US ELECTIONS

SUPPLEMENTARY READER

1. Quick guide: US presidential elections

The road to the White House is long, complicated and expensive. BBC News explains the process.

The early stages

A politician with presidential ambition usually forms an exploratory committee to test the waters and raise money, sometimes up to two years before the election. They then formally declare their candidacy and campaign in key states.

The primaries

The primary season begins in the January before the election and lasts until about June. This is where candidates fight within the two main parties, Republican and Democratic, for their party's nomination.

Voters in each of the 50 states select party delegates, who in most cases have pledged to support a particular candidate. Some states use a caucus - a local meeting system - rather than primaries.

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The party convention

The national party conventions, held a few months before the election, are where the candidates are formally nominated.

Delegates who have been chosen during the state primaries pick the nominee, though by this stage, the party normally knows who has won.

The winning candidate then picks a running-mate, sometimes from among the defeated rivals.

The final lap

Only now do the candidates fully square up against each other. There is massive spending on advertising, and a major flurry of state-by-state campaigning. Much attention is paid to the televised debates between the candidates. This can, but does not necessarily involve any independent candidate.

In the final weeks, the contenders typically concentrate their attention on big so-called "swing states", where the outcome is uncertain.

The election

American presidential elections are always held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.

Voters do not, technically, participate in a direct election of the president. They choose "electors", who are pledged to one or another candidate. This is known as the Electoral College.

Each state has a certain number of electors to the college, based on the size of its population.

In almost every state, the winner of the popular vote gets all the electoral college votes in that state. Because of this system, a candidate can take the White House without winning the popular vote, such as in the 2000 contest between George W Bush and Al Gore.

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2. US election 2016: How to become the president of the US

20 January 2016

The US presidency is described as the world's hardest job and the election campaign is said to be its toughest job interview. How do you run for president? BBC News explains the process.

The early stages

Hillary Clinton is embarking on her second run for the presidency

A politician with presidential ambition usually forms an exploratory committee to test the waters and raise money. This can begin up to two years before the election.

The US constitution requires only that a person be a "natural born citizen" of the US, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the US for 14 years.

If the candidate attracts significant favourable notice from the news media, party officials, prospective campaign strategists, and donors, he or she formally declares his or her candidacy and launches campaigns in key early states.

Not just anyone can credibly stand for election: In the last 70 years, every non-incumbent major party presidential nominee has been either a sitting or former US senator, governor, vice-president or five-star general.

However, the current Republican race has seen the rise of outsider candidates such as businessman Donald Trump and retired neurosurgeon Ben Carson who have not held elective office.

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On the Democratic side, Hillary Clinton (a former first lady, New York senator and secretary of state) and Bernie Sanders (a member of Congress since 1989) have more traditional presidential resumes.

The nomination fight

Candidates get up and close personal with the people in the early voting states

After declaring, the candidates begin vying for their party's nomination for the presidency.

Typically - but not always - they spend the next several months campaigning heavily in the early primary and caucus states of Iowa, New Hampshire and South Carolina.

Those states hold the first contests of the campaign in the January before the election, and good performances there can make or break a candidacy.

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US primaries and caucuses

Early voting states like South Carolina have outsized influence on the race

Voters in each of the 50 states, plus Washington DC and some US territories, select party delegates who in most cases pledge to support a particular candidate.

Some states use a caucus - a local meeting system - rather than primaries.

The primary election campaign lasts until about June, by which point one candidate has amassed enough delegates to win the nomination or has driven every other contender from the race.

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The party convention

Conventions are normally highly scripted affairs but that could change in 2016

The national party conventions are held in the late summer about two and a half months before the election.

There, the parties formally nominate the candidates chosen by party voters in the state primaries and caucuses.

Before or at the convention, the nominee picks a running-mate, sometimes from among the defeated rivals.

Because the nominee is almost always known before the start of the convention, the conventions are mostly geared toward promoting and celebrating the nominee and laying out the party's message and agenda.

However, some analysts have suggested that this Republican convention could be a "brokered convention" where the result is decided over rounds of negotiations and voting among party delegates.

Some in the Republican Party are concerned that the current front-runner Mr Trump - a political novice with hard line views on immigration - could hurt the party in Congressional races, particularly among Latino voters.

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The final lap

Most of the campaigning is focused so-called "battleground" states like Florida

After the conventions, the candidates fully square up against each other on the campaign trail, over the airwaves and in widely viewed debates.

Each spends millions of dollars on advertising and a major flurry of state-by-state campaigning.

This year, there will be three debates between the presidential candidates and one between the vice-presidential candidates, according to the Commission on Presidential Debates.

