michael p totten a climate for life mesh talk bioneer los angeles 12 09 09
DESCRIPTION
Positive vision of win-win-win actions to avoid climate catastrophe, end mass poverty, reduce species extinction, by using web-based social collaboration tools and collective intelligence actions.TRANSCRIPT
A CLIMATE FOR LIFE MESHOr, How Many Bits & Wits (Collective
Intelligence) Does It Take to Turn Global Climate Threats into Sustainable
Prosperity and Well-Being
Michael P. Totten ([email protected]) Chief Advisor, Climate, Energy & Green Technologies, CI’s Center for Environmental Leadership in Business
Presentation to the
Bioneers of Los Angeles
December 09, 2009
Global GHG Emissions
Based on 3 Celsius
climate sensitivity
Minimum arctic sea-ice extent from 1979 to 2007
Observed Antarctic Warming Trend ( C/decade) from 1957-2006
Source: The Copenhagen Diagnosis, 2009: Updating the World on the Latest Climate Science., Ian Allison, Nathan Bindoff, Robert Bindschadler, Peter Cox, Nathalie de Noblet-Ducoudre ,
Matthew England, Jane Francis, Nicolas Gruber, Alan Haywood , David Karoly , Georg Kaser, Corinne Le Quéré, Tim Lenton, Michael Mann, Ben McNeil, Andy Pitman, Stefan Rahmstorf , Eric
Rignot, Hans Joachim Schellnhuber, Stephen Schneider, Steven Sherwood, Richard Somerville, Konrad Steffen, Eric Steig, Martin Visbeck, Andrew Weaver., www.copenhagendiagnosis.com/
Trend in Ocean Surface Temperature ( C, 1959-2008)
Source: The Copenhagen Diagnosis, 2009: Updating the World on the Latest Climate Science., Ian Allison, Nathan Bindoff, Robert Bindschadler, Peter Cox, Nathalie de Noblet-Ducoudre ,
Matthew England, Jane Francis, Nicolas Gruber, Alan Haywood , David Karoly , Georg Kaser, Corinne Le Quéré, Tim Lenton, Michael Mann, Ben McNeil, Andy Pitman, Stefan Rahmstorf ,
Eric Rignot, Hans Joachim Schellnhuber, Stephen Schneider, Steven Sherwood, Richard Somerville, Konrad Steffen, Eric Steig, Martin Visbeck, Andrew Weaver.,
www.copenhagendiagnosis.com/
Potential Tipping Points Triggering Abrupt, Irreversible Climate Change
6th largest extinction – 1000 times the natural background rate
Source: F. Ackerman, E.A. Stanton, S.J. DeCanio et al., The Economics of 350: The Benefits and Costs of Climate Stabilization, October 2009, www.e3network.org/
Main difference between two projections is assumption of rate of technology diffusion
Comparing Cumulative Emissions for 350 ppm CO2 TrajectoryGtCO2
BAU >80 GtCO2 and >850 ppm
Based on 6 Celsius
climate sensitivity
Where the world needs to go: energy-related CO2 emissions per capita
Source: WDR, adapted from NRC (National Research Council). 2008. The National Academies Summit on America’s Energy Future: Summary of a Meeting.
Washington, DC: National Academies Press.based on data from World Bank 2008. World Development Indicators 2008.
The GOOD news is there does not appear to be any scientific,
technological or economic barrier to achieving atmospheric
stabilization of GHGs at a level low enough to avoid global climate
catastrophe – or 350 ppm CO2.
The GREAT news is it appears feasible this could be done while
growing a prosperous economy, ending poverty, and halting species
extinction and ecosystem destruction.
CLIMATE CATASTROPHE THREAT THE GOOD & GREAT NEWS AND
THE BAD & WORSE NEWS
The BAD news is the estimated net present value of climate change
impacts from BAU (business-as-usual) is $1240 TRILLION, assuming
stabilization of CO2 at between 550 and 800 ppm by 2100.
The even WORSE news is that humanity is on pace to exceed 850 ppm.
Noel Parry et al., California Green Innovation Index 2009, Next 10, www.next10.org/
CO2 Abatement potential & cost for 2020
Zero net cost counting efficiency savings. Not counting the efficiency savings the
incremental cost of achieving a 450 ppm path is €55-80 billion per year between 2010–2020 for
developing countries and €40–50 billion for developed countries, or less than 1 % of global GDP, or
about half the €215 billion per year currently spent subsidizing fossil fuels.
