memory i: basic findings
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Memory I: Basic Findings. October 27, 2011. Major Historical Landmarks. Basic Phenomena Hermann Ebbinghaus ’ “ Uber das Gedächtniss ” (1885): first major treatise on empirical study of memory Bartlett (1932): role of schemas in memory recall Modal Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Memory I: Basic Findings
October 27, 2011
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Major Historical Landmarks• Basic Phenomena
– Hermann Ebbinghaus’ “Uber das Gedächtniss” (1885): first major treatise on empirical study of memory
– Bartlett (1932): role of schemas in memory recall– Modal Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)– Early work on STM: Sternberg’ search processes, Murdock’s
forgetting functions, Wickens’ release from PI– Organizational processes in memory: Mandler, Tulving,
Neisser• Processing Accounts
– Levels of Processing: Craik & Lockhart (1972)– Encoding-specificity Principle: (Tulving & Thomson, 1973)
corres-pondence of processes at encoding and retrieval is important
– Working Memory: Baddeley & Hitch (1974)– Mnemonics including imagery: (Paivio, Bower)
• Multiple System Views– Episodic v. Semantic Memory: (Tulving)– Implicit vs. Explicit Memory: (Schacter, cast of thousands)– Structure of Semantic Memory: (Collins & Quillian)
• Contributions from Neuropsychology: (Milner, Squire, Cermak,
Butters, Warrington, Weiskrantz, etc.)
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Structures vs. Processes• Structures: localized components
of memory system (e.g., stores, scratchpads)– iconic, echoic store– short-term memory, long-term
memory• Processes: activities comprising
the “work” of memory (e.g., semantic vs. phonological encoding, retrieval)
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Key Distinctions• Time
– Immediate vs. recent vs. remote memory• Mode of Consciousness/Content
– Episodic (autobiographical) vs. semantic memory– Declarative vs. nondeclarative knowledge
• Mode of Retrieval – Explicit vs. implicit retrieval (e.g., “remember” v.
“know”• Tasks (NOT processes!)
– Recall vs. recognition – Direct vs. indirect memory
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Types of Memory
(semantic) (episodic)
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Direct Memory Measures• Recall of facts or events
– serial recall: recall in the same order as learned
– free recall: recall in any order– cued recall: given some cue to stimulate
retrieval• Recognition
– multiple choice– yes-no– free-field
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Indirect Memory Measures• Measures of facilitated responding
(priming)– Lexical decision– Reading time– Fragmented picture identification
• Measures of skill learning– Motor– Conceptual (0,1,1,2,3,5,8….)
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The Modal Model
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
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Sensory (Iconic) Store - Sperling
• Highly accurate, rapidly decaying buffer• Contains more information than we
normally report on, but lost quickly• Paradigm: present 12 letters (50ms),
provide cue either before or at some point after the letter array is presented
H X N RP L T WY S C F
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Proposed duration of sensory memory = 0.5s
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Proposed Properties of STS• Limited Capacity
– Miller’s “magic number 7+2”– Measured by digit span, recency measures
• Coding – material-specific– acoustic– visual
• Forgetting from STS– Decay (passive)– Interference (active)
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Waugh & Norman (1965)
Primary Memory (STM)
Secondary Memory (LTM)
Forgotten
RehearsalStimulus
Digit Probe Task7 9 5 1 2 9 3 8 0 4 6 3 7 6 0 2[tone]
Answer: “9”
“What # followed last # initially?”
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Waugh & Norman (1965) Digit Probe Task results
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Counting backward selectively impairs the recency effect. Adapted from Glanzer and Cunitz (1966).
STM?
LTM?
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Forgetting over time in short-term memory Data from Peterson and Peterson (1959)
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Learn A Learn B Recall B
Learn A Learn B Recall A
Proactive Interference: A, learned first, interferes proactively with B
Retroactive Interference: B, learned second, interferes retroactively with A
……
……
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Wickens (1972) Release from PI
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Evaluation of Modal Model• Most assumptions are incorrect or
can account for only a part of the data
• Can’t account for patients with intact LTM with impaired STM
• Oversimplified• Overemphasizes rehearsal, de-
emphasizes interference and cue-dependent retrieval (later)
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Forgetting from LTM• Mechanisms
– Poor encoding• Levels of processing account
– Interference– Decay– Poor retrieval (cue-dependent forgetting)
• Key phenomena– Encoding specificity– Retrieval-induced forgetting (automatic?)– Directed forgetting (voluntary?)
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Theories of Forgetting• Decay (trace dependent forgetting)• Interference• Cue-dependent forgetting
(encoding specificity)– Selective rehearsal– Inhibition/suppression
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Inhibition/suppression:Cued recall as a
function of the number of times the cues had been presented before
for recall (respond condition) or for
suppression (suppress condition).