In the final weeks, the contenders typically concentrate their attention on big so-called "battleground" states, where the electorate is more or less evenly divided and hence the outcome is uncertain.

Hordes of campaign volunteers and paid staff converge on the key states, where they work the telephones and go door to door to try and persuade voters to go to the polls to support their candidate.

Watch for the candidates to blanket the airwaves with adverts in Florida, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia.

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The election

The winner of the popular vote most often becomes president but not always

American presidential elections are always held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. This year, it is 8 November.

Voters do not, technically, participate in the direct election of the president.

They choose "electors", who are pledged to one or another candidate, in a process known as the US electoral college.

Each state has a certain number of electors to the college, based on the size of its population.

In almost every state, the winner of the popular vote gets all the electoral college votes in that state.

Because of this system, a candidate can take the White House without winning the popular vote, such as in the 2000 contest between George W Bush and Al Gore.

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The inauguration

The president's inauguration is day of pomp and pageantry for Washington

In the days and weeks after the election - if the vote is decisive - the victor will assemble a cabinet and begin crafting a more thorough policy agenda.

Meanwhile, the departing "lame duck" president works to shape his legacy and begins packing up his belongings.

Under the US constitution, the president is inaugurated on 20 January of the year following the election.

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Congratulations

The presidency comes with many perks but also heavy scrutiny from all sides

You won.

For your efforts, you become a virtual prisoner in the White House, unable even to walk across the street without a contingent of Secret Service agents and a gaggle of aides.

You will have to endure 24-hour scrutiny and criticism of your every word and action, surround yourself with aides planning tell-all memoirs and scheming among themselves for power, and work 12-hour days in which your schedule is planned almost down to the minute.

Expect a constant battle with a hostile news media and an opposition party dedicated to frustrating and impeding your every move, from your grand economic agenda to your lowest appointments.

Only difficult decisions reach your desk - the easy ones have all been answered at lower levels of your administration.

But you will have the chance to put your personal stamp on a country of 318 million people and indeed on the entire world.

You will shape its economy, culture and society, and win a chapter for yourself in the history books alongside George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Roosevelt, Ronald Reagan and other American luminaries.

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3. How to become US president

20 January 2016

In January 2017, the most powerful nation on earth will have a new leader, after a drawn out and expensive campaign - but how does a US presidential election work?

When the US picks its president, it is not only choosing a head of state but a head of government and a commander-in-chief of the largest military on the planet.

It's a big responsibility. So how does the process work?

Who can be president?

Technically, to run for president, you only need to be "a natural born" US citizen, at least 35 years old, and have been a resident for 14 years. Sounds easy, right?

In reality, however, every president since 1933 has been a governor, senator, or five-star military general. And that's before you even consider getting a party nomination and securing national media attention.

In this 2016 election, at one stage there were 10 governors or former governors and 10 who are or were senators, although many have since dropped out.

One person is nominated to represent the Republican and Democratic parties in the presidential election.

Who gets to be the presidential pick for each party?

A series of elections are held in every state and overseas territory, starting in February, which determine who becomes each party's official presidential candidate.

The winner of each collects a number of "delegates" - party members with the power to vote for that candidate at the party conventions held in July, where candidates are formally confirmed.

The more state contests a candidate wins, the more delegates will be pledged to support them at the convention.

As President Barack Obama cannot run again, both parties are holding competitive primaries this year.

The Republican candidate will need 1,237 delegates to win a majority, while the Democratic contender must secure 2,383.

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What are the key dates between now and election?

The first votes will be cast in Iowa on 1 February - it's the first US state to have a contest (although in Iowa's case, it's a caucus, which is a vote of people present rather than through a ballot).

Other early states include New Hampshire and South Carolina, which means they have presidential candidates visiting them for months on end.

On 1 March, a dozen states pick their presidential nominees, so it's called Super Tuesday. In 2016, the primaries held on 15 March, including Florida, Ohio and North Carolina, could be significant because so many delegates are up for grabs.

By the end of April, most states have cast their votes and in most election campaigns, it's clear by then who each party has picked as their presidential candidate. But it's not official until the party conventions in July.

If you're still with us, you'll be glad to know the real campaigns haven't even started yet.

That happens after the summer, when the two candidates hold a manic, mammoth journey whizzing across the country to make their case.

There are three televised presidential debates in the last six weeks before - finally - votes are cast on Tuesday, 8 November.

How does the vote in November work?

The candidate with the most votes in each state becomes the candidate which that state supports for president.

It's all down to a system called the electoral college, a group of people who choose the winner - 538 of them, in fact. Just half of them - 270 - are needed to make a president.

But not all states are equal - California, for example, has more than 10 times the population of Connecticut, so they don't get an equal say.

