MIBFAMILIES:

Towards a Psychology of Liberation

Professional ExperiencesYouth workerTaught in primary, secondary and community schools in Birmingham and LondonTrained as an Educational Psychologist in 1988Lectured at UCL and Birmingham UniversitiesTalks and workshops at national and international conferencesTrained as a counsellor Most recent training in couples and family therapyWorked in health, education, social services and voluntary sector as psychologist

Findings from PhD thesis

Beyond Father Absence: Black Fathering and Child Outcomes

www.nineninepine.com

BackgroundThe role of black men in families is one of the most conspicuously neglected

areas of family research." 

Taylor, Chatters, Tucker and Lewis (1990, p996)

BackgroundPaternal DeprivationLower IQ scoresPoorer academic outcomesLower self/esteem and achievement motivation‘Feminised’ cognitive profile

‘Underachievement’ of African/Caribbean boysConsistently lowest level of 5 GCSE passes Grades A*-C

BackgroundIs there a link between being reared in a black lone mother households and poorer psychological outcomes?

If yes, are the magnitudes of the effects greater for boys than for girls?

IntroductionThe thesis was a ‘new direction‘ in the study of underachievement in black children. Through a comprehensive analysis and review of research into family life, fathering behaviour and academic achievement. Using a ‘multi-racial’ sample, the research focused on children from African and Caribbean backgrounds and examined the links that existed between family structure and the educational outcomes for African/Caribbean boys in particular Reconstructionist vs. Constructionist

Review of LiteratureLimited resource base Literature underlined the caricatures and stereotypes of the promiscuous, violent, absent and/or irresponsible fathers. Clarke (1957) depicted Caribbean families as matrilineal and as marginalising males. Clarke, E. (1957). My Mother Who Fathered Me: A study of the Family in Three Selected Communities in Jamaica. London: Allen and Udwin.

Review of LiteratureStycos and Back (1964) found that although Jamaican fathers were frequently absent from the household, this was in fact part of the ‘life’ of many families. Non-resident fathers had their specific and distinct role to play particularly in making financial provision and to discipline their sons.

Stycos, J. and Back, K. (1964). The Control of Human Fertility in Jamaica. New York: Cornell University Press.

The role of the father in child development

‘Being there’ Residency contributes to positive outcomes Snarey, J. (1993). How Fathers Care for the Next Generation: A Four Decade

Study. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

‘Provider-Protector’ Bread-winner and disciplinarian Griswold, R. (1997). Generative fathering: A historical perspective. In A.

Hawkins and D. Dollahite, Generative Fathering: Beyond Deficit Perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

‘Generative Fathering’ From the Eriksonian theory of generativity Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. Hawkins, A., and Dollahite, D., (1997). Beyond the role-inadequacy perspective of

fathering. In A. Hawkins, and D. Dollahite Generative Fathering: Beyond Deficit Perspectives. California: Sage.

Review of LiteratureNobles and Goddard, (1984) stated that there is a difficulty in comparing black fatherhood and masculinity with Eurocentric standards when the concept of Africanity is considered. They argued that the concept of white masculinity perhaps stems around individual progress and the accumulation of wealth and power over others, whilst black masculinity incorporated a sense of community and family achievement. An example of this was the idea and success of the ‘Million Man March’ that took place in America in 1997. Nobles, W. and Goddard, L. (1984). Understanding the Black Family: A Guide for Scholarship and Research. California: Black Family Institute.

Review of LiteratureThe contemporary discourse on black fatherhood centres on the demythologisation of the black father as uninvolved and absent. “Closer examination of the positive aspects of the father’s presence should be carried out, that includes a picture of what non-residential fathers and resident fathers actually do”.

Review of LiteratureThe black perspective on the contemporary theory of ‘generative fathering’ amplifies the theory in highlighting the importance of family and ‘connectedness’ (a sense of belonging) as being linked to developing ideas on manhood. How a black man measures up in manhood terms is inextricably linked to his ability to fulfil the roles that he expects of himself.

Amin, K., (1997). Fathers and Fathering: Recent Research. Runnymede Trust.

Review of LiteratureThe significance of the kinship network in contemporary black families is that older relatives are seen as a resource to provide answers to black fathers on how to face challenges, as it is likely that they have a history that will demonstrate how these same challenges were overcome for them and are able to present a balance of hope and wisdom.

