Mindfulness at Work and Its Relationship to Contextual Performance and Well-Being

Wissenschaftliche Arbeit zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades

„ Bachelor of Science“ (B.Sc.)

im Fach Psychologie

Fachbereich Psychologie

der Universität Konstanz

vorgelegt von

Tina Rauch

Erstgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Cornelia Niessen

Zweitgutachterin: Prof. Dr. Sabine Sonnentag

Konstanz, den 31.5.2011

Note

Note

This is an abridged version of my bachelor thesis “Mindfulness at Work and Its Relationship

to Contextual Performance and Well-Being”. It contains the following sections:

- Acknowledgements

- Abstract

- Contents

- Introduction

- Model of Hypotheses

- Discussion

- References

To receive the full version, please contact me via email: Tina.Rauch@uni-konstanz.de

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Cornelia Niessen for the supervision of my

bachelor thesis. In particular, I appreciate her patience and flexibility with regard to

organizational and content-related issues. Furthermore, I thank my former mentor Prof. Dr.

Sabine Sonnentag for her continued interest in my progress and for being my second

reviewer. I further thank Dr. Ailleen M. Pidgeon for introducing mindfulness practice to me.

Finally, I thank Shirley Brown, Neil Roberts and Sascha Valewink who taught me English

academic writing in a challenging and very humorous way.

Abstract

Abstract

The occurrence of mindfulness trainings in profit organisations is on the increase. However,

mindfulness as a quality of consciousness has rarely been investigated in work settings or

with work-related concepts. Thus, the present thesis examines mindfulness in relation to

contextual performance and work-related well-being. Based on literature analyses I propose

three hypotheses: Firstly, mindfulness is positively associated with helping and cooperating

with others, mediated by empathy. Secondly, mindfulness has a negative relationship to

strain. Thirdly, mindfulness is positively associated with work engagement. The first

proposition implies that mindfulness plays a crucial role beyond task-orientated work-

behavior. The latter propositions suggest that mindfulness is not only related to the

attenuation of detrimental effects of work stressors, but that it is also associated with positive

and fulfilling work-related states of mind. Thus, the present work implies that a) mindfulness

plays a crucial role in the work context that should be further investigated, b) trait

mindfulness can be considered as a variable in the process of personnel selection, and in

particular c) that the integration of mindfulness trainings in work life is not only beneficial

for profit-orientated corporations, but also for organizations and employees in other areas, in

particular in the health service sector.

Contents

Contents

Acknowledgements

Note

Abstract

Contents

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………...….………….….1

2. Theoretical Background………………………………………………...……..…….…….3

2.1 Definitions of Mindfulness…………………………………………...……..……........3

2.11 Mindfulness as a Quality of Consciousness……………………..……...…..........3

2.12 Buddhist Definitions of Mindfulness………………………………..…...…........4

2.13 Therapy-based Definitions…………………………………………..…...…........5

2.14 Cognitive Models of Mindfulness…………………………………….....….........6

2.141 The Cognitive Model of Mindfulness by Langer……………..…...…........6

2.142 The Two Component Model of Mindfulness……………………….……..7

2.143 The Model of Collective Mindfulness…………………………….…........8

2.2 Historical Background……………………………………………...……………........9

2.3 Self-Awareness……………………………………………………...…….…….........11

2.4 Measurements………………………………………………………...…….…….......13

2.41 The Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS)………………........13

2.42 The Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI)………………………….……........14

2.43 The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS)……………………….15

2.44 The Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)………………………….15

Table 1: Trait and state scales of Mindfulness………………………………….........17

Contents

3. Hypotheses………………………………………………………………………….........20

Figure 1. Model of Hypotheses……………………………………………..………........20

3.1 Contextual Performance…………………………………………………….…..........21

3.11 Helping and Cooperating with others…………………………………..……….22

3.2 Well-Being…………………………………………………………………….…......25

3.21 Strain…………………………………………………………………….……...26

3.211 Appraisal Process of Events………………………………………….......26

3.212 Perception and Development of Personal Resources……………….........28

3.214 Sensitivity of the Autonomous Nervous System……………………........30

3.214 Behavioral Choice……………………………………………………......32

3.22 Work Engagement………………………………………………………………33

3.221 Vigor……………………………………………………………………...34

3.222 Dedication……………………………………………………………......39

3.223 Absorption………………………………………………………………..40

4. Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..43

4.1 The Nature of Mindfulness…………………………………………………………..43

4.2 Methodological Approaches………………………………………………………….44

4.3 Practical Implications………………………………………………………………...46

References

Introduction

1. Introduction

Recently, work environment is determined by unpredictability and instability (Fries,

