Memory

The cognitive processes of encoding, storing, The cognitive processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving informationand retrieving information

�� Encoding Encoding –– getting it into the systemgetting it into the system

�� Storage Storage –– putting it somewhereputting it somewhere

�� Retrieval Retrieval –– what we usually think memory what we usually think memory isis

�� Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of recollection of an event or of an item of informationinformation

�� Measuring Explicit memoryMeasuring Explicit memory

��RecallRecall

��RecognitionRecognition��RecognitionRecognition

�� Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention in Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously previous experience or previously encountered information on current encountered information on current thoughts or actions thoughts or actions

Types of MemoryTypes of Memory

�� Sensory Memory Sensory Memory

�� Fleeting Impressions and Entryway of Fleeting Impressions and Entryway of MemoryMemory

Separate memory subsystems for each Separate memory subsystems for each �� Separate memory subsystems for each Separate memory subsystems for each sensesense

�� Iconic Memory Iconic Memory –– vision, millisecondvision, millisecond

��Echoic Memory Echoic Memory –– hearing, > secondhearing, > second

�� Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory

�� Sensory to Short Term (or lost!)Sensory to Short Term (or lost!)

�� Magic Number 7 (+/Magic Number 7 (+/-- 2) Phone number2) Phone number

�� “Working memory”“Working memory”

�� Transfers information to LTM or Transfers information to LTM or information decays and is lostinformation decays and is lostinformation decays and is lostinformation decays and is lost

�� Limited in capacity and durationLimited in capacity and duration

�� 3030 secondsseconds oror soso

��Chunking: A meaningful unit of Chunking: A meaningful unit of informationinformation

��Memory limitations may be Memory limitations may be overcome by chunkingovercome by chunking

��Grouping larger bits of information Grouping larger bits of information into smaller units (e.g., area code)into smaller units (e.g., area code)into smaller units (e.g., area code)into smaller units (e.g., area code)

�� What happens if we lose STM?What happens if we lose STM?

�� Forgetting in STMForgetting in STM

��DecayDecay

��Displacement (interference)Displacement (interference)

�� Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory

�� ShortShort--Term to LongTerm to Long--Term MemoryTerm Memory

�� RehearsalRehearsal

�� EncodingEncoding

�� Relatively PermanentRelatively Permanent

�� Duration and Capacity may be indefiniteDuration and Capacity may be indefinite�� Duration and Capacity may be indefiniteDuration and Capacity may be indefinite

�� Write down everything you knowWrite down everything you know

�� Semantic (memory for general Semantic (memory for general knowledge)knowledge)

�� Episodic (memory personal recollections Episodic (memory personal recollections and events)and events)

�� Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect

�� Memory is selective Memory is selective

�� Ways to increase memoryWays to increase memory

�� Effective EncodingEffective Encoding

�� Rehearsal of information keeps it in Rehearsal of information keeps it in shortshort--term memory and increases the term memory and increases the shortshort--term memory and increases the term memory and increases the chances of longchances of long--term retentionterm retention

�� MnemonicsMnemonics

��ROY G. BIVROY G. BIV

��HOMESHOMES

�� Failure of MemoryFailure of Memory

�� Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia

�� Cannot form new memoriesCannot form new memories

�� Retrograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia

�� Can remember old memoriesCan remember old memories

Dementia and Alzheimer’sDementia and Alzheimer’s�� Dementia and Alzheimer’sDementia and Alzheimer’s

�� Retroactive Interference (Inhibition)Retroactive Interference (Inhibition)

�� Cannot remember old infoCannot remember old info

�� Proactive Interference (Inhibition)Proactive Interference (Inhibition)

�� Cannot remember new infoCannot remember new info

Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

How do we develop?

� Cognitively

� Physically� Physically

� Socially

When do we stop developing?

Conception to death.

�� Nature versus Nurture/Hereditary versus Nature versus Nurture/Hereditary versus EnvironmentEnvironment

�� Which is most important?Which is most important?

�� Kellogg’s studyKellogg’s study

��Don and GuaDon and Gua

��Confounded variable?Confounded variable?Confounded variable?Confounded variable?

�� Feral Children studiesFeral Children studies

��Ability to talk, walk, act humanAbility to talk, walk, act human

��No way would be totally successful if No way would be totally successful if past the sensitive periods of time for past the sensitive periods of time for development.development.

��Confounded variable?Confounded variable?

�� Heredity gives us the “stuff” of Heredity gives us the “stuff” of developmentdevelopment

�� Environment brings the “stuff” outEnvironment brings the “stuff” out

�� Generally consider it to be 50%/50%Generally consider it to be 50%/50%

What if we had a particularly damaging What if we had a particularly damaging �� What if we had a particularly damaging What if we had a particularly damaging hereditary influence or environmental hereditary influence or environmental influence?influence?

