealth-building sector in which
a wide range of people are involved professionally orpersonally At the same time it is an industry based
on applied science and technology with a lexicon not
widely understood by many of these participants This
book bridges that gap
Mineral Exploration and Mining Essentials is an indis-
pensable primer for anyone interested in the mineral
exploration and mining industry but who does not have
a background in the sector
bull Need to make informed mining-related investmentdecisions
bull Want to better evaluate mineral development
proposals
bull Interested in exploration discovery geology and
mining
This richly illustrated book provides a thorough over-
view of the industry from the exploration phase to mine
closure and includes a comprehensive glossary
Dr Robert Stevens is a professional geologist and
Associate Dean of Natural Resources at the British
Columbia Institute of Technology He is well known
for delivering compelling and enlightening courses on
the mineral exploration and mining industry to various
stakeholders in western North America and for his
involvement in the mineral exploration community in
Vancouver British Columbia