mendelian genetics
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Mendelian Genetics. Chapter 12, part 1. Gregor Mendel. Born in 1822 in Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic. Son of a tenant farmer; joined a monastery to get an education. Deeply interested in science, particularly heredity. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Mendelian GeneticsChapter 12, part 1
Gregor Mendel
• Born in 1822 in Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic.
• Son of a tenant farmer; joined a monastery to get an education.
• Deeply interested in science, particularly heredity.
• At the monastery in Brno, Moravia, Mendel received the support of Abbot Napp.
• From 1851-1855, studied at the University of Vienna, but did not receive a degree.
• What was understood at the time:
• Heredity appeared random and unpredictable.
• Many traits seemed to blend in the offspring, suggesting a liquid factor controlled heredity.
• Yet some traits, such as red hair, did not blend away.
• With Abbot Napp’s encouragement, Mendel studied heredity in peas, carefully choosing traits that did not appear to blend. Collected data from 1856 - 1865.
• Mendel’s creative contribution: he was the first to follow single traits from generation to generation instead of trying to document and follow every trait in the plants.
• Mendel presented his findings to the Association of Natural Research in Brno in 1865.
• Few people recognized the significance of Mendel’s research. His quantitative methods were uncommon at the time, and the “blending” theory was widely accepted.
• In 1868, Mendel became abbot of his monastery.
• His religious work left little time for research, which he set aside, though he was always convinced he had made a valuable contribution to science.
• Mendel died in 1884. Sixteen years later, in 1900, his work was rediscovered by Hugo de Vries and others looking for clues into the puzzle of heredity.
• Though criticized in some details, the main body of Mendel’s work still stands.
• A scientific law is an evidence-based description of a natural phenomenon in a given set of circumstances. (Theories are evidence based explanations of natural phenomena.)
• Mendel’s three Laws of Heredity describe what Mendel observed in patterns of inherited traits.
Mendel’s Laws
Three Laws of Heredity
• Law of Dominance
• Law of Segregation
• Law of Independent Assortment
• “Dominant” is one of those pesky words with multiple meanings that can interfere with our understanding of how it is used in science. First, list several meanings that you can think of for the word “dominant.”
• Now write out what you believe is meant by a “dominant” trait.
DAILY
WORK
Law of Dominance
• Traits are controlled by two factors that can be called “dominant” or “recessive.”
• A “dominant” trait shows if the offspring inherits at least one dominant factor from one parent.
• A “recessive” trait shows only if the offspring inherits two recessive factors, one from each parent.
Mendel’s Peas
• Mendel chose traits in peas that had an “either/or” condition: purple OR white blossoms, yellow OR green seeds, and so on.
Blauschokker peas, photo by Territorial Seed Company.
https://www.jbgorganic.com/blog/2009/03/two-meals-not-to-be-missed/
XIn this cross between two purple-flowered
pea plants, one-quarter of the offspring have
white flowers.
Based just on this information, which is dominant: white or
purple flowers? How do you know?
Hint: “Dominance” is not based on numbers of individuals with the trait. It is based on the number
of copies of the allele that must be inherited to show the trait.
The offspring of a purple-flowered pea plant and a white-flowered pea plant all have purple flowers.
The purple trait is dominant. Why?
true-breeding,purple-flowered
plant
First-generationoffspring (F1)
Parentalgeneration (P)
pollen
pollen
cross-fertilize
true-breeding,white-flowered
plant
RR rr
Rr
Offspring of the F1 generation (the hybrids) may be purple-flowered if they inherit at least one factor for
purple flowers, or may be white flowered if they inherit the white factor from both parents.
1/4 white
Second-generationoffspring (F2)
First-generationoffspring (F1)
3/4 purple
XRr Rr
RR Rr Rr rr
The purple-flowered trait is dominant because each an
individual who inherits at least one copy of the purple allele (R)
shows the purple phenotype.
The white-flowered trait is recessive because an individual must inherit two copies of the white
allele (r) to show the white phenotype.
genotypes:
phenotype
Same letter, different case =
same gene, different allele
RR or Rr
purple
rr
white
What is a “dominant” trait?
1 2 3 4
25% 25%25%25%1. A trait that is more
common than the recessive form.
2. A trait that is “stronger” or more adaptive than the recessive form.
3. A trait that is expressed if only one allele for that trait is inherited.
4. All of these are true.
True or false? A trait that is dominant will increase in the population, while recessive traits
decrease.
1 2
50%50%
1. True
2. False
True or false? A person can be a carrier for a dominant trait (that is, can have one allele but
not show the trait).
1 2
50%50%
1. True
2. False
Solving problems involving dominance
Dexter has freckles. So does his wife, Darla. Their son,
Derek has no freckles. Is having freckles a
dominant or a recessive trait?
Let’s start by making a family
tree:
Dexterfreckles
Darlafreckles
Derekno freckles
Notice that the parents have a trait
that is not seen in the child. Where did the
child get the allele for his phenotype?
This suggests that the child’s phenotype is recessive, and the parents are both
carriers (heterozygous).
