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Merton

The Normative Structure of Science

**Which of Mertons four core values of the scientific ethos was most flagrantly abusedin the case of global warming we discussed on Tuesday? Would there be any way of

interpreting the case of global warming such that none of these values were violated?

**On 268, Merton distinguishes 4 senses of the term science. Which does he explore?

Which did the previous authors weve read explore? What is the relationship between

these different aspects of science?

**On 270, Merton discusses the goals, methods, and imperatives of science, concluding

that imperatives are binding not only because they are procedurally efficient, but

because they are believed right and good (270). What are the imperatives and why arethey not simply procedurally efficient?

**On 271, Merton says that Ethnocentrism is not compatible with universalism. I want

you to remember this quotation when we read Rorty and Harding in the coming weeks.

**On 275, Merton remarks that the communism of the scientific ethos is incompatiblewith the definition of technology as private property in a capitalistic economy. What is

the communism of the scientific ethos? Do you agree or disagree that it is at odds with

capitalisms conception of technology?

Intro/Science and Society

Merton notes that science used to have an aura of invincibility and thus did not have to

reflect upon its social status. More recently, however, anti-intellectualism has becomemore rampant, leading scientists to recognize their dependence on particular types of

social structure (267). In particular he cites scientists becoming aware of theirobligations and interests (268)

Merton disambiguates four senses of science:

(1) A set of characteristic methods by means of which knowledge is certified;(2) A stock of accumulated knowledge stemming from the application of these

methods;

(3) A set of cultural values and mors governing the activities termed scientific; and

(4) Any combination of the foregoing.Merton is concerned with item (3).

The Ethos of Science

Ethos of science: the affectively toned complex of values and norms which is held to be

binding on the man of science. The norms are expressed in the form of prescriptions,

proscriptions, preferences, and permissions. (268-9)

Thegoalof science is the extension of certified knowledge, which can be spelled out in

terms of its technical methods: empirically confirmed and logically consistent

statements of regularities (these are often predictions).

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The imperatives of science derive from the goal and the methods (e.g., Empirically

confirm statements of regularities, Be consistent, Seek knowledge, Certify knowledge,etc.) More precisely, Merton thinks that empirical methodology is a prerequisite for

sustained true prediction [and] logical consistency, a prerequisite for systematica and

valid prediction (270). These imperatives are binding not only because they areprocedurally efficient, but because they are believed right and good (270).

He then flags four institutional imperativesuniversalism, communism,disinterestedness, and organized skepticismas comprising the ethos of modern science

its core values.

Universalism

The acceptance or rejection of a scientific claim should not depend upon the personal or

social background of the person offering that claim.

However science is always situated within a larger society, which may opposeuniversalism. Ethnocentrism is not compatible with universalism (271) Here Merton

notes that even when violated the force of the norm is still evident.

Ex. In WWI, British, French, and German scholars charged each other with nationalistic

bias and a slew of other intellectual violations. In hindsight, we think this wasunscientific. The reason? Universalism. Without it, wed think they were being patriotic.

(271)

Universalism also mandates that careers be open to talents i.e., that science be ameritocracy. Since the goal of science is furthering our knowledge, and precluding

competent practitioners would impede this goal, access to scientific careers should

promote be based on competence alone. (272)

Universalism is also a (laissez-faire) democraticprinciple. As Merton writes,

Impersonal criteria of accomplishment and not fixation of status characterize the opendemocratic society. (273)

Communism

Established scientific knowledge should be accessible to all members of the scientificcommunity to use, explore, etc.

In other words, data and theories are not like cars, houses, etc.

If a law, theory, etc. is named after a person, this only bestows prestige upon the person

so named, usually because the law or theory is a significant contribution. Since this is theonly privilege of ownership of a theory, it becomes a prized possession. Merton notes

that originality and priority (who first came up with an idea) are accented because of

this.

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As a result communication of scientific results is prized and secrecy about them scorned.

Interestingly, Merton remarks that the communism of the scientific ethos isincompatible with the definition of technology as private property in a capitalistic

economy.

Disinterestedness

Scientific claims should not be put forth solely to further ones interests or advance ones

own agenda.

Merton first notes that disinterestedness is an institutional obligation, which should not

be confused with any individual motive. Scientists may have any number of individual

drives and desires (fame, curiosity, altruism, etc.) that motivate them. The institutionalcontrol of a wide range of these motives better characterizes what is central to science.

This explains why there is little fraud in science. Merton notes that this comes about

because scientists are well-policed by rigorous empirical tests performed by otherscientists (276)

Scientists also have a very different relationship to lay clientele than other professions.

When there is a stronger relationship between laypeople and scientists, incentives for

fraud and pseudoscience become more pressing.

Organized skepticism

Scientific claims should be evaluated by suspending judgment and scrutinizing claims in

terms of empirical and logical considerations alone.

This often puts science in conflict with other spheres of life, since those spheres often do

not suspend judgment and have fairly well entrenched commitments to certain ideas.