Midterm Review

I. Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence A) Common stereotypes about adolescence-A period of storm and stress-Peer pressure is a controlling influence-A time of rebellion and conflict with parentsA) Salient Development Tasks-Issues that are of particular concern during specific periods of development.-These are tasks that a youth must negotiate successfully to make the transition from childhood to adolescence and then to adulthoodA) Early, Middle, and Late Adolescence-Early: The period spanning roughly ages 10-13, corresponding roughly to the junior or middle high school years-Middle: The period spanning roughly ages 14-17, corresponding to the high school years-Late: The period spanning roughly ages 18-21, corresponding to the college years-Emerging adulthood: the period spanning roughly ages 18-25, during which individuals make the transition from adolescence to adulthoodA) Historical/Cultural Perspectives-Historical Forces that Shape Adolescencei. Child labor lawsii. Compulsory educationiii. Juvenile delinquency lawsiv. Secular trend-Culture as a Factori. Attitudes toward education, children/adolescents in the workforce, responsibilities in the family, vary widely across culturesii. A sociocultural perspectives on development might argue that adolescence is a phenomenon that reflects interactions and

transactions btw the individual and the cultural contextE) Stanley Hall(biosocial psychologist)-Stanley Hall’s Biopsychological Perspectives on Adolescencei. Development mirrors evolutionii. Humans evolved from an animal-like stage to a civilized stageiii. With development, the child moves from a primitive stage to a sophisticated and emotionally mature stage-Hall’s Stages of Developmenti. Adolescence corresponds to a stage of human evolution characterized by war, societal upheaval, and destructionii. From Hall, we get the notion that adolescence is a time of STORM and STRESSF) Signmund and Anna Freud(organismic theorists)-Sigmund Freudi. Behavior and development is driven by instinctual energyii. Energy flows btw psychic structures: id, ego, superegoiii. Freud described stages of psychosocial development, but saw adolescence as a time when major conflicts were already resolved-Ana Freudi. Revised her father’s theory to focus more on adolescenceii. Argued that adolescence is a period of regression to earlier conflicts. Id-superego conflicts re-emerge, and lead to the development of

neurotic anxietyiii. Adolescents develop new defense mechanisms to cope with anxietyG) Erik Erikson(organismic theorists)-Focus on the role of EGO instead of ID-Development is organized around “crises”-These crises occur when an individual’s goals are in conflict with constraints of reality-Crises of Adolescencei. Identity vs Identity confusion(12 to 18 YO)ii. Intimacy vs Isolation(18 to 25 YO)H) Learning/Behaviorism Perspectives-Skinner and Behaviorismi. Focus on learningii. Development occurs as a result of the accumulation of learningiii. Adolescence is not really a unique developmental stage because learning occurs across the lifespanI) Cognitive Models-Focus is on how people organize and process information-Higher order cognitive structures called “schemas” are presumed to guide interactions with the environment-Cognitive perspectives are often not very developmentally focused but have been influential in research on adolescenceJ) Urie Brofenbrenner-Ecological Theoryi. Human development is best understood as a series of changes and accommodations that occur btw an active growing person and

the immediate social environment(including the family, school, and peer group)

-Interactions across Systemsi. Interactions btw the adolescent and his/her social environment are also affected by the larger social context, including the

community, culture, nation, and world economic and political eventsii. To understand the development, we must also understand context

-Microsystemi. The relationships and interactions an adolescent has with his/her immediate environmentii. Structures in the microsystem include the family, peer group, school, neighborhood

-Mesosystemi. Includes links btw the structures of the child’s microsystemii. Examples: relationships btw teacher or other school officials and parents. Relations between the school and neighborhood structures

-Exosystemi. Adolescent is not necessarily directly exposed to the level of the environmentii. Structures in this layer impact development by influencing the microsystem

iii. Example: Workplace schedules for parents

-Macrosystemi. Includes history, cultural values, customs, and lawsii. The macrosystem influences all other aspects of a child’s environment

-Chronosystemi. The historical context

Less important to know:-Difference between biological and organismic perspectives