Ff Ff
ff
• Fred and Wilma both have pointed (“widow’s peak”) hairlines. Their daughter, Pebbles, has a smooth hairline. Which is dominant: smooth or pointed hairline? How do you know?
• Penelope has small, attached earlobes. Armando has larger, free earlobes. All four of their children have large, free earlobes. Which is dominant: free or attached earlobes? How do you know?
DAILY
WORK
Pebbles has a smooth hairline. Bam-bam has a pointed hairline, but one of his parents has a
smooth hairline. If Pebbles and Bam-bam were to have kids, what are the odds that their child
would have a pointed hairline?
1 2 3 4
25% 25%25%25%
1. 100%
2. 75%
3. 50%
4. 25%
Law of Segregation
• Each individual has a pair of factors controlling each trait, one inherited from each biological parent.
• During the formation of gametes (sex cells) these two factors separate. Only one ends up in each sex cell.
gameteshomozygous parent
A A A A
In modern terms, the homozygous parents in the P generation can pass on one kind of allele to
their offspring.
Homologous chromosomes
gene
The heterozygous parents of the F1 generation have two alleles for the gene in question, and can
pass one or the other, but not both, to their offspring.
gametesheterozygous parent
A a A a
Homologous chromosomes
gene
The genotypes can be represented with letters, which symbolize the alleles: capital for dominant
alleles, small case for recessive.
all p sperm and eggs
all P sperm and eggs
purple parent
white parent
pp
PP P P
p p
+
+
When the gametes join to produce the F1 generation, all offspring of homozygous dominant
and homozygous recessive parents are heterozygous.
P p
p P
+
+
or
Pp
Pp
sperm eggs
F1
offspringgametes of parents
sperm eggs
F2
offspring
P
p
+ P
p
p p
+
+
+
P
P
Pp
Pp
PP
pp
gametes fromF1 plants (Pp)
The heterozygous F1 individuals can
put either a dominant OR a
recessive allele in each of their
gametes.
P
p
sper
m
eggsP
p
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/2
1/2
1/2 1/2
PP Pp
pP pp
Ppself-fertilize
A Punnet square is one way to predict the outcome of a cross by
showing all the possible combinations
of all the possible gametes.
Professor Reginald Punnett
Solving single-gene (monohybrid) crosses with Mendelian (dominant-recessive)
inheritance.Tomato fruit color can be red or yellow. a. A red tomato plant is crossed with a yellow tomato plant, and all the offspring have red tomatoes. Which trait is dominant?b. If two of the resulting hybrid red tomato plants are crossed, what will be the ratio of phenotypes in the offspring?
If all of the F1 offspring are red, then red must be the
dominant trait.
RR produces these gametes:
It’s probable that the genotypes of the parents
were RR (red) and rr (yellow).
rr produces
these gametes:
R
r Rr
All offspring are red and heterozygous
Solving single-gene (monohybrid) crosses with Mendelian (dominant-recessive)
inheritance.Tomato fruit color can be red or yellow. a. A red tomato plant is crossed with a yellow tomato plant, and all the offspring have red tomatoes. Which trait is dominant?b. If two of the resulting hybrid red tomato plants are crossed, what will be the ratio of phenotypes in the offspring?
All of the F1 offspring were red and had the genotype
Rr.An Rr parent can produce
these gametes:The other
Rr individual
it is crossed with can produse
these gametes.
R r
Rr
The offspring of this cross are:
R
r Rr
RR
rr
25% Yellow75% Red
A person is heterozygous (Aa) for Trait A. What alleles for that trait
can that person put in their gametes?
1 2 3 4
25% 25%25%25%
1. Aa
2. AA
3. Aa
4. A OR a
• Flat feet are caused by a recessive allele (f). Both Bert and his wife Betsy have normal feet, but their first child, Binky, has flat feet.
• What are the genotypes of Bert, Betsy, and Binky?
• What are the odds of Bert and Betsy’s next child having flat feet?
DAILY
WORK
• Prominent chin dimples are inherited by a dominant allele (D). Herman has a prominent chin dimple. So does his father, but not his mother. Herman’s wife, Honoria, has no chin dimple. What is the probability that Herman and Honoria’s first child will have a prominent chin dimple? How do you know?
DAILY
WORK
• Leslie has a long palmar muscle (third tendon in the middle of the wrist). Her twin brother Louis does not. Neither do their parents. Leslie’s husband, Lamont, has the long palmar muscle. So do their twin sons, Larry and Lance. Is the long palmar muscle dominant or recessive? How do you know? (It may help to make a family tree for this problem.)
DAILY
WORK
• When genetic factors segregate in the gametes, they segregate independently of one another. A dominant allele for one trait does not guarantee inheritance of a dominant allele for a different trait.
Law of Independent Assortment
Dominant form Recessive formTrait
Seedshape
Seedcolor
Podcolor
Podshape
Flowercolor
Flowerlocation
Plantsize
tall(1.8 to2 meters)
dwarf(0.2 to 0.4meters)
constricted
purple white
green
greenyellow
wrinkledsmooth
at leafjunctions
at tips ofbranches
inflated
yellow
All organisms have multiple inheritable traits
controlled by genes.