2010). Organizations constantly face challenges such as competition, technological and

informational change, globalization and cultural diversity (Fries, 2009; Marianetti & Passmore,

2010; Van den Heuvel, Demerouti, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2010). On the other hand, the

occurrence of mindfulness in the work context is increasing (Hunter & McCormick, 2008):

Fortune 500 companies, for instance Proctor and Gamble, offer mindfulness training for their

employees (Caroll, 2007; CNNmoney, 2010). Highly successful managers such as Bill Ford Jr.,

chairman of Ford Motors, and Michael Rennie, managing partner of MC Kinsey, are committed

practitioners of mindfulness (Caroll, 2007). Moreover, training facilities offer mindfulness

practice such as the Bentley College for business (Ezarik, 2006) and Google University (Jordan,

2010). This raise questions about the role of mindfulness in the work context.

Mindfulness is defined as “enhanced attention to and awareness of current experience or

present reality” (Brown & Ryan, 2003, p. 822), resulting in perceptions of internal and external

events without distortions (Brown & Kasser, 2005). Such qualities can be important in various

work settings, in particular in those, where life depends on detailed perceptions and mindful

responses. Highly Reliable Organizations for instance, rely on faultless functioning and refer to

air traffic control departments, hospital emergency units, and fire-fighting teams (Weick &

Sutcliffe, 2007). Moreover, mindfulness can play a crucial role in the work context of managers

or teachers (Napoli, 2006). Both perform leading roles in which the performance and well-being

of subordinates depend on the leader’s ability of taking responsibility and decision making that is

shown to be influenced by mindfulness (Fiol & O’Connor, 2003). In addition, mindfulness can

be beneficial in settings where interpersonal contact is required in general, for instance in the

sales department, or in work teams. Non-biased perceptions might facilitate interactive processes

which are often highly complex by involving linguistic components, as well as paralinguistic

behavior, such as gesture (Burgoon, Berger, & Waldron, 2000).

Introduction

Research on mindfulness has its origin in the 1970’s (Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000;

Rosenberg, 2004) and shows beneficial effects on clinical interventions, psychological outcomes,

health, and well-being (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008; Jain et al, 2008).

Regarding the work context, the investigation of mindfulness as defined by Brown and Ryan

(2003) has been intensified in recent years (cf. McCracken & Yang, 2008; cf. Williams,

Ciarrochi, & Deane, 2010). However, it is still underrepresented (Dane, 2010). Thus, research is

often literature-based, or of exploratory nature (c.f. Dane, 2010; c.f. Hunter & McCormick, 2008;

c.f. Marianetti & Passmore, 2010). Concerning the relationship between mindfulness and

performance, research focuses primarily on task performance (cf. Dane, 2010; cf. Shao &

Skarlicki, 2009). Only few studies associate mindfulness with other forms of performance such

as citizenship behavior (cf. Giluk, 2010; cf. Roche & Haar, 2010). Regarding well-being at work,

research targets the effects of mindfulness training on single, negative work-related outcomes, in

particular stress perception and job burnout-predominantly in the health service sector (cf.

Cohen, Sawyer, & Miller, 2009; cf. Narayanan & Moynihan, 2006; cf. Shapiro, Astin, Bishop, &

Cordova, 2005). Results on the relationship between mindfulness and positive work-related

concepts of well-being such as job satisfaction are still scarce (cf. Benoot, 2008, cf. Mackenzie,

Poulin, Seidman-Carlson, 2006). The present work has three aims: Firstly, this thesis targets the

relationship between mindfulness and helping and cooperation with others as a crucial

component of contextual performance. This represents a counterweight on the current focus on

task performance in the research on mindfulness and work performance. Secondly, concerning

well-being, the present work aims at the examination of the relationship between mindfulness

and strain as a global negative work-related concept. Thirdly, in alignment with the upcoming

positive psychology (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001),

this paper also focuses on the association between mindfulness and work engagement.