Ecological Green Power Biodiversity ProtectionRadical Energy Efficiency
Adopting Win-Win-Win Portfolios
Abundant ICT Sector Market Expansion Opportunities
Use portfolio of multiple-benefit actions to becomeclimate positive and create new marketing opportunities
1) RADICAL ENERGY EFFICIENCYPursue vigorous, rigorous & continuous
improvements that reap monetary savings, ancillary
benefits, & GHG reductions (same w/ water &
resources)
2) PROTECT THREATENED ECOSYSTEMS
Add conservation carbon offset options to portfolio
that deliver triple benefits (climate protection,
biodiversity preservation, and promotion of
community sustainable development)
3) ECOLOGICAL GREEN POWER/FUELSSelect only verifiable „green power/fuels‟ that are
climate- & biodiversity-friendly, accelerate not slow
poverty reduction, & avoid adverse impacts
Adopting Portfolios of Best Policies
1824 Liters per year (10.6 km/l x 19,370 km per year)
4.8 tons CO2 emissions per year
~34€ ($48) to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation at 7 € ($10) per tCO2 Adds 1.6 pence per liter
=
$-
$5
$10
$15
$20
$25
$30
$35
$40
$45
$50
CCS REDD
Geological storage (CCS) vs Ecological storage (REDD)
Carbon Mitigation Cost
U.S. fossil Electricity CO2
mitigation cost annually (2.4 GtCO2 in 2007)
~$100 billion~3 ¢ per kWh
~$18 billion~0.5 ¢ per kWh
$ per ton CO2
Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS)
Reduced Emissions Deforestation & Degradation (REDD)
Source: Michael Totten, REDD is CCS NOW, December 2008
0
U.S. fossil Electricity in 2007 2.4 billion tons CO2 emissions
Tropical Deforestation 2007 13 million hectares burned7 billion tons CO2 emissions
$7.50 per ton CO21/2 cent per kWh
$18 billion/yr REDD tradePoverty reduction
Prevent Species loss
A win-win-win outcome
A win-win-win outcome
At the Governors Global Climate Summit in Sept., California Governor Schwarzenegger and
10 other governors from the United States, Brazil and Indonesia are sending a letter to U.S.
President Obama, Brazilian President Lula da Silva, and Indonesian President Yudhoyono
urging them to include forest protection in international and national climate change policies .
High Quality Multi-Benefit
A carbon tax applied to emissions from agriculture and land-use
change would encourage protection of natural resources
Source: Wise, M. A., K. V. Calvin, A. M. Thomson, L.E. Clarke, B. Bond- Lamberty, R. D. Sands, S. J. Smith, A. C. Janetos, and J. A. Edmonds. 2009a.
“Implications of Limiting CO2 Concentrations for Land Use and Energy.” Science 324 (5931): 1183–86.
So Much to be DoneSo Little Time
Who You Gonna Call?
MIO GEO
ICT/IP Companies Get IT! Bits Can Deliver Services Better than Atoms
The key challenge is transforming last century’s pervasive legacy regulations, policies, and
incentives for expanding resource supplies to harnessing this century’s opportunities for
delivering the myriad smarter, greener ICT-based services.
The WIKIPEDIA MODEL: In 6 years and with only 6 paid employees, Catalyzed a value-adding creation now 10 times larger than the Encyclopedia Britannica, Growing, Updated, Corrected daily by 80,000 volunteer editors and content authors, Translating content into 150+ languages, and Visited daily by some 5% of worldwide Internet traffic.
Cognitive Surplus
Large-scale distributed work-force projects are impractical in theory, but doable in reality.
The Internet-connected population worldwide watches roughly a trillion hours of TV a year.