I. Biological Transitions A) Common stereotypes about puberty-Puberty as a time of “raging hormones”-Puberty has a sudden onset, beginning without warning-Puberty starts at one specific point in timeA) Basic changes that occur during puberty-Rapid increases in height and weight-Primary sex characteristics(gonads/sex glands(testes and ovaries)-Secondary sex characteristics(genitals and breasts; growth of pubic, facial and body hair)-Changes in body composition(quantity and distribution of fat and muscle)-Changes in circulatory and respiratory systems(increased strength and tolerance)A) Feedback loops in the Endocrine system-Endocrine system involves glands that control bodily function through production of hormones-Hormones are chemicals that have a very specific impact on bodily structures-Feedback Loops:i. A “set” point is established for levels of a particular hormone in the bodyii. Endocrine system monitors levels and releases hormone when levels go below “set point”iii. Likewise, production of hormone decreases when levels go above “set point”A) The Role of the HPG Axis in puberty-HYPOTHALAMUS: monitors levels of Androgens and Estrogens, and communicates with the pituitary gland-PITUITARY GLAND: secretes gonadotropins, which are hormones that control the gonads-GONADS: (testes in males, ovaries in females) - structures that release sex hormonesA) The Growth Spurt-Marked increase in height and weight. Accelerated growth begins early in puberty-Growth Asynchronicity: Rate of acceleration is greater for parts of the body that are furthest from the center-Acceleration occurs earlier for females than males-Gender difference?

-in both sexes, muscular development is rapid during puberty but muscle tissue grows faster in boys than girls. Body fat increases for both sexes during puberty, but more so for females than for males-Increases in cardiovascular capacity. Increases are greater for males than females-Increase in body fat and muscle mass-For boys, muscle-to-fat ratio is about 3:1 after the onset of puberty. For girls, about 5:4A) Development of Primary and Secondary Sexual Characteristics-Sexual maturation in both sexes is measured according to Tanner stages, which are used to chart the development of secondary sex characteristics-Boys: Growth of testes, scrotal sac —> Growth of pubic hair —> Body growth —> Growth of penis —> Change in voice(growth in larynx) —> Facial and underarm hair —> Oil-and-sweat producing glands, acne-Girls: Growth of breasts —> Growth of pubic hair —> Body growth —> Menarche —> underarm hair —> Oil and sweat producing glandsA) Menarche and first ejaculation-Signs that reproductive system is maturing for adolescent girlsi. Onset of menstruation(“menarche”)ii. Begins at later stages of puberty. Desipite popular myths, does not mark onset of pubertyiii. Perhaps the most well-studied aspect of puberty. Some adolescent girls respond to menarche with considerable distress-Signs that reproductive system is maturing for adolescent boysi. First ejaculation is an important markerii. But, relatively little is known about psychological impact of this eventA) Impact of puberty on self-esteem, moodiness, sleep cycles-Possible direct links btw hormonal activity and behavior-Reactions of adolescent to changes taking place inside his/her body-Reactions of outside world to changes in the adolescent’s body

-Issues in Psychological and Social Reactions to Pubertyi. Possible impact on self-esteemGirls’ self esteem tends to decline among girls who are going through puberty but only when accompanied by other changes that require

adaptation(e.g. dating, changing schools)The way adolescents feel about their physical appearance when they begin adolescence remains remarkably stable over time, regardlss of

whether their actual attractiveness changesi. MoodinessPuberty has been associated with increases in negative moods but only during the early stages of puberty when hormone levels are

fluctuating widelyAdolescent moodiness is directly related to the hormonal changes of pubertyStudies indicate that rapid increases in many of the hormones associated with puberty — such as testosterone, estrogen, and various

adrenal androgens — especially when the increases take place very early in adolescence, may be associated with increased irritability, impulsivity, aggression(boys), and depression(girls)

The rapid FLUCTUATION early in puberty affect adolescent’s moodsImpact of hormonal change on mood and behavior in adolescence is greatly influenced by environmental factors(stressful life events such

as family problems, school, friends, etc) — play a far greater role in development of depression than do hormonal changesAdolescents are inherently moodier than children

Adolescent mood swings parallel their changes in ACTIVITIES(elated when seeing a gf, bored in social studies class, happy when having lunch with friends, angry when assigned extra work at the fast-food restaurant)