Each state has certain number of these "electors" based on their population in the most recent census (it so happens that it's the same number of districts in a state, plus two senators).

When citizens vote for their preferred candidate, they're actually voting for the electors, some of which are pledged to one candidate, some for another.

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But here's where it gets interesting. In almost every state (except Nebraska and Maine), the winner takes all - so the person who wins the most electors in New York, for example, will get all 29 of New York's electoral votes.

In the race to get to the magic number - 270 - it's the swing states that often matter most.

What are swing states?

So, we've got two candidates, both in a race to get to 270 electors by winning whole states at at a time.

Both parties think they can bank on certain states, big and small. Republicans will count on Texas, and not waste their money campaigning to a great extent there. Similarly, California is likely to sit in the Democrats' column.

The others are known as "swing states" - where it could go either way. Florida in particular, with its 29 votes, famously decided the 2000 election in favour of George W. Bush, who lost the popular vote nationally but, after a Supreme Court case, won the electoral college.

Other swing states include: Ohio, Virginia, Colorado, North Carolina, Nevada.

When does the new president start work?

In the days and weeks after the election - if the vote is decisive - the victor will assemble a cabinet and begin crafting a more thorough policy agenda.

Meanwhile, the departing "lame duck" president works to shape his legacy and begins packing up his belongings.

Under the US constitution, the president is inaugurated on 20 January of the year following the election.

4. U.S. Elections: Frequently Asked Questions

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iipdigital.usembassy.gov01 November 2011

TYPES OF ELECTIONS

What types of elections are held in the United States?

There are two basic types of elections — primary and general. In addition to the primaries and general elections held in even-numbered years, which include political races for the U.S. Congress, some states and local jurisdictions also hold “off-year” elections (both primary and general) in odd-numbered years for their elected officials.

A primary election is a nominating election in which the field of candidates that will run in the general election is chosen. Victory in a primary usually results in a candidate being nominated or endorsed by a political party for the general election.

A general election is an election held to choose among candidates nominated in a primary (or by convention, caucus or petition) for federal, state and/or local office. The purpose of a general election is to make a final choice among the various candidates who have been nominated by parties or who are running as independents (not affiliated with a major political party) or, in some cases, write-in candidates. Measures such as proposed legislation (referendums), bond issues (approving the borrowing of money for public projects) and other mandates on government also can be placed on the ballot.

In addition, many states provide for special elections, which can be called at any time, to serve a specific purpose, such as filling an unexpected vacancy in an elected office.

What are midterm elections?

The elections in which Americans vote for their congressional representatives but not for their president are known as midterm elections. Every two years, Americans elect members of the U.S. House of Representatives to two-year terms and about one-third of their U.S. senators, who serve six-year terms. Voters also will select officials to state and local government posts.

What is a convention?

Conventions are meetings sponsored by political parties for members of the party to discuss issues, candidates and campaign strategies. These meetings can last several days.

In presidential elections, after state primaries are concluded, each party holds a national convention to formally select the presidential nominee — usually the candidate who secured the support of the most convention delegates, based on

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victories in primary elections. Typically, the presidential nominee then chooses a running mate to be the party’s candidate for vice president.

Political parties hold national conventions only in presidential election years. The parties usually hold smaller, state-level conventions in other years. The Democratic National Convention will be in Charlotte, North Carolina, September 3–6, 2012. The Republican National Convention will be in Tampa, Florida, August 27–30, 2012.

What is a caucus?

A caucus is a meeting at the local level in which registered members of a political party in a city, town or county gather to express support for a candidate. For statewide or national offices, those recommendations are combined to determine the state party nominee. Caucuses, unlike conventions, involve many separate meetings held simultaneously at multiple locations. Both the Democratic and Republican parties have their own rules governing caucuses. Those rules vary from state to state.

REQUIREMENTS FOR VOTING, RUNNING FOR OFFICE

Who can vote?

American citizens ages 18 and older can register to vote. To register, voters must meet the residency requirements of their states, which vary, and comply with voter-registration deadlines.

What are the requirements for running for elected office in the United States?

Each federal elected office has different requirements, which are laid out in Articles I and II of the U.S. Constitution.

A candidate for president of the United States must be a natural-born citizen of the United States, be at least 35 years old and have been a resident of the United States for at least 14 years. A vice president must meet the same qualifications. Under the 12th Amendment to the Constitution, the vice president cannot be from the same state as the president.

U.S. House of Representatives candidates must be at least 25 years old, have been U.S. citizens for seven years and be legal residents of the state in which they seek election.

U.S. Senate candidates must be at least 30 years old, have been a U.S. citizen for nine years, and be legal residents of the state in which they seek election.

Officials seeking state or local office must meet the requirements established by those jurisdictions.