�� Genes and behaviorGenes and behavior

�� PhenotypePhenotype

��Physical appearance based on Physical appearance based on genotypegenotype

��Let us assume a simple worldLet us assume a simple world

Dark and lightDark and light��Dark and lightDark and light

�� GenotypeGenotype

��Homozygous dominant BBHomozygous dominant BB

��Homozygous recessive bbHomozygous recessive bb

��Heterozygous BbHeterozygous Bb

Punnett SquaresPunnett Squares

�� What is the Phenotype if one parent is What is the Phenotype if one parent is Homozygous Dominant and one parent is Homozygous Dominant and one parent is Homozygous Recessive?Homozygous Recessive?

�� What are the chances that the child will exhibit What are the chances that the child will exhibit the recessive phenotype?the recessive phenotype?the recessive phenotype?the recessive phenotype?

�� What is the Phenotype if one parent is What is the Phenotype if one parent is Homozygous Recessive and one parent is Homozygous Recessive and one parent is Heterozygous?Heterozygous?

�� What are the chances that the child will exhibit What are the chances that the child will exhibit the recessive phenotype?the recessive phenotype?

�� Germinal Period Germinal Period

�� Fertilized egg (or zygote) divides Fertilized egg (or zygote) divides repeatedly into a mass of cells. repeatedly into a mass of cells.

�� First 2 weeks after conception. First 2 weeks after conception.

�� By 1 week after conception, the By 1 week after conception, the fertilized egg is composed of 100 to 150 fertilized egg is composed of 100 to 150 fertilized egg is composed of 100 to 150 fertilized egg is composed of 100 to 150

cells.cells.

�� Embryonic PeriodEmbryonic Period

�� 2 to 8 weeks after conception2 to 8 weeks after conception

�� Rate of cell differentiation intensifies, Rate of cell differentiation intensifies, with support systems and organs with support systems and organs beginning to form beginning to form

�� Takes on human form with eyes, ears. Takes on human form with eyes, ears. �� Takes on human form with eyes, ears. Takes on human form with eyes, ears.

�� Four versus eight weeksFour versus eight weeks

�� Fetal PeriodFetal Period

�� Growth and development continue Growth and development continue dramaticallydramatically

�� Three months after conception, the Three months after conception, the fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce about 1 ounce about 1 ounce about 1 ounce

�� 14 weeks, 16 weeks, birth14 weeks, 16 weeks, birth

�� DNADNA

�� Genetic informationGenetic information

�� Does not matter where the cell comes Does not matter where the cell comes fromfrom

�� Identical TwinsIdentical Twins

�� MonozygoticMonozygotic –– genetically the samegenetically the same�� MonozygoticMonozygotic –– genetically the samegenetically the same

�� Fraternal TwinsFraternal Twins

�� DizygoticDizygotic

�� What if eggs are fertilized at different What if eggs are fertilized at different times?times?

�� TrimestersTrimesters

�� TeratogensTeratogens

�� Greatest effects Greatest effects –– first trimesterfirst trimester

�� Amniocentesis Amniocentesis –– prenatal sampling of prenatal sampling of amniotic fluidamniotic fluid

�� Spontaneous abortionsSpontaneous abortions�� Spontaneous abortionsSpontaneous abortions

�� Usually due to a fatal genetic flawUsually due to a fatal genetic flaw

�� Critical (ONLY) versus Sensitive (BEST) Critical (ONLY) versus Sensitive (BEST) periodsperiods

Piaget and Cognitive Piaget and Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

�� Cognitive development consists of mental Cognitive development consists of mental adaptations to new observations and adaptations to new observations and experiences. (Cognitions=thoughts)experiences. (Cognitions=thoughts)

Schemes Schemes –– characteristic ways of characteristic ways of �� Schemes Schemes –– characteristic ways of characteristic ways of approaching or solving a problemapproaching or solving a problem

�� First schemes we have are reflexesFirst schemes we have are reflexes

�� Stages are Qualitatively DifferentStages are Qualitatively Different

�� Know the same but use it differentlyKnow the same but use it differently

�� Develop new and unique ways of Develop new and unique ways of thinking at each stagethinking at each stage

�� Adaptation takes two formsAdaptation takes two forms

�� AssimilationAssimilation--Absorbing new information Absorbing new information �� AssimilationAssimilation--Absorbing new information Absorbing new information into existing schemes or knowledge.into existing schemes or knowledge.