Hypotheses

3. Hypotheses

The following section contains three hypotheses about the relation of mindfulness to

contextual performance and to well-being at work. I propose that mindfulness is a) positively

related to helping and cooperating with others, mediated by empathy, b) negatively related to

strain, and c) that it has a positive relationship with work engagement. Figure 1 illustrates these

hypotheses, which will then be outlined in detail.

Figure 1. Model of hypotheses

Mindfulness

Contextual

Performance

Well-Being

Helping and

Cooperating with

others

Strain

Work Engagement

Discussion

4. Discussion

In this section, the findings of the present thesis are summarized and briefly interpreted.

Then, content-related problems as well as methodological limitations are presented in alignment

with their theoretical implications. Finally, practical implications are highlighted.

This bachelor thesis focussed on mindfulness as a quality of consciousness according to

Brown & Ryan (2003) and its relation to contextual performance and well-being at work. Based

on the reviewed literature, I propose three hypotheses. Firstly, mindfulness is positively

associated with helping and cooperating with others, mediated by empathy. Secondly,

mindfulness has a negative relationship to strain, and thirdly, mindfulness is positively associated

with work engagement. These propositions have three implications: a) mindfulness plays a

crucial role beyond task-orientated work-behavior b) mindfulness is associated with the

attenuation of detrimental effects of work stressors and moreover c) mindfulness is related to

positive and fulfilling work-related states of mind. Thus, this thesis contributes to research in the

field of work and organizational psychology by highlighting mindfulness as an important

variable in the work context: So far, mindfulness has rarely been investigated regarding work-

related concepts or directly within the work context (cf. Dane, 2010; cf. Shao & Skarlicki, 2009).

Hence, many studies cited in this thesis were conducted in different contexts such that the results

had to be transferred to the work area.

4.1 The Nature of Mindfulness

There are many different definitions and conceptualizations of mindfulness (Brown et al.,

2007a) based on different theoretical and practical backgrounds. Until today, there is no

consensus on a unique definition. An attempt by Bishop et al. (2004) to create a global

operational definition of mindfulness did not succeed (cf. Bischop et al., 2004; cf. Brown et al.,

2004a). In alignment with the diversity of definitions is the heterogeneity of mindfulness

measures. Currently, there are seven trait mindfulness scales. This raises question about the

Discussion

comparability and generalization of results. Although overlaps between the MAAS and other

measures are highlighted in this thesis, basically, different scales do cover different

conceptualizations. Thus, there are two important implications for further research: firstly, to

reach consensus about a unique definition and, secondly, the development and application

of a uniform measure to guarantee the comparability of results and, in particular, to make

statements about causality in the long-term. A good candidate is the definition of mindfulness as

“enhanced attention to and awareness of current experience or present reality” (Brown & Ryan,

2003, p. 822). By highlighting the nature of mindfulness as a quality of consciousness (Brown et

al., 2007a), the definition of Brown and Ryan is independent of any belief system, specific

therapeutic interventions, or particular practice (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown & Ryan, 2004a).

Thus, it overlaps with all existing definitions, and a comparison of existing trait mindfulness

measurements supports a global factor structure. In this broad sense, this definition can be

applied to a variety of contexts (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Still, it might be questionable whether

this definition is applicable to all clinical contexts and further research is necessary to target the

validation of the MAAS for diverse clinical populations. With regard to the work context, the

rather neutral definition by Brown & Ryan seems to be accurate. Concerning the application of a

uniform measure, the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) from Baer et al. (2006) is a

good candidate, because it follows internal scale construction. However, it has only been

validated with student samples and further studies should target its validation in the work

context. In contrast, the MAAS has been validated in the general, employed population (cf.

Brown & Ryan, 2003) and thus should be considered as a uniform measure in the work area.

4.2 Methodological Approaches

The utilization of mindfulness measures is a methodological issue that should be

considered by the interpretation of the presented results: Mindfulness is inherently defined as a

state, according to Brown and Ryan (2003). However, state scales are underrepresented in

general and moreover, those that exist are barely applied (Brown & Cordon, 2009). For instance,

there is only one study in which Brown and Ryan themselves use their state MAAS (cf. Brown &

Ryan, 2003). Thus, most results of this thesis refer to measured trait mindfulness.