SCHEDULING ELECTIONS15

When are general elections held?

They are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November. The 2012 general election will be held on November 6.

Why are general elections held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November?

For much of U.S. history, America was a predominantly agrarian society. Lawmakers considered their convenience when choosing a November date for elections — after harvest time but before winter weather made travel difficult — as the easiest month for farmers and rural workers to go to the polls.

Because many rural residents lived a significant distance from the polls, Tuesday, rather than Monday, was selected to allow those who attended Sunday church services to begin travel after worship and still reach their destinations in time to cast their votes.

Lawmakers wanted to prevent Election Day from falling on the first of November for two reasons. First, November 1 is All Saints Day, a day on which Roman Catholics are obligated to attend Mass. Also, merchants typically balanced the accounts from the preceding month on the first of each month.

When are primary elections held?

State and local governments determine the dates on which primary elections or caucuses are held. These dates, and the amount of time between a primary and general election, significantly influence how early candidates begin campaigning and the choices they make about how and when campaign funds are spent.

In the run-up to presidential elections, victories in primaries held very early in the election year, such as that in New Hampshire, can influence the outcome of later state primaries.

ELECTORAL COLLEGE

What is the Electoral College?

The Electoral College is the group of citizens designated by the states to cast votes for the president and vice president on behalf of state citizens. The process for selecting electors varies from state to state, but usually the political parties nominate electors at state party conventions or by a vote of the party’s central committee. The voters in each state, by casting votes for president and vice president, choose the electors on the day of the general election. The Electoral College, not the popular vote, elects the president, but the two votes are tied closely.

How does the Electoral College elect the president?

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The Electoral College system gives each state the same number of electoral votes as it has members of Congress. The District of Columbia is allocated three electoral votes. There are a total of 538 votes in the Electoral College; a candidate for president must get 270 to win (a simple majority). All but two states have a winner-take-all system, in which the candidate who gets the most popular votes in the state is allocated all of the state’s electoral votes.

The electors usually gather in their state capitals in December to cast their votes. The electoral votes then are sent to Washington, where they are counted in the presence of a joint session of Congress in January.

If no presidential candidate wins a majority of electoral votes, the 12th Amendment to the Constitution provides for the presidential election to be decided by the House of Representatives. In such situations, the House selects the president by majority vote, choosing from the three candidates who received the greatest number of electoral votes. Each state would cast one vote.

If no vice presidential candidate wins a majority of electoral votes, the Senate selects the vice president by majority vote, with each senator choosing from the two candidates who received the greatest number of electoral votes.

For which races is the Electoral College used?

The Electoral College is used only to select the president and vice president.

Has any president been elected without a majority of the popular vote?

There have been 17 presidential elections in which the winner did not receive a majority of the popular vote cast. The first of these was John Quincy Adams in the election of 1824, and the most recent was George W. Bush in 2000.

The founders of the United States devised the Electoral College system as part of their plan to share power between the states and the national government. Under the federal system adopted in the U.S. Constitution, the nationwide popular vote has no legal significance. As a result, it is possible that the electoral votes awarded on the basis of state elections could produce a different result than the nationwide popular vote. Nevertheless, the individual citizen’s vote is important to the outcome of each election.

OTHER QUESTIONS

Why is voter turnout sometimes low in the United States?

Several factors seem to influence voter turnout, which was approximately 41 percent of eligible voters in 2006 and 61 percent in 2004. Many observers believe that current registration laws hinder voter turnout. The demographic composition of the electorate, long periods of political or economic stability, predictable outcomes in many races and some candidates’ lack of popular appeal are other

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factors affecting voter turnout. Turnout tends to be higher in general elections than in primary elections. Turnout also tends to be higher in years in which the president is elected than in midterm elections.

What are the symbols of the U.S. political parties?

The elephant represents the Republican Party, and the donkey represents the Democratic Party. Political cartoonist Thomas Nast created both images for the publication Harper’s Weekly in 1874. Nast created a marauding elephant to represent the “Republican vote.” Republicans quickly embraced the symbol as their party’s own.

In a separate cartoon, Nast criticized the Democrats for posthumously maligning a Republican by picturing the Democratic Party as a donkey or mule (animals considered stubborn and stupid) kicking a lion (the dead Republican). The Democratic Party, demonstrating a sense of humor, accepted the animal as its symbol, observing that it has many fine qualities, such as not giving up easily.

Do organizations tell people how to vote? What does it mean when a union or newspaper “endorses” a candidate?

Voting in U.S. elections is conducted by secret ballot, and a voter’s choice is private. The “endorsement” of a candidate by an organization means the organization publicly supports the candidate and approves the candidate’s stand on issues. Although organizations can encourage members to join in that support, it is unlawful for them to coerce a member to vote against his or her own judgment.