��Sucking a bottle or a glassSucking a bottle or a glass

��Dog = all animals are dogsDog = all animals are dogs

�� AccommodationAccommodation--Modifying existing Modifying existing schemes or knowledge in response to schemes or knowledge in response to experience and new information.experience and new information.

��Sucking to drinkingSucking to drinking

�� Sensorimotor BSensorimotor B--22

�� Uses senses and motor abilities to Uses senses and motor abilities to understand the world understand the world

�� Thinking is displayed by action onlyThinking is displayed by action only

�� 6 months6 months----object permanenceobject permanence

��No more “out of sight out of mind”No more “out of sight out of mind”��No more “out of sight out of mind”No more “out of sight out of mind”

�� 18 months18 months——insightinsight

�� Primitive cognitionsPrimitive cognitions

�� Preoperational 2Preoperational 2--77

�� Centration/EgocentrismCentration/Egocentrism

��Unable to take another perspectivesUnable to take another perspectives

��Trade a nickel for a dimeTrade a nickel for a dime

��BathBath

��Think symbolically to represent Think symbolically to represent environment and use a languageenvironment and use a language

�� “Your father is my husband.”“Your father is my husband.”

��Name of object becomes part of that Name of object becomes part of that objectobject

�� Concrete Operational 7Concrete Operational 7--1111

�� Conservation of number, mass, forms Conservation of number, mass, forms and weightand weight

�� Realization that objects or sets of objects Realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different.about or made to look different.

�� Clay and blocksClay and blocks�� Clay and blocksClay and blocks

�� DecentrationDecentration

�� Formal Operational 11 onwardFormal Operational 11 onward

�� Might be limited by area of expertiseMight be limited by area of expertise

�� Abstract reasoningAbstract reasoning

�� Hypothetical thought Hypothetical thought

�� Hypothesis testingHypothesis testing

�� Every possible logical alternative or Every possible logical alternative or systematic experimentationsystematic experimentationsystematic experimentationsystematic experimentation

��Words (three consecutive triple Words (three consecutive triple letters, consonants)letters, consonants)

��Snail and wellSnail and well

��Gold and aluminumGold and aluminum

��Two liquids and you get redTwo liquids and you get red

Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud

�� LibidoLibido--Psychic EnergyPsychic Energy

�� Same amount over lifeSame amount over life

�� FixationFixation--stagnationstagnation

OvergratificationOvergratification�� OvergratificationOvergratification

�� UndergratificationUndergratification

�� Oral Stage Oral Stage -- Sucking, chewingSucking, chewing

�� Anal Stage Anal Stage -- bladder retention/ bladder retention/ eliminationelimination

�� Phallic Stage Phallic Stage -- Oedipus / Electra complexOedipus / Electra complex

�� Latency Stage Latency Stage -- DormantDormant

�� Genital Stage Genital Stage -- Not a new stage Not a new stage per se per se �� Genital Stage Genital Stage -- Not a new stage Not a new stage per se per se

�� “Lieben und arbeiten” (“Lieben und arbeiten” (to love and to to love and to

work)work)

Harlow and Contact ComfortHarlow and Contact Comfort

�� Wire vs. TerryclothWire vs. Terrycloth�� When frightened When frightened will run to the cloth will run to the cloth will run to the cloth will run to the cloth surrogate for surrogate for security and security and comfortcomfort

�� Why importantWhy important

Motivation and EmotionMotivation and Emotion

�� Primary EmotionsPrimary Emotions

�� Considered to be fairly universal and Considered to be fairly universal and biologically based.biologically based.

�� Generally include: fear, anger, sadness, Generally include: fear, anger, sadness, �� Generally include: fear, anger, sadness, Generally include: fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust, and contempt.joy, surprise, disgust, and contempt.

�� Secondary EmotionsSecondary Emotions

�� All other emotions and blends of primary All other emotions and blends of primary emotions.emotions.

�� About the age of 6 months.About the age of 6 months.

DISGUST, SADNESS, ANGER, INTEREST, FEAR, SURPRISE, JOYDISGUST, SADNESS, ANGER, INTEREST, FEAR, SURPRISE, JOY

�� Schachter and SingerSchachter and Singer

�� Correctly or Incorrectly informed about Correctly or Incorrectly informed about the adrenaline.the adrenaline.

�� Label, interpreting, and cognitions.Label, interpreting, and cognitions.

MotivesMotives

�� A need or desire that energizes, sustains, A need or desire that energizes, sustains, and directs behavior toward a goal.and directs behavior toward a goal.

