Memory Memory the capacity for storing and retrieving

information.

Every thought in life is dependent on our memory…from how we walk, talk to recognising a logo.

Cognitive Psychology: memory is a very important element

3 Memory Processes

Encoding

• mentally processing information so it can be entered into memory

Storage

• holding that information for a period of time

Retrieval

• accessing or recalling stored memories when needed

Encoding Processing information into memory

Process we use to transform information so that it can be stores

Transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing memory, an image, or a sound

Encoding Encoding occurs when information is translated into a

form that can be processed mentally. “a special way of paying attention to ongoing events” so that

this information can be placed into the memory system

Some types of information is automatically encoded without being aware of it. Eg: most people probably can recall what they ate for dinner

yesterday, even though they didn’t try to remember this information.

However, other types of information become encoded only if people pay attention to it.

Types of Encoding1. Structural encoding

2. Phonemic encoding

3. Semantic encoding

Structural encoding focuses on what words look like.

focus on appearance of an object

translating visual information into a physical structure

eg: one might note whether words are long or short, in uppercase or lowercase, or handwritten or typed.

Phonemic encoding focuses on how words sound.

translating visual input of written words into sounds

how the words sound or rhyme

How the cow mooed in the barn

Semantic encoding focuses on the meaning of words.

translating visual input of written words into their meaning

requires a deeper level of processing than structural or phonemic encoding

results in better memory

Types of Memory1. Sensory memory

2. Short term memory/ Working Memory

3. Long term memory

Sensory Memory Shortest term element of memory

Stimuli received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch

An ultra-short-term memory and decays or degrades very quickly

Holds the image accurately for a brief period of time

Holds the memory for milliseconds to seconds

Sensory Memory Provides continuity in our experience & giving us an

instant to decide whether to pay attention.

Iconic memory – visual sensory memory

Echoic memory – auditory sensory memory

Haptic memory - touch sensory memory

Sensory Memory Upper limit of sensory memory is approximately 12

items,

Sensory memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal

Essential step for storing information in STM

Ability to look at something and remember what it looked like with just milliseconds to seconds of observation is an example of sensory memory.

Automatic Encoding vs Effortful Encoding Sensory input is not sufficient – must attend to &

process that input to get it into memory

Some encoding occurs automatically, effortlessly-

Personal experiences

Information of high interest

Some types of basic learning (conditioning, motor learning)

Much encoding, however, is effortful; it requires special thought and practice

Rehearsal We usually use maintenance rehearsal (repeating things

over & over) to hold information in STM

Disrupting rehearsal will interfere with the STM

Maintenance rehearsal is not terribly effective for encoding LTMs.

Elaborative rehearsal (organizing, thinking about, and linking new material to existing memories) is more effective.

The more associations we build, the more cues we’ll have for retrieval.

The more deeply you process info, the better your recall

Short Term Memory (STM) Holds information we are actively thinking about

the information in our sensory memory is transferred to our consciousness or our awareness

Information will quickly disappear forever unless we make a conscious effort to retain it

Is the impression that new information makes on the mind

Limited in capacity - 7 items

Short Term Memory (STM) Duration < a minute ( 30 seconds unless actively

rehearsing)

Lasts for only a very short time before fading forever

The direct pathway to the mind

We only remember things that grab our attention and get processed in working memory and not all the stimuli we receive

“Working Memory” is the process that takes place when we continually focus on material for longer than STM alone will allow

Short Term Memory (STM) Displacement of information: old information is pushed

out to create space for new information.

Eg: when you hear an address when the city is said you may forget the number of the premises

We can further sharpen our short term memory skills, however, by mastering chunking and using rehearsal -which allows us to visualize, hear, say, or even see the information repeatedly and through different senses.

Chunking is the organization of material into shorter meaningful groups to make them more manageable. When we have to remember a new phone number without the

help of pen and paper, we are using our working memory.

phone number, split into groups of 3 or 4 digits, tends to be easier to remember than a single long number

STM The central executive part of the prefrontal cortex at the

front of the brain play a fundamental role in short-term and working memory. temporarily hold data until it is erased by the next job. damage to the prefrontal cortex in primates caused short-

term memory deficits.

Example of STM the beginning of the sentence needs to be held in mind while

the rest is read. “carrying over” a number in a subtraction sum remembering a persuasive argument until another person

finishes talking

Reasons why STM is stored Primary Effect

information occurring first remembered better than information occurring later.

when given a list of words or numbers, the first word or number is usually remembered due to rehearsing this more than other information.

Recency Effect last bit of information is remembered better because not as

much time has past; which results in forgetting.

Distinctiveness outstanding/distinctive information is remembered better.