5. Q&A: US primaries and caucuses18

29 November 2011

The route to a spot on the ballot in November's US presidential election runs through a series of electoral contests known as primaries and caucuses.

This is the process by which supporters of the Democratic and Republican parties, in each US state, determine which candidate they would like to represent their party in the presidential poll.

How does it work?

The parties' presidential nominees are formally chosen at national conventions held in the late summer. There, delegates sent by each state party vote for the candidate chosen by the voters back home.

The voters have their say in primary elections or party caucuses held between early January and the summer.

The more state contests a candidate wins, the more delegates will be pledged to support the candidate at the national convention.

Why did Iowa and New Hampshire come first?

No particular reason, it just happened that way. This year Iowa holds its caucuses on 3 January and New Hampshire holds the first primary on 10 January.

Critics of the two states' role argue they do not merit the influence because they are not representative of the US population as a whole.

Iowa and New Hampshire are relatively small and rural and are overwhelmingly white.

But the states argue the voters are serious and politically-educated and put the candidates through their paces.

What is Super Tuesday?

Super Tuesday is a day when a lot of states hold primaries or caucuses simultaneously.

In 2000, 16 states held primaries on 7 March, at which about 60% of all delegates were up for grabs.

In 2004, Super Tuesday split in two. There was a Mini-Tuesday (or Super Tuesday I) on 3 February, followed by a Super Tuesday II on 2 March. California, Ohio and New York all held their votes on Super Tuesday II.

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On 5 February 2008, 24 states took part in "Super-Duper Tuesday", including California, New York, Illinois and New Jersey.

Caucus or primary - what's the difference?

A primary is a traditional election, where a broad electorate of voters cast secret ballots at polls open all day. The winner of the primary election takes the state's delegates to the national convention.

A caucus is a meeting of registered party voters and activists that takes place at an appointed time of day or evening.

Caucus procedures vary according to state law, but in most states, such as Iowa, voters meet in private homes, schools and other public buildings to discuss the candidates and the issues.

They then hold a vote of the caucus to chose a candidate and elect delegates pledged to support that candidate at county conventions.

County convention delegates elect delegates in turn to state conventions, where delegates to the national conventions are chosen.

At Democratic caucuses, the voters sometimes publicly divide into groups, gathering in different corners of a room to show their support for the different candidates, and delegates are allocated accordingly.

Republican caucuses usually take the form of a secret ballot, the results of which inform the allocation of delegates.

Are the caucuses and primaries held at the same time every election year?

No, and the national parties are frequently at odds with their state affiliates over timing.

States often vie with one another to hold their contests earlier in the season in an effort to boost their influence, with Iowa and New Hampshire striving to protect their status as the first in the nation caucuses and primary.

From 1972 to 1992 the exercise began in late January (or occasionally early February) and the nominations were not usually settled until the first Tuesday in June, when California, New Jersey and Ohio held their primaries.

In 2008 they began on 3 January, and the Republican nomination was effectively settled on 5 February, the earliest ever Super Tuesday (though John McCain only became certain of victory on 4 March).

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The Democrat battle between then-Senators Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton continued until June - more than five months.

Is a long nomination contest a bad thing?

Yes and no.

Spending several months criss-crossing the country meeting voters is a good test of a candidate's strengths and weaknesses and breadth of support ahead of the gruelling general election fight in the autumn.

The long nomination calendar gives the parties an opportunity to build lists of voters, supporters and potential campaign volunteers for the general election.

Also, a little-known candidate who does well in the early caucuses or primaries has a chance to attract financial support, and organise a strong campaign.

The shorter the primary campaign, the less time there is for an outsider to gather momentum.

However, a long primary season can mean the eventual nominee has less time to prepare for the general election battle against the other party's candidate.

It could leave the party divided, and exhaust donors needed for the general election.

6. Q&A: US election delegates

The delegates to the Democratic and Republican parties' national conventions officially choose the nominees for the presidency.

So anyone who wants to run for the presidency representing either party has to try to win the support of as many as possible - and the key is to do well in the state primaries and caucuses held between January and June.

A big vote in favour of candidate X, in a given state, usually mandates a certain proportion of that state's delegates to vote for candidate X at the convention.

Do all states have the same number of delegates?

No. There is a huge variation. The most populous states - California, Texas and New York - have many times more delegates than the smallest states.

Do both parties have the same number of delegates? 21

No. The Democratic Party convention will have almost twice as many delegates as the Republican Party convention in 2008.

But in both cases a candidate only needs a simple majority (50% +1) of delegate votes to win the nomination - that's currently 2,118 in the case of the Democrats, and 1,191 in the case of the Republicans.