There’s a great variability within the adolescent population in terms of moodinessThe answer to the question of whether puberty makes adolescents moody depends on the person and on factors in his/her environmenti. Changes in sleep patternsPuberty affects adolescent sleep patterns of staying up late and sleeping inDelayed phase preference: A pattern of sleep characterized by later sleep and wake times, which usually emerges during pubertyFalling asleep = combo of biological and environmental factorsOne of the most important is the secretion of a hormone in the brain called melatoninMelatonin levels change naturally over the course of 24 hour day, mainly in response to the amount of light in the environmentFeelings of sleepiness increase and decrease with melatonin levels — as melatonin rises, we feel sleepier, and as it falls, we feel more

awakeOver the day, we follow a sleep-wake cycle that is calibrated to changes in light and regulated by melatonin secretionDuring puberty, the time of night at which melatonin levels begin to rise changes, becoming later and later as individuals mature physically.Nighttime increase in melatonin starts about 2 hrs later among adolescents who have completed puberty than among those who have not

yet entered pubertyAs a result of this shift, individuals become able to stay up later before feeling sleepyFalling asleep is affected by the environment as wellin case if there’s something more exciting to do — Internet surfing, watching DVD, talking on the phoneTendency for adolescents to stay up late is due to the interaction of biology(which delays the onset of sleepiness) and the

environment(which provides an impetus to stay up)The combo of staying up late and getting up early leads to sleep deprivation and daytime sleepiness — adolescents are least alert btw

hours of 8-9AM(when schools start) and most alert after 3PM(after school)This has prompted some communities to delay their school starting time for teenagersThe availability of TV, Internet, and other mass media during the late night and early morning hours has increasedLate-night hours kept by many adolescents are at least somewhat voluntary, made easier by the changes in the sleep centers of the brainMost teenagers aren’t getting enough sleep and that inadequate sleep is associated in adolescence with poorer mental health(more

depression and anxiety) and lowered school performance Different bedtimes on weekends and weekdays contributes to further sleep-related problemslinked to consumption of caffeine, tobaccoA) Impact of puberty on relationships in the family-Puberty increase conflict and distance btw parents and children-“Distancing” effect of puberty is not so strong in single-parent homes or in ethnic minority familiesYoungsters mature from childhood toward middle of puberty, emotional distance btw them and their parents increases, and conflict

intensifies, especially btw the adolescent and the motherIncrease in “negatives”(conflict, complaining, anger); Decrease in “positive”(support, smiling, laughter)Although negative interchanges may diminish after the adolescent growth spurt, adolescents and their parents do not immediately become

as close as they were before the adolescents entered pubertyPuberty increases distance btw children and their parents in most species of monkeys and apes(humans might have some evolutionary

basis)-Parent child distance is not affected by the age at which the adolescent goes through puberty-Developments occuring around the time of puberty can upset interpersonal balances that are established during childhood, causing temporary periods of disruption in the family system-Families develop patterns of relationships that are comfortable and workable, but they may find that puberty disrupts the patterns to which they have grown accustomedA) Differences in puberty across cultural and socioeconomic subgroups-Within US, there are ethnic differences in the timing and the rate of pubertal maturation-African American females mature significantly earlier than Mexican American girls, who, in turn, mature earlier than white girls-The reasons for this ethnic differences are not known, it doesn’t appear to be due to ethnic differences in income, weight, or area of residence-One possible explanation for the earlier maturation of nonwhite girls: they are more frequently exposed to chemicals in the environment that stimulate earlier puberty, such as animal hormones contained in certain hair care products-Nutrition and health: affect pubertar maturationPuberty occurs earlier among individuals who are better nourished throughout their prenatal, infant, and childhood yearsGirls who are taller or heavier than their peers mature earlierDelayed puberty is more likely to occur among individuals with a history of protein and or caloric deficiencyChronic illness during childhood and adolescence is associated with delayed puberty, as is excessive exerciseA) Factors that affect the timing of puberty-Genetic factors-Overall physical well-being of the individual from conception through preadolescence-Social and physical factors in the environment may influence the onset of maturation(girls)-Puberty occurs earlier among girls who grew up in father-absent families, in less cohesive or more conflict-ridden houselholds, or with a stepfatherThe distance in the family may induce a very small amount of stress, which may affect hormonal secretions in the adolescentGreat deal of stress can actually slow maturationThe presence of stepfather may expose the adolescent girl to pheromones that stimulate pubertal maturation(exposure to unrelated

members of the opposite sex accelerate the process of pubertal maturation; but living in proximity to one’s close biological relatives appears to slow the process of maturation)