Each trait is inherited independently of the
others. A pea plant may, for example, have yellow
seeds (dominant) but white flowers (recessive).
meiosis II
meiosis I
pairs of alleles on homologouschromosomes in diploid cells
chromosomesreplicate
orienting like thisor like this
replicated homologuespair during metaphaseof meiosis I,
independent assortment produces four equallylikely allele combinations during meiosis
S
Y
s
y
S S
S
S
S
S
S S S S
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
YY YY
s s
s s s s
s
s
s
s
y
y
y
y
y
y
y y y y
Traits carried on separate
chromosomes sort independently of
one another during gamete formation.
Notice that each gamete receives ONE s-bearing and ONE y-bearing chromosome from the original
cell.
meiosis II
meiosis I
chromosomesreplicate
orienting like thisor like this
replicated homologuespair during metaphaseof meiosis I,
independent assortment produces four equallylikely allele combinations during meiosis
S
Y
s
y
S S
S
S
S
S
S S S S
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
YY YY
s s
s s s s
s
s
s
s
y
y
y
y
y
y
y y y y
Now consider this in terms of genotypes:
Genotype of this parent (for these two traits) is SsYy
Genotypes of the gametes that this
parent can produce are:
SY sy Sy sY
Meiosis puts ONE S-bearing and one Y-
bearing chromosome in each gamete.
SY
SY
sY
sY
Sy
Sy
sy
sy
SSYY SsYY
ssYY
ssyY
SsyY
SSYy SsYy
SsyySSyySSyY
sSYY
sSyY
sSYy ssYy
ssyysSyy
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
eggs
sper
m
SsYyself-fertilize
seed shape seed color phenotypic ratio(9:3:3:1)
3/4 3/4 9/16smooth yellow smooth yellow=
3/4 1/4 3/16smooth green smooth green=
1/4 3/4 3/16wrinkled yellow wrinkled yellow=
1/4 1/4 1/16wrinkled green wrinkled green=
This Punnet square shows a cross between
two pea plants which are heterozygous for two
traits.
Again, the Punnet square represents all
possible combinations of the gametes that the plants can donate to their offspring. They
must put one copy of a gene for each trait in
their gametes.
Solving dihybrid crosses with Mendelian (dominant-recessive) inheritance.
Pea plants can be tall (T) or short (t) and produce purple (R) or white (r) blossoms.a. A pure-breeding tall plant with purple flowers (TTRR) is crossed with a pure-breeding short plant with white flowers (ttrr). What will the offspring look like?b. If two of the hybrid (F1) plants are crossed, what offspring can they produce?
Begin with the parent’s genotypes. We will assume that the two traits are on different chromosomes.
A TTRR parent can produce
these gametes:
A ttrr parent can
produce these
gametes:
TR
The offspring of this cross are all tall with purple
flowers.
tr TtRr
Solving dihybrid crosses with Mendelian (dominant-recessive) inheritance.
Pea plants can be tall (T) or short (t) and produce purple (R) or white (r) blossoms.a. A pure-breeding tall plant with purple flowers (TTRR) is crossed with a pure-breeding short plant with white flowers (ttrr). What will the offspring look like?b. If two of the hybrid (F1) plants are crossed, what offspring can they produce?
The hybrid offspring all have the genotype TtRr
A TtRr parent can produce these
gametes:
The other TtRr
parent produces the same gametes:
TR trTr tR
TR
Tr
tR
tr
TTRRTTRrTtRRTtRr
TTrRTTrr TtTr TtrrTtRR TtRrttRR ttRr
TtRr Tttr ttRr ttrr
9 tall, purplePhenotypes in the F2
generation3 short, purple
3 tall, white
1 short, white
A person is heterozygous for Traits A and B (AaBb). What is ONE possible combination of those alleles that can go in the person’s
gametes?
1 2 3 4
0% 0%0%0%
1. AaBb
2. AABBaabb
3. AB
4. Aa
• A pea plant with purple (P) flowers and yellow (Y) seeds is crossed with a pea plant with white flowers (p) and green seeds (y). All of the plants in the next generation have purple flowers and yellow seeds. If two plants from this hybrid generation are crossed, what will their offspring look like? Do a dihybrid Punnet square to predict the outcome.
DAILY
WORK
• A gardener has a tall tall (T) pea plants with smooth (S) seeds. She crosses it with a plant that is also tall and with smooth seeds, BUT she knows this plant is the offspring between a pure-breeding tall plant with smooth seeds plant and a pure-breeding short plant with wrinkled seeds. What will the the results of the pure-breeding tall/smooth plant and the hybrid plant?
DAILY
WORK
• Mendel’s Laws were good descriptions of what he observed in the peas and other plants he worked with.
• New knowledge accumulated since Mendel’s time has refined his ideas. While his laws still hold true in some instances, there are many exceptions that we will explore in the next presentations.
Laws: “proven” forever?
Recap
• Genes may have multiple alleles, such as dominant and recessive alleles.
• Chromosomes, which carry genes, separate from one another during gamete formation.
• Chromosomes sort independently of one another during gamete formation, but each gamete gets ONE of each kind of chromosome.