The goal of all candidates is to win the support of as many delegates as possible, as early as possible in the primary season.

Even before a candidate secures the winning number of delegates, he or she may notch up an effectively unassailable lead.

Do all delegates have to vote at the convention as directed by the result of the primaries and caucuses?

No. Both parties have a certain number of elected delegates (also known as pledged delegates), whose vote is determined by the result of the primary or caucus in their state, but they also have a certain number of unelected/unpledged delegates (known as super-delegates in the Democratic Party).

These delegates are free to choose which candidate to support. Many of them hold elected office, but they do not owe their place at the convention to a primary election or caucus.

How crucial are the unelected delegates?

In both parties they form a minority within the ranks of delegates at the convention - about 20% in the Democratic case, and between 5% and 20% of Republican delegates (the Republicans do not provide an official breakdown, and different experts give different figures).

They are mostly high-ranking party officials, members of Congress and state governors.

In most years, candidates do not have to worry too much about wooing unelected delegates. But if the race gets very close - as it is in 2008 on the Democratic side - they cannot be ignored.

Is the number of pledged delegates a candidate wins in a primary or caucus always proportionate to the number of votes he or she receives?

No, not always. The rules vary from state to state and from party to party.

In some states the Republicans operate a winner-takes-all system, where the candidate who wins most support state-wide gets all the delegates.

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In others, the winner-takes-all principle operates at the level of congressional districts: the candidate who does best in a district wins all the delegates available in that district.

The Republicans also use a proportional system in some states.

The Democrats always use some form of proportional system, but even then a candidate's share of the vote in a state and his or her share of the delegates can turn out to be quite different.

For example, when delegates are awarded on the basis of results in individual congressional districts, the rules do not guarantee strict proportionality.

Under party rules, it's possible for one candidate to beat the other soundly in a district with an even number of delegates, but for the delegates to be split between them equally nonetheless.

Meanwhile, in a district with an odd number of delegates, even a narrow win gives the winner an extra delegate.

Is it always clear who has won a primary?

It can be confusing when one candidate wins the most votes and another wins the most delegates.

In 2008, Hillary Clinton won more votes than Barack Obama in Nevada's and Texas's Democratic contests - but he won more delegates, according to AP's projections.

Are delegates awarded immediately after the primary or caucus?

After a primary, which takes the form of a state-wide ballot, delegates are usually awarded quickly.

Caucuses are a different matter. The candidates and the media focus only on the first stage of the caucus, when voters at precinct level choose delegates to send to the county caucuses.

But the caucus process often goes through several stages, ending only weeks later, at a state convention where delegates are chosen to send to the national party convention.

This does not stop experts projecting the final allocation of delegates from the results of the precinct caucuses, though they often come up with very different results.

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When do unelected/unpledged delegates declare their support for a candidate?

They can do this any time they like. They can also change their mind before the convention.

How tightly bound are elected delegates to a given candidate?

It varies from state to state. In some cases they are not really bound at all.

In others they may be bound to support a given candidate in the first ballot held at the convention, and then be free to make their own choice.

Or they may be bound to support the candidate through two or three, rounds of voting, or even all the way to the final vote of the convention.

If no candidate accumulates a winning number of delegates before the convention, then what?

A convention that begins without a clear winner is referred to as a brokered, or contested convention.

If no winner emerges from the early ballots, the rivals may have to negotiate.

If candidate X offers candidate Y the Vice-Presidency, say, candidate Y's supporters may then help candidate X defeat candidate Z.

Could the numbers of delegates at the convention change?

The number of Democratic super-delegates changes regularly, as politicians leave office, or die, and are replaced by others.

The party also disqualified delegates from Florida and Michigan, when the states broke party rules by holding their primaries too early.

However, in June 2008, the Florida and Michigan delegates were re-instated - though only with half-votes. Finally, on the eve of the convention, the decision was taken to allow them full votes after all.

Story from BBC NEWS:http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/americas/7224970.stm

7. Q&A: The US electoral college

2 December 2011

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An American president is not chosen directly by the people but by a group of officials known as the electoral college, in a manner prescribed by the US constitution and a complex set of state and federal laws. In theory, the electoral college chooses the candidate who won the most votes - but not always.

How does the electoral college work?

Each state has a number of electors in the electoral college proportionate to its population: the sum of its number of senators (always two) and representatives in the House.

Technically, Americans on election day cast votes for electors, not the candidates themselves, although in most cases the electors' names are not on the ballot.

California, the most populous state, has 55 electoral votes. A few small states and the District of Columbia have only three.

Today, the electoral college has 538 electors, and in all but two states, Maine and Nebraska, all of the state's electors are awarded to the winner of the popular vote within that state.