Social relationships can affect our biological functioning-Genetic factors play an extremely small role in determining group differences in pubertal maturation-Differences among countries in the average rate and timing of puberty are more likely to reflect differences in their environments than differences in their populations’ gene pools1. Age of menarche across different regions of the world: the avg age at menarche generally is lower in those countries where

individuals are less likely to be malnourished or to suffer from chronic disease2. Girls from affluent homes reach menarche before economically disadvantaged girls(differences in the avg menarchal ages of

economically advantaged and disadvantaged youngsters within each of these regions rage from 6-18 months)A) Early/Late Developers-Late maturation among boysi. Tend to have low self-esteem, negative self-concepts, and feel inadequateii. Are seen as more immature by peers, and tend to be unpopular

iii. But.. may also have some positive features, including greater intellectual curiosity than other adolescents-Early maturation among boysi. Early maturation is a risk factor for antisocial behaviorii. Seem to be at elevated risk for truancy, substance abuse, status violations, and academic difficultiesiii. Antisocial behavior can persist if early maturing boys become involved with deviant peer groups-Late maturation among girlsi. Less research than for boys, but late maturing girls may have trouble with low self-esteemii. Seen as less mature by peers and may be less popular-Early maturation among girlsi. Low self-esteem, high rates of depression and eating disorders, anxiety disordersii. More likely than their peers to become involved in antisocial behavioriii. Early onset of sexual behavioriv. Some evidence for poor academic outcomesA) The Secular Trend-The tendency, over the past 2 centureis, for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier, primarily because of improvements in health and nutrition-Because nutritional conditions have improved during the past 150 years, we would expect to find a decline in the average age at menarche over time-Secular trend is attributable not only to improved nutrition but also to better sanitation and better control of infectious diseases-Age of menarche is decreasing over time A) Eating disorders1. Eating attitudes and behaviors that are considered unhealthy are referred to by psychologists as disordered eating. These can range from a preoccupation with weight to a clinical eating disorder. Weight gain during puberty due, in part, to the drop in the body's basal metabolism rate may cause adolescents (especially girls) to become extremely concerned about their weight. Many U.S. adolescents, however, have legitimate concerns about gaining weight, 20% of are overweight; 5% are obese.2. Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia: Bulimia is an eating disorder characterized by a cycle of bingeing and purging while anorexia nervosa exhibits symptoms of extremely restrictive self-induced diet. Although the incidence of anorexia and bulimia is small, it is far more common among females than males, and is rarely seen before puberty. Contrary to previous reports, recent research does not exclude any social class or ethnic group from the likelihood of developing an eating disorder. Several theories have been proposed to account for the emergence of eating disorders, ranging from biological to environmental or interplay between the two.The most common eating disorder = obesity; 1/6 American adolescents are obese, and another 1/6 are at great risk for obesityGenetic factors are important but environmental causes affect a lot; too few children and adolescents are physically active and too many

eat too much high-calorie, high-fat foodCombo of behavior modification and weight loss medication is most effectiveAnorexia and bulimia are eating disorders that don’t appear until adolescence and that are far more prevalent among females than malesMany girls with anorexia/bulimia develop the disorder as a result of dissatisfaction with the way in which their body has changed following

puberty, especially within a culture that idelaizes thinness among womenAnorexia and bulimia are often accompanied by other emotional problems, such as depression, anxiety, or OCDBulimia more found in Western cultures(culturally determined disorder)I. Cognitive Transitions A) Basic cognitive changes of adolescence(thinking about possibilities, thinking about abstract concepts, metacognition,

multidimensional thinking)i. Thinking about possibilities-The central feature of this transition is a movement from inductive reasoning to deductive reasoningi. Thinking about abstract conceptsii. Metacognition-Thinking about thinking-A child might be able to solve a difficult problem but will not understand HOW he/she solved the problem-A adolescent is capable of introspection, and can understand his/her own thought processes. As a result, adolescents can improve their reasoning abilitiesi. Thinking in multiple dimensions-Children tend to conceptualize situations from one specific perspective, whereas adolescents can simultaneously consider multiple aspects-Multidimensional thinking allows for a better understanding of probabilities, and more accurate predictions for the futurei. Relativism-Children tend to think in black-and-white, all-or-nothing terms-Adolescents can appreciate a continuum of possibilities-Thinking becomes less absolute and there’s recognition for variabilityA) Inductive vs Deductive Problem Solving-Inductive: Reasoning based on the accumulated information. This type of reasoning is dependent on the specific information that is available(summary of accumulated reasons)Does Professor Schwartz have a graduate degree? All of the professors I’ve had at USC have graduate degrees. So, professor Schwartz