One per cent of that is 100 Wikipedia projects per year worth of peer participation.
www.shirky.com/herecomeseverybody/2008/04/lo
oking-for-the-mouse.html
http://calacanis.com/2008/04/30/clay-shirky-cognitive-surplus-talk-at-web-2-0/
Clay Shirkey’s
Smart grid
efficiency solar
Clean water
food
mobility
finance
light
learning
Eco services
wind
wiki
tools
Climate Mitigation
Poverty Reduction & Elimination
Preventing Species Extinction
Smart Energy Services
Avoiding Oil & Resource Wars
Smart
Utility
Services
ICT
Smart
Financing Services
Public Incentives
Focus+Context Visual Foraging Tools
IP platform for creating A Climate for Life
Climate Mesh Template for Green Development Strategies= hyperlink to Mesh resources
Knowledge toolsK
no
wle
dge
Ne
ed
s
CLICKS AWAY Web access, share,
add, distribute, produce, collaborate around shared vision
Climate Mesh for Raising the Bar Going Beyond Reinvention of the Wheel
• Interdisciplinary linkages
• Visual salience of connected issues
• Easier exploration of nested hierarchies for user to explore without getting lost
• Recognizing relationships previously unaware of
• Relevance ranking for surfacing best-in-play examples (and best-to-avoid alerts)
• Multi-faceted computation and visualization tools
• Capacity to examine and compare multi-criteria and multi-attribute challenges, problems, solutions
• Access to continuously evolving results, learning curves, experience curves, insights, understandings, and capability to communicate, query, converse on findings
• Accessible by smart phones & netbooks worldwide
Climate
Mitigation
End-Use
Efficiency options
ICT tools
Reduced
Deforestation Solar
Photovoltaics
Trans-disciplinary Connections & Linkages for Leveraging Greater Insight & Value
Utility services
Utility Services
IRP including End-
Use Efficiency
Incentives
Decoupling
regulation Onsite Solar PV
Trans-disciplinary Connections & Linkages for Leveraging Greater Value
New York
California
USA minus CA & NYPer Capital
Electricity
Consumption
165 GW
Coal
Power
Plants
Californian‟s have
net savings of
$1,000 per family
[EPPs]
“Decoupling” & Integrated Resource Planning key to harnessing End-Use “Efficiency Power Plants”For delivering least-cost & risk electricity, natural gas & water services
Utility’s Earnings Go Up even as Revenues Go Down
Customers’ Bills Go Down even as Rates Go Up
More Retail Efficiency Power Plants - EPPsLess Need for Coal Mines & Power Plants
Less Coal Power Plants
Less Coal Rail Cars
Less Coal Mines
Solar Fusion Waste as Earth Nutrients –
The Power in the Photon Bitstream
Earth receives more solar energy every 90 minutes than humanity consumes all year
In the USA, cities and residences cover 56 million hectares.
Every kWh of current U.S. energy requirements can be met simply by applying photovoltaics (PV) to 7% of this area—on roofs, parking lots, along highway walls, on sides of buildings, and in other dual-use scenarios.
Experts say we wouldn’t have to appropriate a single acre of new land to make PV our primary energy source!
90% of America’s current electricity could be supplied with PV systems built in the “brown-fields”— the estimated 2+ million hectares of abandoned industrial sites that exist in our nation’s cities.
Larry Kazmerski, Dispelling the 7 Myths of Solar Electricity, 2001, National Renewable Energy Lab, www.nrel.gov/;
Cleaning Up
Brownfield
Sites w/
PV solar
Solar Photovoltaics (PV) satisfying 90% of
total US electricity from brownfields
SunSlate Building-Integrated
Photovoltaics (BIPV) commercial
building in Switzerland
Material
Replaced
Economic
MeasureBeijing Shanghai
Polished
Stone
NPV ($)
BCR
PBP (yrs)
+$18,586
2.33
1
+$14,237
2.14
1
Aluminum
NPV ($)
BCR
PBP (yrs)
+$15,373
1.89
2
+$11,024
1.70
2
Net Present Values (NPV), Benefit-Cost Ratios (BCR)
& Payback Periods (PBP) for „Architectural‟ BIPV
(Thin Film, Wall-Mounted PV) in Beijing and
Shanghai (assuming a 15% Investment Tax Credit)
Byrne et al, Economics of Building Integrated PV in China, July 2001, Univ. of Delaware, Center for Energy and Environmental Policy, Twww.udel.edu/ceep/T]
Economics of Commercial BIPV
Building-Integrated Photovoltaics
Reference costs of facade-cladding materials
BIPV is so economically attractive because it
captures both energy savings and savings from
displacing other expensive building materials.