A candidate needs to win 270 electoral votes - half of the total plus one - to win the White House.

Part of a presidential candidate's grand strategy entails drawing a map of states the candidate can and must win to gather 270 electoral votes.

John Quincy Adams, left, won the presidency in 1824 though Andrew Jackson had more votes

Why was the system chosen?

When the United States was founded in the late 18th Century, a national campaign was virtually impossible given the size of the country and the difficulty of communication.

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Also, the US at the time had little in the way of national identity, states were jealous of their rights, political parties were suspect, and the popular vote somewhat feared.

The framers of the constitution in 1787 rejected both the election of the president by Congress and election by direct popular vote, on the grounds that people would vote for their local candidate and the big states would dominate.

The Southern states favoured the electoral college system because while slaves had no votes, under the constitution they were tallied as three-fifths of a person in the census.

Isn't it unfair that the winning candidate might get fewer popular votes?

Contested elections

2000: Republican George W Bush wins the White House with 271 electoral votes, though Democrat Al Gore won 540,520 more votes

1888: Republican Benjamin Harrison elected president with 233 electoral votes, though Democrat Grover Cleveland won more 100,456 votes

1876: Republican Rutherford B Hayes wins with 185 electoral votes, even though Democrat Samuel J Tilden won 264,292 more votes

1824: After four candidates split the electoral college, the House elects John Quincy Adams even though Andrew Jackson won more popular votes and electoral votes

Indeed, this is seen as a major drawback of the system.

Since 1804, four presidents have been elected who did not win the popular vote.

Most recently, in 2000 Al Gore won 48.38% of votes nationwide compared to George Bush's 47.87%. Yet Mr Bush won because he got 271 electoral votes compared with 266 for Mr Gore.

The winning votes came from Florida, whose 25 votes all went to Mr Bush even though he won only 537 more popular votes.

Another drawback is that in many states the result is a foregone conclusion and there is thus little incentive for the individual to vote. It is also a disincentive for candidates to campaign there.

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For example, large states California, Illinois and New York are solidly Democratic and Texas is solidly Republican.

So what are the advantages?

The electoral college system is respected for its historical roots and because it does usually reflect the popular vote (48 out of 52 elections since 1804 produced a popular mandate).

It also gives greater weight to smaller states - one of the checks and balances the US constitution values.

For example, the largest state, California, has 12.03% of the US population but its 55 electoral college votes represent only 10.22% of the college total.

Wyoming, a sparsely populated state, has 0.18% of the US population but its three seats in the electoral college give it 0.56% of the college votes.

The college system also means that a candidate needs to get a spread of votes from across the country.

What happens if no candidate gets a majority of electoral college votes?

Under the 12th amendment to the US constitution, the House of Representatives elects the president.

Each state delegation, however, has only one vote, which means that the majority party in each delegation controls the vote. An absolute majority of states is required for election.

The vice-president is chosen by the Senate, with senators having an individual vote.

This has happened only once since 1804, when the electoral college system took its current shape with the 12th amendment.

In 1824, four candidates split the electoral vote, denying any one of them a majority.

Democrat Andrew Jackson had the most electoral votes and the greatest share of popular votes and expected to be president.

But the fourth-place finisher, House Speaker Henry Clay, thought little of Jackson and persuaded the House to back second-place finisher John Quincy Adams. Adams was voted in as president.

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Are the electors bound to vote for their candidates?

In some states they have a free vote but in practice they vote for the candidates they are pledged to, while in other states they are required to do so.

Only nine electoral votes have been cast against the state's instructions by so-called "faithless" electors, and no result has been changed by it, according to the Congressional Research Service. And in 2000 an elector from the District of Columbia abstained.

If the result is extremely close, a "faithless" elector could cause real trouble. The issue would probably have to be decided by the courts.

The electors are chosen by the parties before the election, often in a vote at a convention. The electors then meet in state capitals after the election to cast their votes. The results are formally declared to the Senate on 6 January. The new president is inaugurated on 20 January.

8. US Election Glossary

Financial Times, January 27, 2012

The US democratic process is notoriously complicated, with its primaries and caucuses, its convention delegates and its electoral colleges. This is the FT’s guide to the process.

1,114 Number of delegates needed to clinch Republican nomination

Ballot accessBallot access refers to the requirements, unique to each state, for a candidate to appear on the ballot for the state’s primary or caucus. Virginia made headlines recently for having an unusually high threshold of 10, 000 signatures in order to qualify, causing Mitt Romney and Ron Paul to be the only eligible candidates.