Diagram 1A: African kin network

Child

“Uncle”/ Father Uncle Aunt Mother “Aunt”/ Friend of Friend of Father Mother

Paternal Paternal Maternal Maternal Grandfather Grandmother Grandmother Grandfather

Diagram 1B: ‘ Fatherless’ African kin network

Child

Uncle Aunt Mother “Aunt/ Friend of

Mother

Paternal Paternal Maternal Maternal Grandfather Grandmother Grandmother Grandfather

Diagram 2A: Nuclear family

Child

Diagram 2B: ‘Fatherless’ Nuclear family

Child

Mother

Review of LiteratureAllen and Connor (1997) concluded their description of generative black fathering by suggesting that there is a need for more research that incorporates the viewpoint not just on what black fathers do but also what they should do.

Allen, W., and Connor, M., (1997). An African-American perspective on generative fathering. In A Hawkins and D Dollahite. Generative Fathering: Beyond Deficit Perspectives. Current Issues in the Family Series, Vol 3. (pp52-70). Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.

Review of Literature  Despite the generally poor image of

black fathers, there is evidence to commend black men that seems to escape the attention of researchers and writers on the area when they stated :“We choose in our definition to emphasise the competence of African American men, prosperous and poor, young and old, over the past 400 years. Without this competence, so many of us and our families would not be doing as well as we are.” (Allen and Connor, 1997)

Review of LiteratureThe research did not only provide a description of what black fathers do, but also enabled a reappraisal in order to identify the things that black fathers should do more or less of i.e. Fathering ‘style’.

ConstructsFather availability

Residence vs non-residence Frequency of contact with the child

Father involvement Scores on care-giving measures

Father-child relationship Ratings of ‘closeness’

Fathering ‘style’ Health, hygiene and grooming; finance;

leisure; emotional; discipline; intellectual; supports

Design of the StudiesFour Studies (Two Pilot/Two Main)Three of the studies examined the views of over 600 children on role of the father; one asked fathers themselvesFocused on specific perceptions of children from African descentAlso accessed perspective of children of South Asian descentFirst ever research examining family life using multi-racial group of children done in Britain

Review of LiteratureGenerative fathering for black fathers emphasises overcoming the image of being a victim. Given this assertion, we would expect to see the child’s raised self-esteem as a consequence of generative black fathering.

Findings: Pilot StudyChildren gave more favourable ratings for the involvement of their non-resident fathers than their resident fathers. ‘Idealisation’ of the absent father, (Furstenburg and Nord, 1985).Resident father feels he is contributing well by virtue of the fact that he is present in the child’s home i.e. feel that their role is best summarised in terms of them just ‘being there’ (Snarey, 1993).

Findings: Pilot StudyUseful in dispelling myths that absent fathers are less active than present ones. The worldview (beliefs, values and opinions) of the father is more important than his residence in shaping his relationship with and support of his child.

Findings: Contact with father

There were benefits of father availability to the self-concepts of children Fathers appear to be important for children’s psychological development but this is not an isolated independent effect but is linked to the quality of marital and parental relationships in the family context within which the child grows up. Paternal warmth, emotional closeness and playfulness appear particularly important in fostering a successful father-child relationship.

Findings: Father self-ratings

Black fathers were asked to rate their level of involvement with their children.These fathers rated their fathering ‘style’ as focusing on health, hygiene and grooming, and intellectual activities.

Findings: Father self-ratings

Their ratings showed that the children with highly involved fathers obtained significantly higher scores on the global self-esteem measure. Higher levels of black father involvement with intellectual activities and emotional support were found to improve behaviour self-esteem

Findings: Fathering ‘style’One of the differences found between the White/European and African/Caribbean fathers was that black fathers emphasised more of a discipline role through self-report. Married, black fathers were most likely to enact this role.The child-report of black fathering is wholly different, suggestive of a more nurturing, stimulating role of the father.

Findings: Fathering ‘style’For black fathers a lower level of emotional support to his children was also linked to significantly lower behaviour self-esteem.

Findings: Fathering ‘Style’The findings suggested that black fathering should feature increased emotional and financial support to promote the optimal conditions for the child’s academic success. These fathering styles were linked to elevated behaviour and school self-esteem.

Findings: Fathering ‘style’To maximise the opportunities for children, black fathers also need to consider redressing the balance between the activities that are utilised to increase social and moral development. The findings would further suggest that black fathers should redress the balance between the financial support of their sons to a fathering style that emphasises emotional support, if we are to even begin to measure the effect on both the actual and perceived emotional behaviour of boys in schools.