Data from Andersonand Green (2001).
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Processes of Long-Term Memory:Encoding-Consolidation-Retrieval
Encoding• Takes place at learning
• Encoding I: effective information-processing
• Encoding II: using products of Encoding I for memory
Consolidation• Takes place in
delay period• Passive or
active?
Retrieval• Takes place at
memory test• Cue-dependency –
dependent on nature of encoding
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Encoding• Encoding I: bringing information
processing to bear on TBR information
• Encoding II: utilizing the fruits of Encoding I as a means for transferring information from STM to LTM
• Examples: elaborative rehearsal, semantic association, imagery, other strategies
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Levels of Processing Account (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
• Emphasizes encoding processes• Key claims (some seem ‘commonsense’ today:
– memory is byproduct of cognitive processes engaged during learning
– “Levels” of depth defined in terms of meaningfulness rather than on number of operations
– Rehearsal can help modify LOP• important for maintaining information at a given
level of analysis• important for elaborating or processing info to a
deeper level– Craik & Tulving (case, rhyme, semantic levels)
• Maintenance: repeating previous analyses• Elaboration: deeper, more semantic analysis
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Perc
ent
corr
ect
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RT
(mill
isec
onds
)
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LOP and Processing time• In Craik & Tulving’s
previous experiment, ‘deeper’ levels took more time (longer RT)
• Is the effect due to processing time?
• Exp 5: Structural (note pattern of consonants, make a word [e.g., ccvvc=brain] vs. semantic (sentence verification)
00.20.40.60.8
11.21.41.61.8
Time Recog
StructuralSemantic
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Problems with LOP interpretation• No independent measure of “depth”• “Deeper” isn’t always “better”: Morris,
Bransford, & Franks (1977)
TEST TYPE Standard Rhyme
Semantic Encoding .83 .31 Rhyme Encoding .62 .49
• Conclusion: memory performance not just a function of depth, but depends on the match between processes engaged at encoding and those engaged at test
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Gives rise to an entire framework of memory research: Transfer Appropriate Processing (Roediger, Blaxton, McDermott)
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Evidence for Encoding Specificity Principle
• Mean word recall as a function of input cues (strong or weak) and output cues (strong or weak). Data from Thomson and Tulving (1970).
Strong = strongly associated
Weak = weakly associated
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Original learning, total free recall, and total free cued recall as a function of the number of lists presented after learning. Data from Tulving and Psotka (1971).
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Mood-state-dependent Memory
• Free and cued recall as a function of mood state (happy or sad) at learning and at recall. Based on data in Kenealy (1997). Effect present for free recall but not cued recall. Shows that mood state effects memory particularly when no other powerful retrieval cues are available.
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Context Dependent Memory
• (a) Recall in the same vs. different contexts, data from Godden and Baddeley (1975); (b) Recognition in the same vs. different contexts. Data from Godden and Baddeley (1980).
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Storage/Consolidation• Consolidation: process by which information is
integrated into stored information• Thought to be dependent on hippocampal-
cortical interactions• Controversial: Can take place quickly or over
many years (“fast” and “slow” consolidation)• Consolidation and retrograde amnesia• How do you explain “shrinking retrograde
amnesia”?
traumaRA at 2 weeks RA at 6 months TIME
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Retrieval• Processes active during memory test• Recapitulates processes at encoding• Cue-dependency• Explicit v. Implicit modes
– Recollection v. familiarity– Remember v. know
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They used to call it “short-term memory”, but that’s so
not cool now.
Who invented “working memory”?
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Alan Baddeley
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Miller, G. A., Galanter, E. & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
G.A. Miller
E. Galanter
K.H. Pribram
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Working Memory • A system which keeps a representation
of information active and “on line” for immediate future use (short-term memory)
• Involves the “temporary storage and manipulation of information that is assumed to be necessary for a wide range of cognitive functions” (Baddeley)
• Involves storage or manipulation• Domain specific or general? (e.g., verbal
vs. nonverbal; maintenance v. manipulation)
• Clarity inversely proportional to the number of studies conducted on it
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CognitivePsychology
Single-cell electrophysiology
Functional Neuroimaging
Cognitive Neuropsychology
WorkingMemory
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Clinical Techniques and Methods
• Verbal– Memory Span (digits, consonants,
words)– Free Recall– Short-term forgetting
(Peterson/Peterson)– Memory Probe Techniques– Prose Recall
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Experimental Techniques and Methods
• Spatial delayed response• Oculomotor delayed response• Delayed matching-to-sample• Attentional set-shifting• N-back
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Baddeley’s Original Model
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Phonological Loop – Key Effects
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Immediate word recall as a function of modality of presentation (visual vs. auditory), presence vs. absence
of articulatory suppression, and word length. Adapted from Baddeley et al. (1975).