Battleground stateA battleground state (also called a swing state or purple state) is a state that is not a will for a specific candidate or the race is too close to call during the campaign. Battlegrounds will attract more visits from the candidates in an attempt to rally support for one party. Extra money is

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likely to be spent on advertising and volunteers often swarm the area before voting day. Historical battlegrounds are Florida, Iowa and Ohio. Also referred to as purple states as they can neither be categorized as red or blue.

CaucusA caucus is a meeting organized by a political party to award the delegates of a particular state in the party’s nominating process. Each precinct of the caucus, which takes place in the stead of a primary, meets locally and reports the results to the state party. Caucuses sometimes require individuals to publicly announce their vote and the voting period is often preceded by speeches from representatives from each candidate’s campaign. Since 1972, Iowa has kicked off the presidential nominating process with its first-in-the-nation caucuses.

Closed primaryIn a closed primary, only those voters registered to the relevant political party can participate.ConventionBoth parties organize a national convention in which delegates officially cast their votes in accordance with the results of each state’s primary or caucus results. The event lasts several days and prominent members of the party address the delegates and assorted audience, with the party’s Vice Presidential and Presidential candidates making concluding speeches to accept their party’s nomination.

DelegateDelegates are chosen in each state with primaries and caucuses. Delegates then go to the party’s national convention to cast their votes, typically bound by the result of their state’s primary/caucus.

Electoral collegeThe body that formally elects the president. Made up of 538 electors, representing all 50 states, they are expected to follow the wishes of how their states vote and they typically do with a few exceptions. A candidate must win at least 270 votes to become president.

Non-binding primary

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Also known as a “beauty pageant” primary, non-binding designates a primary in which delegates are awarded at a state convention, and the distribution is not necessarily a reflection of how the state voted in its primary. Instead, the delegates at the state convention are free to vote how they choose.

Open primaryIn an open primary, any registered voter can cast a ballot, regardless of the party with which he is registered.

PacA political action committee is an organized group that raises money in order to support or defeat a candidate or issue in an election. Some PACs are associated directly with a campaign or politician, some are associated with a corporation or union and others completely independent. The rules and regulations that govern where a PAC’s money comes from and how much it can raise – there is a $2,500 donation limit – are strictly monitored by the Federal Election Commission. However, the fundraising landscape was fundamentally altered by the Citizens United Supreme Court decision in 2010, which paved the way for the creation of super-Pacs.

PrimaryA majority of states use a primary system to award their delegates. Primaries are operated by the state rather than a political party, and the results are calculated with standard private ballots, similar to general elections. After the Iowa caucuses, New Hampshire holds the nation’s first primary, followed by primaries in South Carolina and Florida.

Straw pollStraw polls are non-binding votes that simply serve as a precursor to an actual election, primary or caucus to give an indication of the current status of the race. Before Iowa, the media and campaigns alike have viewed the Ames Straw Poll as an important test of candidates’ viability. A September straw poll in Florida won by Herman Cain is widely credited with giving rise to the underdog candidate.

Super-Pac

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The citizens United Supreme Court decision loosened the restrictions on who can give how much to political action committees, giving rise to what has become known as “super-Pacs”. These groups can raise unlimited amounts of money from corporations, unions, trade groups and individuals, with very loose rules dictating how and which contributions must be disclosed. They are technically independent and cannot coordinate with a political candidate for office in any way, but can run advertisements for or against any candidate or issue. In reality, however, each candidate has a super-Pac that supports them and few voters can tell the difference between ads run by a candidate’s campaign and those by the super-Pac of its supporters. Many super-Pacs, such as Karl Rove’s American Crossroads, have created sister “charity” organizations to filter money through to further muddy the origins of their contributions.

SuperdelegateSuperdelegates are typically prominent members of a political party, such as elected officials or former office holders and party leaders, who are free to vote for whomever they want. Some of these unpledged delegates will choose to simply vote for whoever wins in his or her home state. Superdelegates have played a larger role in the Democratic nominating process, as they made up almost one fifth of the party’s total voting delegates in 2008.

Super TuesdayThe day in which the largest number of states hold their primary or caucus. This year’s “Super Tuesday” will take place on March 6th, with ten states and 526 Republican delegates (roughly half of those needed to clinch the nomination) at stake. This year, the states include: Alaska, Georgia, Idaho, Massachusetts, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Vermont and Virginia.

Bидео ресурсы:

1. Telegraph.co.ukVideo: US Election 2016 explained

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2. US election 2016: Primaries, caucuses and delegates15 February 2016 http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-35350890

3. you tube: Primary Elections Explained, What is Super Tuesday and Why is it important, How the Electoral College Works, The Trouble with the Electoral College

4. theguardian.com: What’s the deal with Super Tuesday? A super explainer – video

5. BBC: US Election 2016: What makes Super Tuesday so super?

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