Eiffert, P., Guidelines for the Economic Evaluation of Building-Integrated Photovoltaic Power Systems, International Energy Agency PVPS Task 7:
Photovoltaic Power Systems in the Built Environment, Jan. 2003, National Renewable Energy Lab, NREL/TP-550-31977, www.nrel.gov/
Economics of Commercial BIPV
Attributes of breakeven PV systems
Attributes & incentives include:
Compensation for power at retail electric rates
Tax credits
Financing, leasing, and depreciation options
Net-metering options and/or rate-based incentives
Building credits for architectural applications
Willingness to pay for clean power and innovation
Quality of solar resource and customer load match
Progressive state government, regulatory, and utility support.
The best niche markets are the locations that have the best combinations of these attributes and incentives.
Source: Christy Herig, Customer-Sited Photovoltaics Focusing on Markets that Really Shine, NREL, www.nrel.gov/research/pv/cust-sited.html
Denver Neighborhood solar smart mini-grids – City Park West
Denver Neighborhood solar smart mini-grids – City Park West
Smart Grid Web-based Solar Power Auctions
Smart Grid Collective intelligence design based on digital map algorithms continuously calculating solar gain. Information used to rank expansion of solar panel locations.
Corn ethanol
Cellulosic ethanol
Wind-battery turbine spacing
Wind turbines ground footprint
Solar-battery
Mark Z. Jacobson, Wind Versus Biofuels for Addressing Climate, Health, and Energy, Atmosphere/Energy Program, Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, March 5,
2007, http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/E85vWindSol
Area to Power 100% of U.S. Onroad Vehicles
WEB CALCULATOR- VISUALIZER – COMPARISON OF LAND NEEDED TO POWER VEHICLES
Wind & Solar experts
Solar-battery and Wind-battery refer to battery storage of these intermittent renewable resources in plug-in electric driven vehicles
Figures of Merit
Great Plains area1,200,000 mi2
Provide 100% U.S. electricity400,000 3MW wind turbines
Platform footprint6 mi2
Large Wyoming Strip Mine>6 mi2
Total WindFarm spacing area
37,500 mi2
Still available for farming and prairie restoration
90%+ (34,000 mi2)
CO2 U.S. electricity sector40% USA total GHG emissions
95% U.S. terrestrial wind resources in Great Plains
The three sub-regions of the Great Plains are: Northern Great Plains = Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota; Central Great Plains = Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas; Southern Great Plains
= Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas. (Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis 1998, USDA 1997 Census of Agriculture)
Although agriculture controls about 70% of Great Plains land area, it contributes 4 to 8% of the Gross Regional Product.
Wind farms could enable one of the greatest economic booms in American history for Great Plains rural communities, while also enabling one of world’s largest restorations of native prairie ecosystems
How?
Wind Farm Royalties – Could Doublefarm/ranch income with 30x less land area
$0 $50 $100 $150 $200 $250
windpower farm
non-wind farm
US Farm Revenues per hectare
govt. subsidy $0 $60
windpower royalty $200 $0
farm commodity revenues $50 $64
windpower farm non-wind farm
Williams, Robert, Nuclear and Alternative Energy Supply Options for an Environmentally Constrained World, April 9, 2001, http://www.nci.org/
Wind Royalties – Sustainable source of
Rural Farm and Ranch Income
Crop revenue Govt. subsidy
Wind profits
Great Plains Multi-TW Wind Resources in Varying
Stages of ICT/IPC Technical, Ecological, Economic, Financial
Assessment, Mapping, Visualization, Installation,
Operation & Post-Production Options
Montana South Dakota
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Nebraska
Iowa
Oklahoma
Texas
1) Restoring the deep-rooting, native prairie grasslands that absorb and store soil carbon and stop soil erosion (hence generating a potential revenue stream from selling CO2
mitigation credits in the emerging global carbon trading market);
Potential Synergisms
2) Re-introducing free-ranging bison into these prairie grasslands -- which naturally co-evolved together for millennia -- generating a potential revenue stream from marketing high-value organic, free-range beef.
Two additional potential revenue streams in Great Plains:
Also More Resilient to Climate-triggered
Droughts
WHO & WHERE?