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Features of the Phonological Loop
• Two features:– Phonological store
• Auditory presentation of words has direct access• Visual presentation only has indirect access
– Articulatory process• Visual and auditory words processed
differently– Visual: need articulatory control process– Auditory: don’t need ACP, can access phonological
store directly
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Evaluation of the Evidence for the Phonological Loop
• Accounts for phonological similarity and the word-length effect
• Support from neuroimaging studies– Its function may be to learn new
words– Also probably important in aspects of
language comprehension
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Visuo-spatial Sketchpad• Used in the temporary storage and
manipulation of spatial and visual information
• Baddeley et al. (1975)– The pursuit rotor task-impairs performance on
digit location visualization task• Logie (1995)
– Visual cache – form/color (ventral?)– Inner scribe – spatial and movement (dorsal?)
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Evidence for the Visual Cache and Inner Scribe
• Quinn and McConnell (1996) – differential interference from spatial v. visual tasks– The method of loci (visual)– The pegword technique (visual + spatial?)
• Beschin, Cocchini, Della Sala, and Logie (1997)– Evidence from NL, who had suffered a stroke – left
representational neglect with normal perception• Smith and Jonides (1997)
– Probe location or form- different PET activation (right frontoparietal for spatial; left parietotemporal for visual form)
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Evaluation of the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
• Supported by imaging research that shows the independence in spatial and visual tasks
• Consistent with ventral-dorsal visual pathway concept
• Support from studies of brain-damaged patients
• Many tasks require both components• Not clear how information is combined
and integrated
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Central Executive
• Baddeley (1996, p. 6) admitted– “our initial specification of the central
executive was so vague as to serve as little more than a ragbag into which could be stuffed all the complex strategy selection, planning, and retrieval checking that clearly goes on when subjects perform even the apparently simple digit span task.”
• Concept of central executive has evolved as an attentional system
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Functions of the Central Executive
• Baddeley (1996) identified the following functions:
1) switching of retrieval plans2) timesharing in dual-task studies3) selective attention to certain stimuli
while ignoring others4) temporary activation of long-term
memory
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Evidence for the Central Executive
Task: Hold “x” digits in mind while generating random number sequences
Randomness of digit generation (greater redundancy means reduced
randomness) as function of concurrent digit memory load. Data from Baddeley (1996).
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Norman & Shallice Model
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Evidence for the Central Executive
• Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito)
• Collette and Van der Linden (2002, p. 120) reviewed numerous brain-imaging studies involving several central executive functions
• “Some prefrontal areas (e.g., BA9/46, 10, and anterior cingulate gyrus) are systematically activated by a large range of various executive tasks, suggesting their involvement in rather general executive processes. However, other frontal areas . . . and even parietal regions . . . are also frequently found during the execution of executive tasks. Since these regions are involved less systematically in the different executive processes explored in this review, we can hypothesise that they have more specific functions.”
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EpisodicBuffer
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Experimental Techniques and Methods
• Spatial delayed response• Oculomotor delayed response• Delayed matching-to-sample• Attentional set-shifting• N-back
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Verbal 3-Back Task
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•
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table
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boy
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porch
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deer
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boy
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fence
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deer
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boy
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Spatial 3-Back Task
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Working memory and associative memory may be distinguished using the delayed response task
When PFC-lesioned monkey must remember which well is baited from trial to trial, performance is poor
When PFC-lesioned monkey must remember which symbol is baited from trial to trial, performance is good
Animal Models of Working Memory
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Patricia Goldman-Rakic (1937-2003)
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Goldman-Rakich Approach to WM
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Goldman-Rakic, 1996
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Cohen et al., 1998
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Cohen et al (1998); memory structures active during delay
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Two views about specificity in WM
• Domain-specificity (Goldman-Rakic, Ungerleider, Courtney)– Ventral prefrontal: object working memory– Dorsal prefrontal: spatial working memory
• Process-specificity (Petrides, D’Esposito)– Ventral prefrontal: sequential organization
and storage– Dorsal prefrontal: executive control and
monitoring
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Smith & Jonides 1999
Storage Exec+
Storage
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“Working Memory” is better than “Short-Term Memory”
• Adds active processing account to passive storage concept
• Explains fractionated defects in short-term memory
• Rehearsal optional rather than obligatory, as it was in modal model
• Key unresolved issue: “executive” components