Reasons why STM is stored Frequency effect

rehearsal, results in better memory. the more rehearsed can be remembered better.

Associations when we associate or attach information to other familiar

information it is easier to remember. eg: acronyms.

Reconstruction we will make up the missing parts in our memory, often

without any realization that this is occurring.

Long Term Memory Items encoded into LTM are held almost

permanently

Virtually unlimited capacity

We have a very large storing capacity, majority of us don’t use a fraction of it

Categories of Long-Term Memories

Categories of Long-Term Memories Declarative memory –

memories because we can recollect & talk about them memories of facts, life events, and information about our

environment are stored in

1. Semantic memory• factual knowledge (meaning of words, concepts,

and our ability to do math)• information

2. Episodic memory memories for events and situations Life experiences

Categories of Long-Term Memories Non declarative (or implicit) memory can’t consciously recollect and talk about the changes

that went on in our body

Procedural Memories (how to do things and memories established through conditioning)

These are memories we have stored due to extensive practice, conditioning, or habits. Riding the bike

Playing the guitar

LMT Declarative memories

Encoded by the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex and perirhinalcortex (all within the medial temporal lobe of the brain),

Consolidated and stored in the temporal cortex and elsewhere.

Procedural memories Do not appear to involve the hippocampus

at all

Encoded and stored by the cerebellum,

putamen, caudate nucleus and the

motor cortex, all of which are involved in

motor control.

3 Types of Amnesia Retrograde amnesia

Head trauma or other temporary disruption of normal brain functioning interrupts storage of memories of events just BEFORE the trauma

Anterograde amnesia

Damage to memory system impairs ability to store new memories AFTER the damage

Anterograde AmnesiaExample.

Person suffered serious seizures in his hippocampus/temporal lobe cortex

This region was removed in the 60’s to try to control his seizures (and it did)

After the removal, he was unable to store new declarative (episodic and semantic memories), but still had his old long-term memories

This is called anterograde amnesia

But he DID learn new motor skills (procedural memories) so these are probably handled by another part of the brain

Memory Areas of Brain Hippocampus

transferring episodic &

semantic memories into LTM

Cerebral cortex STM and also final storage place for visual, auditory, tactile,

verbal memories

Amygdala emotional aspects of memory; emotional memories

hormonally enhanced

Cerebellum nondeclarative memories (procedural memories,

conditioning memories)

Some Reasons for “Forgetting”1) Encoding failure (didn’t pay attention)

2) Encoded but not stored (“went in one ear and out the other”)

3) Insufficient cues to retrieve stored memory

Remember trying to recall the state capitols?

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

More Reasons for “Forgetting”4) Cue Confusion or Interference – cues for different

memories may be too similar so wrong memory gets retrieved

Proactive interference

Older memories interfere with new memory recall

Retroactive interference

Newer memories interfere with old memory recall

More Reasons for “Forgetting”5) Because context cues change

“State dependent” memory

Your surroundings, mood and physical state during learning can be cues that aid recall.

Recall is best when

a. context

b. mood

c. physical state

are the same as when the memory was originally formed.

Nature of Memory Subject to change - not a fixed permanent record

Reconstructed in pieces during recall

Depends on our attention, expectations, past experiences, how we’re questioned

Since memory is malleable, always question its accuracy.

Accuracy of memory is only weakly correlated with confidence – can be very confident and still be wrong

Improve Your Memory

Study repeatedly; aim for “overlearning”

Don’t rely on mindless re-reading as a rehearsal technique; do something elaborative

Actively work with, think about, and be sure you understand the meaning of material

Organize material (outlines, lists of characteristics, parallel comparisons, diagram, etc)

Improve Your Memory Test yourself & study your mistakes

Avoid or limit interference

Remember that context and personal state can be memory cues (“state-dependent” learning)

Test your recall (write down things from memory) as well as recognition (multiple choice practice questions)

Dementia It is not a specific disease

Damage to the brain cells

The name for a group of symptoms caused by disorders that affect the brain.

Makes it hard for people to remember, learn and communicate

People may not be able to think well enough to do normal activities Eg: getting dressed or eating.

Dementia

Problem with dementia memory loss

thinking speed

mental agility

language

understanding

judgment

Dementia causes serious problems with two or more brain functions

Eg: memory and language.

Dementia Common in very elderly people, but is not part of normal aging. Make it hard for people who have dementia to care for themselves

Early on, lapses in memory and clear thinking may bother the person who has dementia.

Later, disruptive behavior and other problems can create a burden for caregivers and other family members.

Causes of dementia Alzheimers disease Stroke Head injury Brain tumor

Drugs are available to treat some of these diseases. Drugs are not curable but may improve symptoms or slow down the

disease.