Findings: Marital StatusSeveral significant findings were reported for married black fathers. The level of involvement of resident married black fathers was significantly higher in comparison to resident unmarried black fathers.

Married black fathers were significantly more involved in providing discipline for the child, and in supporting them in their recreational activities. Increased social self-esteem was also found to be an outcome for black children with married fathers.

Findings: Age of the childBlack fathers also rated themselves as having more involvement with their primary school-aged children than their secondary school-aged children and their younger children. The black father also rated himself as making higher financial contributions to his older children

Findings: GenderThere was a trend towards a higher level of financial involvement with their sons, which may indicate that in their view, black fathers attempt to model the role of a financial provider for their sons.

Findings: GenderBlack girls rated their fathers as providing more emotional support compared to black boys. This significant finding may be a contributory factor in the overrepresentation of boys with emotional and behavioural difficulties

Findings: Residence of the father

In the two main studies, black children rated their non-resident fathers as significantly less involved in their lives. The findings were that the school and social self-esteem are most affected by the lack of a father in the home.

Findings: Residence of the father

The residence of the father was significantly related to positive outcomes for the African/Caribbean child. Two of the studies provided support for the notion that an outcome of quality black fathering is improved self-esteem. Children who had a resident father also had significantly higher school and social self-esteem. The African/Caribbean sample in one study provided further support for the finding that more advanced number skills is a potential outcome of having a resident father.

Findings: Intellectual Development

Although the African/Caribbean group had a significantly higher number of lone-mother families, no significant differences between one- and two-parent children were found for either their cognitive/intellectual development or their academic achievement except for one Study which produced the findings that black children with resident fathers had significantly better developed number skills.

Findings: Family StructureThe Studies were not able to show that the extended family structure provided psychological advantages for African/Caribbean children, there was some indication of the relative importance of contact with the grandparents within the African/Caribbean culture(s) and the configuration of the black extended family to support lone-mothers. High mother involvement also had benefits for the self-esteem of the children

ConclusionsThe black extended family household configures around the non-residence of the black father. Suggests that the black extended family household reflects the ‘social support system’ used to describe the black extended family as it manifests in AmericaFurther, it exemplifies the concept of ‘Africanity’ that represents the cultural connection between Africans throughout the diaspora.

ConclusionsIt was a joint and balanced effort from both parents that was more likely to contribute to scholastic success.Although the relationships with the parents are paramount, children, women and men all benefit when men are actively involved in the family. In short, when fathers assume an equitable parenting role, this increases psychological development.

Conclusions For black families it is positive involvement that should be noted as opposed to more involvementBlack fathers would need to develop their own, personalised repertoire of physical and emotional; verbal and non-verbal signs, signals and actions to demonstrate the equity of their commitment to the emotional development of their sons and daughters.

ConclusionsTeachers also have a role even by adjusting their perceptions Consideration should be given to developing groupwork or individual counselling for children of divorce/relationship breakdown.‘Loss’ groupwork in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services

ConclusionsIt is clear that the adults in the child’s network of support have important roles to play in minimising the possible effects of marital/relationship breakdownPotential parents need to begin to discuss their parenting arrangements and ‘styles’ at the moment of conception.Is it possible to reverse the legacy of slavery and to choose a parent that you want to spend your life with?

ConclusionsGiven the consistent pattern of unmarried mothering within the African/Caribbean communities, the communities must feel empowered to define what is ‘good’ and desirable and what is ‘bad’ and undesirable from the standpoint of their own interests and conditions of existence. The survival of the black family in any form is a “miracle” indicating that the strengths of black families remain the kin networks, and extended family network.

ConclusionsThe finding that the father’s physical presence in the home is linked to the advancement of number skills is important in that there were no specific activities linked with this. This suggested that ‘just being there’ is of crucial importance and that black men should be simply encouraged to come in to the school and just…be there.

ConclusionsHowever, this thesis is the beginning of a demonstration that clearly fathers cannot be conceptualised as mothers, given the impact of the financial provider role through the eyes of both fathers and children.

ConclusionsThe perspective of the child is of huge importance, as it is the impact of fathering behaviour that needs to be explored and contrasted with the opinions of the mothers and the fathers themselves, particularly when examining its relative influence on child outcomes.