National Green & REDD Economic Development Strategies launched in 2009 by the Presidents
of Suriname and Guyana
WIN-WIN-WIN PORTFOLIOSLow-Deforestation, Low-Carbon Development Strategies, using REDD carbon savings traded for revenues to help fund green economic development.
ICT/IP intensive approach could create open source public knowledge assets for other nations and cities to leverage.
• 165,000 km2 in size• 4 times size of Netherlands• 470,000 people, 80% live in
Paramaribo• 25% of the population live
on less than $2 a day
Suriname
Paramaribo
A South American nation with a population the size
of a small city.
• 215,000 km2 in size• About the size of Oregon• 770,000 people, 90% reside
on coastal strip (~10% of Guyana land area)
• 17% of the population live on less than $2 a day
Guyana
A South American nation with a population the size
of Portland, OR
National Green & REDD
Economic Development Strategy
Offshore Wind Farms
Green Bldgs
REDD Carbon RevenuesUtility financial incentives
Standards
Trust fund
Spatial
mapping
motors appliances
www.seattle.gov/mayor/climate/
Over 1000 mayors representing 75% of U.S.
cities with 30,000 people or more are committed to
reducing their CO2 emissions below 1990 levels
More than 1000 U.S. Cities
Other Users of the Open Source Climate
Mesh public knowledge assets and
resources
More than 2000 global companies
doing GHG inventories
Other Users of the Open Source Climate
Mesh public knowledge assets and
resources
Over 500 U.S. colleges
Other Users of the Open Source Climate Mesh public
knowledge assets and resources
WEBRARYknowledge-in-action
examples
Onsite & field-erected
solar power systems
End-Use Efficiency
Utility rebate
programs
Local, state, federal
Financial Incentives Economic Payback
Calculator
Solar design &
Siting tools
Utility auction
Calculators
4D CAD
visual toolsEconomic Payback
Calculator
procurement
Smart Grid and Plug-in Electric Vehicles
Wind farms on Great Plains
Water savings
Transmission lines
Utility financial incentives
Water challenges of poor
Microfinance village water
Waterborne infectious diseases
Village UV water
purification businessesUV water
purification
Bottom of the Pyramid Growth
Three to four $100 microfinance loans enables most Grameen Bank borrowers to move out of poverty
Creating a World
Without Poverty
Social Business and the
future of Capitalism
$300 Billion Capital Needed to MicroFinance Poor Out of Poverty
Evan Mills, GROCC Demonstration Project: Affordable, High-Performance Solar LED Lighting Pilot via the Millennium Villages Project, http://eetd.lbl.gov/emills
Evan Mills, GROCC Demonstration Project: Affordable, High-Performance Solar LED Lighting Pilot via the Millennium Villages Project, http://eetd.lbl.gov/emills
Women are enjoying the hazardless and hassle free lighting system in their daily life.
They are getting opportunities to earn extra money by utilizing their time after dusk by sewing or poultry farming.
Village Micro-finance Bank & Village Solar Power (Grameen Bank & Grameen Shakti)
Evan Mills, GROCC Demonstration Project: Affordable, High-Performance Solar LED Lighting Pilot via the Millennium Villages Project, http://eetd.lbl.gov/emills
Every hour 200 children under 5 die from drinking dirty water. Every year, 60 million children reach
adulthood stunted for good.