has a graduate degree-Deductive: Logical connections are made btw different items of information(based on rules and laws)Schwartz is a professor at USC; USC requires that all professors have graduate degreesA) Abstract vs Concrete thinking-Concrete thought: Focus on the observable properties of objects or situations-Abstract thought: Recognition of higher-order relations between objects that may not be directly observable. The capacity to reason based on inferred propertiesA) Piaget-Cognitive development is a stage-like process-Development occurs as a consequence of interactions between a child’s maturing biological capabilities and experiencei. Sensorimotor Stage(0-2 YO)-In this stage, infant’s learning and development focus on simple physical interactions with the world-Infants form mental structures that organize information. These structures are known as SCHEMAS-Schemas are altered through sensorimotor interactions with the environment-ASSIMILATION: Incorporation of new experiences into an existing schema-For example: grasping schema includes information about how to hold toy hammer as well as teddy bear-ACCOMMODATION: schema is altered to fit new information-For example: Holding schema is altered to incorporate objects that need to be lifted with two hands

i. Preoperational Stage(Age 2 - Age 7)-Main accomplishment of this stage is ability to represent information with symbols, and to reason symbolically-However, cognition is still fairly primitive and characterized by errors:EgocentrismCentrationAppearance as realityi. Concrete Operational Stage(Age 8 - Age 11)-Reasoning tends to be inductive-Reasoning is not characterized by abstract thought, but youngster becomes less egocentric and less bound by his/her own perspectivei. Formal Operational Stage(Age 11 - Adulthood)-Operations incorporate abstract thought. So youngster can reason about aspects of a situation that are not easily observable-Furthermore, reasoning begins to incorporate hypothesis testing(i.e: “what if?”) thinking-Deductive reasoning develops-Capacity for formal operations continues to develop across adolescence and into adulthoodA) Information Professing Perspectives-Computer as a metaphor for human thoughts-Focus on the ways that adolescents receive, process, and understand information-Some areas of investigation: Attention, Memory, Processing Speed, Metacognitioni. Attention-Selective attention: Ability to regulate flow of attention in a situation where more than one stimulus is present-Divides attention: Ability to focus on more than one stimulus, shifting attention rapidlyi. Memory Development-Long-term memory: Storage for extended periods of time. Can hold large amounts of information-Short-term memory: More limited storage but with faster acess-Both short and long-term memory are enhanced over the course of adolescencei. Other Important Areas of Development-Processing Speed-Efficiency of Strategies-Metacognition-Automatic ProcessingA) Vtgotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development-Cognitive development is a process that is imbedded in the social environment-Cognitive strategies are learned through social interaction-Children develop intellectually by interacting with adults who are more cognitively skilled-Cognition develops as part of an “apprenticeship” between children and adults

-The Zone of Proximal DevelopmentThe difference btw the without-assistance performance and the with-assistance performance is the ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENTThe ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT delineates what a child could achieve with the help of the social environment

-ScaffoldingA process of instruction whereby an adult enhances a child’s learning by remaining within the zone of proximal developmentThe adult provides just enough stimulation to extend beyond the child’s capacities without-assitance but not beyond capacities with-

assitance

-Social CognitionThe cognitive processes that underlie social behavior and social interaction with peers

A) Doge’s Social-Information-Processing Model1. Encoding2. Interpretation3. Response Selection4. Response Evaluation5. Enactment

-Social-Information Processing ModelStep 1: Encoding —> Transformation of outside world into internal experienceStep 2: Interpretation of social cues —> The adolescent attempts to interpret the eventStep 3: Response Access —> The adolescent chooses a responseStep 4: Response Evaluation/Decision —> The adolescent evaluates selected response. Will the behavior work? Can I do it successfully?Step 5: Enactment —> the adolescent search for behavioral scripts, and then performs the behaviorA) Impression Formation and Perspective Taking-Impression Formation: Summary judgments about othersCompared to children, impression formation in adolescents is characterized by:Greater differentiationLess EgocentricMore abstractGreater use of inference-Behavioral Decision TheoryFocuses on the logical cost-benefit analysis that guides decisions regarding behaviorBDT models include several components: Identifying a behavioral option, considering outcomes, evaluating desirability of each outcomeA) Cognitive development and Risky Behavior-Why do adolescents make bad decisions?Adolescents engage in risky behaviors(i.e. unprotected sex, substance abuse, aggression, etc) at a much higher rate than adultsWhy do adolescents make such bad decisions? What aspect of the cost-benefit analyses is going wrong?Adolescent Risk-taking: Research on cognitive development during adolescence has also been aimed at understanding the thought