Symptoms of Dementia Recent memory loss.

often forget things, but they never remember them ask you the same question over and over, each time forgetting that

you've already given them the answer won't even remember that they already asked the question.

Difficulty performing familiar tasks. might cook a meal but forget to serve it might even forget that they cooked it.

Problems with language may forget simple words or use the wrong words makes it hard to understand what they want.

Time and place disorientation may get lost on their own street may forget how they got to a certain place and how to get back home.

Symptoms of Dementia Poor judgment

can forget simple things, like forgetting to put on a coat before going out in cold weather.

Problems with abstract thinking. may forget what the numbers are and what has to be done with a cheque

book. Misplacing things.

may put things in the wrong places. Eg: might put an iron in the freezer or a wristwatch in the sugar bowl. can't find these things later.

Changes in mood. may have fast mood swings, going from calm to tears to anger in a few

minutes. Personality changes

may have drastic changes in personality. might become irritable, suspicious or fearful.

Loss of initiative. may become passive. might not want to go places or see other people

Human Emotions We experience happiness when we get a raise at work

Surprise when we bump into an old classmate

Disgust when we smell something rotten

Fear when we see a nightmare.

Human emotions help us cope with everyday life

Allows us to communicate our feelings

Human Emotions All other emotions are varieties of basic emotions.

Each emotion is characterized by physiological and behavioral qualities

Movement

Posture

Voice

Facial expression

Pulse rate fluctuation

Human Emotions Happiness

Fear

Anger

Sadness

Disgust

Surprise

Jealousy

Grief

Happiness

Positive Reaction to feelings ranging from satisfaction to extreme joy.

Opposite of sadness

Most people strive to achieve

Happiness is linked to a variety of determinants like life expectancy, socioeconomic status, marital status, spirituality, and health

Anger Reaction to aversion

Expresses dislike or opposition toward a person or thing, the cause of aversion.

Uncontrolled anger can cause social and personal problemsdisplayed through sudden and overt aggressive acts

Uncontrollable anger lead to losing the capacity for making sound judgment and acting responsibly

Anger Destructive anger:

Extreme anger

Anger kept within

Three categories.

Instinctual reaction to being trapped or hurt.

Reaction to the perception of being intentionally harmed or mistreated by others.

Irritability, reflects an individual's personal character traits.

Fear Reaction to danger

Reaction to an actual and specific source of danger

A survival mechanism

Related to an apprehension toward pain

Severe fear is a reaction to dreadful approaching danger

Trivial fear occurs as a result of a confrontation that does not pose a significant threat.

Fear The degrees of fear vary from slight caution to

paranoia.

Trembling and tightening of the muscles

Fear can affect the unconscious mind through nightmares.

Fear can be taught : children can be conditioned to fear certain things

Accidents ignite fears : near drowning situation can cause fear of water

Sadness Reaction to loss or undesirable conditions

Expresses a state of loss and difficulty

Opposite of happiness.

Sad people are less talkative, less enthusiastic, and less interactive.

Sadness causes slow processing of information.

Sadness Sad people, in turn, base their opinions on their

moods; see negativity in the people and world around them

Is a short period of feeling down.

Depression, however, can last for years and can disrupt many aspects of daily life.

Sadness tightens the throat and relaxes the limbs

Disgust Revolting reaction Reaction to things considered dirty, revolting, contagious,

contaminated, and inedible. Associated with a distinct facial expression and a drop in

heart rate Disgust evolved into a common response to tasting,

smelling, touching, seeing, and imagining unfavorable objects

Examples of disgusting things: Waste products, decomposing flesh, and insects

Instinctual or socially taught Two types

Physical disgust Moral disgust

Surprise Reaction to un-expectations

Unanticipated situation

Sudden and involuntary surprise usually lasts a fraction of a second

Can be a positive, neutral or negative experience.

Characteristic facial expression of surprise; raising of the eyebrows. Eyelids open wide, forehead wrinkles, jaw

Expression of surprise is usually followed by another emotion, like fear or happiness,

Jealousy Jealous as ‘feeling or showing resentment towards a

person one thinks of as a rival’

It is the belief in the presence of rivalry that is the key issue, and that whether or not such a rivalry truly exists is less important.

Pathological/ Morbid Jealousy Morbid jealousy describes a range of irrational

thoughts and emotions, together with associated unacceptable or extreme behaviour, in which the dominant theme is a preoccupation with a partner’s sexual unfaithfulness based on unfounded evidence

Grief Deep and poignant distress caused by or as if by

bereavement

A cause of such suffering

A reaction to a major loss

Unhappy and painful emotion

A normal grief reaction resolves in a few weeks or months

Emotional Experiences of Grief Denial, disbelief, numbness

Anger, blaming others

Bargaining (for instance "If I am cured of this cirrhosis, I will never drink alcohol again.")