Ashok Gadgil, Global Water Solutions through Technology, Affordable safe drinking water for poor communities in the developing countries, Purdue
Calumet, 10/23/08, www.purdue.edu/dp/energy/events/great_lakes_water_quality_conference/content/Gadgil_Purdue_Global-water%202008.pdf
4 billion annual episodes of diarrhea exhaust physical strength to perform labor -- cost billions of
dollars in lost income to the poor
Ashok Gadgil, Global Water Solutions through Technology, Affordable safe drinking water for poor communities in the developing countries, Purdue
Calumet, 10/23/08, www.purdue.edu/dp/energy/events/great_lakes_water_quality_conference/content/Gadgil_Purdue_Global-water%202008.pdf
A new water disinfector for thedeveloping world’s poor
• Meet /exceed WHO & EPA criteria for disinfection
• Energy efficient: 60W UV lamp disinfects 1 ton per hour (1000 liters, 264 gallons, or 1 m3)
• Low cost: 4¢ disinfects 1 ton of water• Reliable, Mature components• Can treat unpressurized water• Rapid throughput: 12 seconds• Low maintenance: 4x per year• No overdose risk• Fail-safe
DESIGN CRITERIA
Dr Ashok Gadgil, inventor
WaterHealth Intl deviceAshok Gadgil, Global Water Solutions through Technology, Affordable safe drinking water for poor communities in the developing countries,
Purdue Calumet, 10/23/08, www.purdue.edu/dp/energy/events/great_lakes_water_quality_conference/content/Gadgil_Purdue_Global-
water%202008.pdf
WHI’s Investment Cost Advantage vs. Other Treatment Options
Ashok Gadgil, Global Water Solutions through Technology, Affordable safe drinking water for poor communities in the developing countries, Purdue
Calumet, 10/23/08, www.purdue.edu/dp/energy/events/great_lakes_water_quality_conference/content/Gadgil_Purdue_Global-water%202008.pdf
Business model reaches underserved by including financing for the purchase and installation of
our systems. User fees for treated water are used to repay loans and to cover the expenses of
operating and maintaining the equipment and facility.
Community members hired to conduct day-to-day maintenance of these “micro-utilities,” thus
creating employment and building capacity, as well as generating entrepreneurial opportunities
for local residents to provide related services, such as sales and distribution of the purified water
to outlying areas.
And because the facilities are owned by the communities in which they are installed, the user
fees become attractive sources of revenue for the community after loans have been repaid.
WaterHealth International
Ashok Gadgil, Global Water Solutions through Technology, Affordable safe drinking water for poor communities in the developing countries, Purdue
Calumet, 10/23/08, www.purdue.edu/dp/energy/events/great_lakes_water_quality_conference/content/Gadgil_Purdue_Global-water%202008.pdf
E-bikes are now among the cheapest & cleanest
travel mode options in China
Source: Cherry, C. R. 2007. “Electric Two-Wheelers in China: Analysis of Environmental, Safety, and Mobility Impacts.” Ph.D. thesis. UC Berkeley; Weinert, J.,
C. Ma, and C. Cherry. 2007. “The Transition to Electric Bikes in China: History and Key Reasons for Rapid Growth.” Transportation 34 (3): 301–18.
Energy R&D Expenditure 1974-2007
Source: IEA 2008a; IEA, http://www.iea.org/Textbase/stats/rd.asp Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),
http://www.oecd.org/statsportal .
Climate change is not a priority yet
Source: Gallup Poll, March 5-8, 2009, www.gallup.com/poll/106660/Little-Increase-Americans-Global-Warming-Worries.aspx.
Harnessing Collective Intelligence to:Prevent Climate Catastrophe
Avert Mass Species ExtinctionPromote Green Prosperity & Well-being
Small local adjustments for big global benefits: Switching from SUVs to fuel-
Efficient passenger cars in the USA alone would nearly offset the emissions
generated by providing energy to 1.6 billion more people
Source: BTS (Bureau of Transportation Statistics). 2008. Key Transportation Indicators November 2008. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Transportation.
If we want to hold CO2 even to 550 ppmv, even with
aggressive energy efficiency we will need as much
clean, carbon‐free energy within the next 40 years,
online, as the entire oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear
industries today combined – 10 to 15 terawatts. This
is not changing a few light bulbs in Fresno, this is
building an industry comparable to 50 ExxonMobils.
Professor Nate Lewis, Caltech
Innovation Intensity of U.S. Industrial Sectors
(R&D investment as percentage of annual revenues)
Intensive beef production is a heavy producer of
greenhouse gas emissions
Source: Williams, Audsley, and Sandars 2006.Determining the Environmental Burdens and Resource Use in the Production of Agricultural and Horticultural
Commodities. London: Department for Environmental Food and Rural Affairs.
Note: The figure shows CO2 equivalent emissions in kilograms resulting from the production (in an industrial country) of 1 kilogram of a specific product. The
car and road image conveys the number of kilometers one must drive in a gasoline- powered car averaging 11.5 kilometers a liter to produce the given
amount of CO2e emissions. For example, producing 1 kilogram of beef and driving 79.1 kilometers both result in 16 kilograms of emissions.