processes behind adolescent risk-taking. One perspective for understanding this behavior comes from the behavioral decision theory which suggests that all behaviors can be analyzed as the outcome of a series of 5 steps (from identifying options to creating a decision rule based on those consequences). Contrary to popular wisdom that adolescents are poor decision makers, research suggests that adolescents make decisions in much the same way that adults do. Research also indicates that adolescents are no more likely than

adults to suffer from feelings of "invulnerability." The current consensus is that young people sometimes behave in risky ways not because of faulty decision making but because they evaluate the possible consequences of their actions differently than adults do. Additionally, individuals who are high in sensation seeking are more likely to engage in various types of risky behaviors than those who are low in this quality.

A) Steinberg’s recent theories regarding risky behavior(from the article in Current Directions)-just understand-Trying to understand why adolescents and young adults take more risks than younger or older individuals do has challenged psychologists for decades. Adolescents' inclination to engage in risky behavior does not appear to be due to irrationality, delusions of invulnerability, or ignorance. This paper presents a perspective on adolescent risk taking grounded in developmental neuroscience. According to this view, the temporal gap between puberty, which impels adolescents toward thrill seeking, and the slow maturation of the cognitive-control system, which regulates these impulses, makes adolescence a time of heightened vulnerability for risky behavior. This view of adolescent risk taking helps to explain why educational interventions designed to change adolescents' knowledge, beliefs, or attitudes have been largely ineffective, and suggests that changing the contexts in which risky behavior occurs may be more successful than changing the way adolescents think about risk.Less important to know:

-Theories about intelligence(e.g. Sternberg and Gardner)

I. Social Transitions A) The inventionist perspective-Adolescence is a social construct that is defined by societal attitudes and expectations-Adolescence is shaped by the way society does(or doesn’t) recognize this developmental stage as different from childhood and adulthoodA) The role of historical forces and change-Historical Forces-Child Protection Laws-Compulsory Education-Juvenile Delinquency Laws

-Recent Historical ChangesAfter WWII, there’s a period of optimismThe notion of “teenager” emerges — adolescence as a carefree timeA) Changes in status(political, legal, economic, interpersonal)-Historical changes in values and social roles shape the nature of adolescenceInterpersonalPoliticalLegalEconomici. Changes in Interpersonal Status -Adolescence brings changes in status with regard to others in the community-Adolescents have roles that differ from those of a child and from those of an adulti. Changes in Political Status -Adolescence brings a shift in civic rights-Most notable change is probably right to vote-But, also brings new responsibilities — like military services and paying taxesi. Changes in Economic Status -Children have total economic dependence on adults-By middle-adolescence, informal employment (i.e., baby sitting) occurs-By late adolescence, some part-time employment allowed-Adolescents may also take on more and more economic responsibility as they grow olderi. Changes in Legal Status -Adolescents gain increased legal rights(i.e. driving)-However, there are still age-related restrictions. Status offenses are violations of these restrictions-Adolescents are may also be held legally responsible for their behaviori. Changes in Educational Status -Middle school and high school differ in important ways, with students having more and more options with regard to their own education-Eventually, adolescents are given the right to leave school together-College represents another important social transitionA) Social redefinition during Adolescence-1960’sDuring the 1960’s and 1970’s adolescence emerges as a period of turmoil and revoltAdolescence is seen as a period of sexual experimentation, political dissention, and substance abuse-Current DevelopmentsAdolescents now assume both adult and child rolesMany adolescents use college as a period of transition to adulthoodA) Youth and emerging adulthood-Adolescence may be now a precursor to “youth”-“Youth” is a stage that includes individuals who are fully developed from a cognitive and biological perspective but have not yet negotiated the salient developmental tasks of adulthoodA) Cross-cultural perspectives on adolescenceThe process of social redefinition usually occurs over a period of years. In many societies, the social redefinition of young people occurs in

groups. Although there is a good deal of cross-cultural variability in specific practices, three general themes are usually found: the real or symbolic separation of the young person from his or her parents (extrusion); the accentuation of physical and social differences between males and females (in traditional societies referred to as brother-sister avoidance); and the passing on of cultural, historical, and practical information. Many initation ceremonies also include scarification, the intential creation of scars on some parts of the body.