YerkesYerkes--Dodson Law of MotivationDodson Law of Motivation

�� HungerHunger

�� HypothalamusHypothalamus

��Lateral Lateral –– StartStart

��Ventromedial Ventromedial –– StopStop

�� Do we learn what we like to eat?Do we learn what we like to eat?

�� About 30 days without food.About 30 days without food.�� About 30 days without food.About 30 days without food.

�� ThirstThirst

�� OssmoreceptorsOssmoreceptors

��Cellular dehydrationCellular dehydration

�� Do we learn what we like to drink?Do we learn what we like to drink?

�� About 7 days.About 7 days.

�� Pain AvoidancePain Avoidance

�� BrainBrain

�� Most prepotentMost prepotent

�� Sex Humans versus AnimalsSex Humans versus Animals

�� Males versus FemalesMales versus Females

�� Androgens and EstrogensAndrogens and Estrogens

��Testosterone and ProgesteroneTestosterone and Progesterone

�� Primary versus Secondary Sexual Primary versus Secondary Sexual CharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristics

��Reproduce versus LearnedReproduce versus Learned

�� Prior to or After sexual maturityPrior to or After sexual maturity

��Severely disrupted versus No Severely disrupted versus No differencedifference

�� Psychological factors versus PhysicalPsychological factors versus Physical

�� Sexual peaksSexual peaks

��Males 19 females 35Males 19 females 35

�� Refractory periods in malesRefractory periods in males

�� Plateaus, resolution, and multiple in Plateaus, resolution, and multiple in womenwomenwomenwomen

��Fertile about 3 days a monthFertile about 3 days a month

�� The brain is our most important sex organ!The brain is our most important sex organ!

�� Half of 9Half of 9--1212thth graders in the US report graders in the US report having had sexual intercoursehaving had sexual intercourse

�� STDsSTDs

�� BacterialBacterial

��Chlamydia (most common STD), Chlamydia (most common STD), syphilis, gonorrhea.syphilis, gonorrhea.

��AntibioticsAntibiotics

��Can get through oral contact.Can get through oral contact.��Can get through oral contact.Can get through oral contact.

��Can cause sterility and even death if Can cause sterility and even death if not treated properly.not treated properly.

��SymptomsSymptoms

��Discharge, pain when urinating.Discharge, pain when urinating.

��At times can be asymptomatic.At times can be asymptomatic.

�� ViralViral

��Difference between HIV and AIDSDifference between HIV and AIDS

��Cannot test, do not know and Cannot test, do not know and highly infectious first four months.highly infectious first four months.

��Women 20 times more likely to get.Women 20 times more likely to get.

��High risk times and groupsHigh risk times and groups

South AfricaSouth Africa��South AfricaSouth Africa

��Can get through oral contact.Can get through oral contact.

��Genital Herpes Genital Herpes –– never get rid ofnever get rid of

��20% of the population.20% of the population.

��Can get through oral contact.Can get through oral contact.

�� Only known way to avoid STDsOnly known way to avoid STDs

�� Abstinence.Abstinence.

�� STDs can cause death.STDs can cause death.

�� One in four women reported that a man One in four women reported that a man (usually a husband or boyfriend) had (usually a husband or boyfriend) had forced them to do something sexually that forced them to do something sexually that they did not want to.they did not want to.

�� Only 3% of men reported they had ever Only 3% of men reported they had ever forced a women into a sexual act.forced a women into a sexual act.forced a women into a sexual act.forced a women into a sexual act.

�� How do you explain these findings?How do you explain these findings?

��What many women regard as coercion What many women regard as coercion is not always seen as coercive by men.is not always seen as coercive by men.

�� Statistics and rape.Statistics and rape.

�� Reasons people rape.Reasons people rape.

Psychological ConcernsPsychological Concerns�� Gender Identity DisordersGender Identity Disorders

�� TranssexualismTranssexualism

�� Genetic sex in conflict with physical or Genetic sex in conflict with physical or wantwant

Sexual reassignmentsSexual reassignments�� Sexual reassignmentsSexual reassignments

��Female to male better chance to Female to male better chance to conceiveconceive

��Transvestites? No Transvestites? No –– 0% chance0% chance

��Transvestite Transvestite –– Arousal by cross Arousal by cross dressingdressing

�� Psychological MotivesPsychological Motives

�� Pretty much totally learnedPretty much totally learned

��PowerPower

�� Social MotivesSocial Motives

Have both learned and unlearned factorsHave both learned and unlearned factors�� Have both learned and unlearned factorsHave both learned and unlearned factors

��Curiosity, ManipulationCuriosity, Manipulation