Discussion

The application of state measurements is indicated in particular in studies in which mindfulness

is investigated with other state-like concepts, which also refer to the immediate present such as

work engagement. For instance, regarding dedication, clear associations were revealed between

state mindfulness and positive affect (PANAS), while the relationship between the trait MAAS

and positive affect is inconsistent (cf. Brown & Ryan, 2003; cf. Chambers et al., 2008).

Furthermore, mindfulness has not been investigated with state self-awareness yet. According to

the theory of Duval and Wicklund (1972), objective self-awareness can result in the automatic

comparison and discrepant self-evaluation. Mindfulness is thought to preclude automatic

cognitive processes and might act as a moderator in this process. Thus, the state MAAS could be

applied to test this hypothesis. Finally, state measurements should be applied more in studies,

which involve mindfulness training. In this way, the immediate effects of mindfulness can be

revealed.

One further important limitation is the generalization of results in the cited research.

Many studies were conducted with student samples (cf. Beitel et al., 2005; cf. Brown & Ryan,

2003; cf. Gilbert & Walt, 2010; cf. Weinstein et al., 2009). Investigations in the work

context are often conducted in the health service sector (cf. McCracken & Yang, 2008; cf. Minor

et al., 2006; cf. Mackenzie et al., 2006). More than questioning the generalization of results, the

latter research also raises question why mindfulness trainings are not established in the health

area yet.

The final and very important methodical issue is the prevalence of correlational design in

the cited research. Although there are some experimental investigations and longitudinal studies

(e.g. Weinstein et al., 2009; e.g. Williams et al, 2010), most of the cited surveys are of

correlational nature. This has an impact on the interpretation of the results and yields

implications for further research. In the following section, three affected domains are outlined:

Firstly, cautious is indicated regarding the interpretation of the proposed mediation effect of

empathy on the relationship between mindfulness and helping and cooperating with others. The

cited studies reveal correlations between mindfulness and empathy, but did not investigate their

causal relation (cf. Beitel et al., 2005; cf. Modino et al., 2010; cf. Wachs & Cordova, 2007).

Thus, further research should examine the direction of action to support the mediation

hypothesis. Secondly, there is evidence that mindfulness is positively associated with vigor in the

Discussion

work engagement concept (cf. Kostanski, n.d.; Rosenszweig et al., 2003) by preventing depletion

of self-regulating energy (Brown et al., 2007a; Leary et al., 2006). However, according to

Gailliot et al. (2007), attentional self-control relates to the depletion of energy and reduced

persistence in tasks. Thus, experimental-designed studies should investigate the causal

relationship between minfulness and vigor and the direction of action to shed light into this

contradiction. Thirdly, there is a similar implication for emotions in the concept of personal

resources within the strain hypothesis. According to the second part of the broaden-and-built

theory, positive emotions can build personal resources over time (Fredrickson et al., 2008). My

thesis shows that mindfulness can contribute to resource gain, since it has a positive association

with emotions. However, the first part of the broaden-and-built theory states that emotions

broaden attention (Fredrikson et al., 2008), in particular in the visual area (Fredrikson &

Branigan, 2005). This yields two questions for further investigations: firstly, whether there is a

causal direction in the relation between mindfulness and emotions, and secondly, whether there

exist a spiral gain relationship.

4.3 Practical Implications

By contributing to the understanding of the role of mindfulness in the work context, the

findings of this thesis also suggest implications for the practice: The investigation of trait

mindfulness could be integrated in the process of personnel selection. Furthermore, organizations

should support regular mindfulness practice at the work place and should moreover offer regular

mindfulness trainings for the following reasons: Independent of the personal conditions at the

beginning of an employment, trait and state mindfulness are thought to improve by training

(Brown & Ryan, 2003). As mentioned in section 3.21, already short-term mindfulness induction

demonstrates beneficial effects (cf. Ditto et al., 2006) and some mindfulness trainings are

particularly adapted to the work life (cf. Klatt et al., 2009; cf. Mackenzie et al., 2006). In

particular, employers in the health service sector should consider the integration of mindfulness

training, because much research indicating the usefulness of such trainings has been conducted in

this area. By investing in trainings, organizations foster the cultivation of mindfulness as a

Discussion

quality of consciousness that is positively associated with contextual performance and well-being

at work.

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