Two important dimensions along which societies differ in the process of social redefinition are in the clarity (or explicitness) and continuity (or smoothness) of the adolescent's passage into adulthood. In traditional societies, the initiation ceremony of the young person into adulthood provides a clear delineation between childhood and adolescence. Contemporary societies have few formal ceremonies marking the transition from childhood into adolescence. However, some contemporary ceremonies are still practiced, such as the quinceañera and the Bar/Bas Mitzvah.

-Initiation Ceremonies or Rites-of-passageQuinceanera: “coming-out” celebration for adolescent girls(Latino)

-Separation from parents and transitions from the homesleep in households other than their own;spend the night with friends of family, with relativesSummer camps, boarding schools, college-Accentuation of Male/Female DifferencesBrother-sister avoidance: The avoidance of any contact or interaction btw brothers and sisters from the onset of puberty until one or both

persons are married, part of the process of social redefinition at adolescence in many societiesIn most of cultures, boys are given more freedom and autonomy while girls’ behavior is more subject to the control of adults(girls are

expected to remain virgins until marriage whereas boys’ premarital sexual activity is tolerated)Girls are expected to spend time preparing for domestic roles while boys are expected to acquire vocational skills for employment outside

the homeIn early America, males and females were separated in educational institutionsSex segregation still exists - residential arrangements, styles of dress, athletic activities, and household choresMany contemporary ceremonies are designed to recognize the young person’s passage into adulthood(limited to one sex or the other)-Passing on of historical, cultural, and societal informationInfo may concern 1) matters thought to be important to adults but of limited uitility to children 2) matters thought to be necessary for adults

but unfit for children 3) matters concerning the history or rituals of the family or communityAdolescence = time of instruction in preparation for adulthoodWe restrict entrance into certain “adult” activities until adolescents are believed old enough to be exposed to themA) Continuity and clarity in the transition to adolescenceVariations in Clarity: The adolescent has been referred to as the marginal man caught in the transitional space between childhood and

adulthood. In fact, research suggests that the adolescent transition may have been even cloudier 100 years ago.In addition to the clarity of the adolescent passage, societies also vary in the extent to which the passage is a continuous or discontinuous

transition. In a continuous transition, characteristic of more traditional societies, the adolescent assumes the roles and status of adulthood bit by bit, with a good deal of preparation and training along the way. In a discontinuous transition, characteristic of contemporary societies, the adolescent is thrust into adulthood abruptly, with little prior preparation.

The continuity of the adolescent passage in previous eras suggests that today's adolescents experience even more discontinuity than previous generations. Furthermore, historical events have been found to alter the adolescent passage temporarily. For example, the Great Depression of the early 1930's forced disadvantaged adolescents to engage in adult activities earlier than their privileged peers. Policy-makers have proposed to reduce the discontinuity by implementing a school-to-work transition.

-Clarity: The distinctiveness of the transition to adolescence. Is there a clear demarcation btw childhood and adolescence?-Continuity: How different are the social roles of adolescence from the social roles of adulthood and childhood?A) Poverty and social disadvantage-African American, Hispanic, American Indian youth have more trouble negotiating the transition into adulthood than do their white and Asian-American counterparts. The effects of poverty on the transition into adulthood include increased likelihood of failure in school, unemployment, and out-of-wedlock pregnancy-Due to growing numbers of poor families in economically and racially segregated communities, researchers have begun to explore whether neighborhood poverty, in addition to family poverty, is predictive of adolescents' transition difficulties. Preliminary results indicate that adolescents growing up in impoverished communities are more likely than their peers from equally poor households, but better neighborhoods, to drop out of high school and to become pregnant. It appears to be the absence of affluent neighbors, rather than the presence of poor neighbors, that places adolescents who live in impoverished communities at greater risk.A) Kurt Lewin’s notion of the “Marginal Man”-Adolescence is a transitional period btw childhood and adulthood-This is an ambiguous period of development, with poorly defined roles-The individual is neither a child, nor an adultA) Mead and Benedict(the anthropological perspective)i. Continuity in Adolescence-Continuous transitions: Gradual changes with the adolescent slowly assuming more of the rights and responsibilities of adulthood-Discontinuous transitions: Shifts btw adolescence and adulthood that are suddenii. Differences across cultures-According to Benedict and Mead, the nature of adolescence differs across industrialized and non-industrialized cultures-Adolescence differs qualitatively from adulthood in industrialized cultures. In contrast, adolescence is part of a more gradual transition from childhood to adulthood in non-industrialized cultures