Depressed mood, sadness, and crying

Acceptance, coming to terms

Other Experiences of Grief Eating problems may arise, manifested as significant

weight loss or gain

Difficulty in concentrating, making decisions or remembering things

Self-destructive behaviors can arise

drinking heavily

drug use

even suicidal thoughts or actions.

Symptoms of Grief Psychological symptoms

Sadness Anguish Feelings of discomfort Guilt Anger.

Depressive symptoms Hopelessness Helplessness Worthlessness Restlessness

Somatic symptoms Shortness of breath Restlessness Abdominal discomfort Muscular weakness Exhaustion Lethargy pain, headaches Fatigue Insomia

increased irritability or anxiety

Components of Emotions Feeling - the passion or sensation of emotion

State of mind during anger is different from that when one is happy

Components of Emotions Behaviors performed and observed in conjunction

with an emotion(Skeletal Muscles).

Two types

Gross behaviors of the body effected by the skeletal muscles

So-called emotion expressions

Components of Emotions Internal bodily changes (smooth muscles and glands)

Chemicals secreted by glands are activated during emotion and spread to other parts of the body.

Examples constriction or dilation of the iris of the eye piloerection sweating flushing of the skin heart rate stomach activity saliva production

Components of Emotions• Ideation, imagery, and thoughts occur during emotion

• Cognitive activities

• Example

thinking about a loss of friend may cause sadness, which may in turn evoke memories of lost pet

Components of Emotions Neural processes

How the neurons and their emotional concomitants are organized centrally in the brain

Defense Mechanisms Response to having a nerve struck

Psychologically healthy or maladaptive

Tension reduction is the overall goal

Kicks in when we perceive ourselves threatened

Come in all ways shapes and forms, and they look like our personality

Tension reduction to reduce feelings of anxiety

Defense Mechanisms All Defense Mechanisms share two common

properties

They can operate unconsciously

They can distort, transform, or falsify reality is some way

The changing of perceived reality allows for a lessening of anxiety, reducing the psychological tension felt by an individual

Examples of Defense Mechanisms Need to be right

Need to be accepting

Be meek or mild

Yelling

Walking out

Slamming doors

Types of Defense Mechanisms Repression (defensiveness)

Denial

Projection

Rationalization

Intellectualization

Regression

Displacement

Repression (defensiveness) The most basic defense mechanism

Is most commonly unconscious

Advantages : Can prevent inappropriate impulses from becoming behaviors.

Can prevent unpleasant thoughts from becoming conscious

Can prevent memories of things we have done wrong from resurfacing.

Partial memories where only the single piece of damaging information is "forgotten" is common.

What an individual represses depends upon cultural expectations and the particular development of an individuals super-ego.

Denial Severe form of memory repression

Denies that the threatening event even took place

Examples In war, a mother receives word that her Son has been killed,

and yet refuses to believe it, still setting the table for him, keeping his room and clothes current.

At school, a student seeing a grade of "C" next to their name, and automatically assuming the professor made a grading error.

Alcoholics and other Substance Abusers who refuse to admit they have a problem, despite it being very apparent to everyone around them.

Projection Attributing your own repressed thoughts to someone else

(Reduce anxiety by claiming another person actually has the unpleasant thoughts that you are thinking)

Example When upbringing say that you should be nice to people, it is in your

super ego. You don’t like a particular person this thought will give rise to moral anxiety in terms of guilt feelings,

because this conscious thought goes against the moral prohibitions of your super ego.

Rather than the anxiety provoking thought of" I do not like this person“, defense mechanism allows for the non-anxiety provoking thought "This person does not like me "

Rationalization

Logical reasoning for inexcusable actions

Example

Fail to get into law school

Possible Rationalization : I didn't want to pursue that career, anyways.

Helps to protect our sense of self-esteem

Intellectualization Thinking about events in cold, hard, rational terms.

Separating f from the emotional content

Focusing instead on the facts.

Protects against anxiety by repressing the emotions connected with an event

Example wife who learns her husband is dying tries to learn all she can about

the disease, prognosis, treatment options. By doing this she can help repress the emotional onslaught of feelings of loss and anger which can accompany the death of a loved one.

Regression Occur when faced with high levels of stress in their life

Giving up of mature problem solving methods in favor of child like approaches to fixing problems

Recapture some childhood satisfaction.

Displacement Shifting of intended targets, especially when the initial

target is threatening

The classic use of displacement is in the understanding of displaced aggression.

Wants to hit the boss fro the demotion, but due to pay rises etc holds back, but takes it out on the wife

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