By memory I mean not the unfeasible sum total of individual memories, but the referred imagery of the collective past that gives shared identity. By history I mean the literature generated by professional and amateur historians in both monographs and works of synthesis.

Inthefirstplaceitisnecessarytopointoutthatbothmemoryandhistoryareselective.Thepastisirrevocablydeadandwhenwerememberitwithabookoramonument,boththehistorianresearchinginthearchivesandtheauthorityorthegroupthatdecidestoerectastatuechoosefromawholehostofeventsthosetheyconsiderimportantforthepresent.

Whilethehistoricalmemorywishestocommemorateinordertothusdrawalessonwithregardtopresentbehaviour,historyseeksscientificcredibilityinadisinterestedknowledge,whichsubjectseveryphenomenonandeverymovementfromthepasttocontextualisation,comparisonandrelativisation.Historydoesnotseekappliedknowledge.Whenitdoesso,itbecomespoliticalpropaganda.However,thehistoriandoesnotwritehistoryforhistory’ssakebutfromthepresentandforthepresent.Allhistory,ithasrightlybeensaid,eventhemostancientandfurthestbackintime,iscontemporaryhistory.Itspeaksalwaysofhumanproblemsthat,despitethegreatdifferencesinthinkingandculture,speaktousashumanbeings.Theresultsofwrittenhistoryareopenfromthepointofviewofvalues,whichdoesnotmeanthatthehistorian’staskisamoral,itmeansthatheisnottryingtoedify,andofcoursecrudehistoryisnotusuallysoatall,itrathertendstoscandalizethoseseekingexamplesinthepast.Historyalsofightsagainstoblivion,asmemorywishesto.Italsowishestorecoverconsciouslythepastthatconditionsus,butnotfromthepointofviewofpolitical,religiousorideologicaldiscourse.

Betweenhistoryandmemorythereisasmuchcomplementarityasopposition,asthereisbetweenthesocio-politicalsciencesandpoliticalaction.Thereisnoscientifichistorical

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memoryjustastherecanbenopoliticsthatisscientific.Weshouldbegintotremblewhenapoliticallineofactionispresentedtousasscientificasthismeansthatitisintendedtobeunquestionableandthatthedesireistoimposeitonuswithoutrecognisingtheriskandthemoreorlessfree—and,therefore,arguable—optionthatallpoliticsentails.However,inthesamewaythatsociologistscannotpretendtotaketheplaceofpoliticians,historianscannotpretendtosubstitutethehistoricalmemorywithwrittenhistory,asiftheydidnotalsoneed,ascitizens,tobepartofahistoricalmemorythatnourishesidentity.Wecannotdenytherightofapopularhistoricalmemorytoexistinthenameofscience,becauseatthesametimetheawarenessofthehighdegreeofconditioningofthecollectivepresentbythepastwouldbedestroyedalthoughthepastneverrepeatsitself,andthisismoreimportantthanitmayseem.Therearenosocialrelationshipswithoutritualsandwithoutceremonies,andritesareassociatedwithmyths.Contemptforthehistoricalmemoryduetothetendencytocreatemythsoftencontainedinitisanintellectualistdistortion.Justastheartistiswrongtoconsiderthatartandcraftsmanshipareabsolutelyopposedandnottoadmitthemutualtieswithintheirobviousdifference,thehistorianwhodismissesthehistoricalmemoryasapoliticalfraudisdoing,eitherinvoluntarilyorvoluntarily,thebestservicetothepoliticsofcollectiveamnesiaanduprootinginordertofacilitatethemanipulationofthemassesbythepowersthatbe.Thustheacademichistorianswhodevotethemselvestomytho-phobiaareusuallytheonesmostgiventofacilitatingthemanipulationofthepastbytheestablishedpowers,aboveallbythepowerthatisabovethesubordinateones,easiertocriticisewithoutrisk.

Historyandmemoryhavetorecognisemutuallytheirrespectivelegitimacyandindependence,withoutthesubordinationofonetotheotherorhierarchicalsuperiorities.Obviously,historianshavetocombatthefalsificationofeventsatanylevelandinanycase.Historicalrealityandtruthcannotbesacrificedeveninthenameofthenoblestcauses,eventhosewithwhichhistoriansidentifythemselves.Contributingtoareasonableandunbiasedhistoricalmemoryisaresponsibilitythatthehistoriancannotavoid.Itshouldbeaddedthattheresponsibilityforpreventingthefuellingofprejudice,resentmentandhatredisthedutyofanyresponsiblecitizenandnotonlyofthehistorian.Thisdoesnotmeantryingtodenyconflictinthepasttoguaranteepeaceinthepresentonthebasisofignoringhistoricalstrugglesandconfrontations.Neithermemorynorhistoryshoulddothat.Forgivingandforgettingarenotthesamething,althoughcolloquiallanguageregardsthetwoverbsashavingthesamemeaning.

Wecannothopetoreplacefeelings,identificationsandemotionswithreasonorscience.Andthehistoricalmemoryisemotive,whichdoesnotmeanthatitisspontaneousorthatitemanatesfromamysteriouspopularwisdom.Thereisapoliticsofthememoryandastrugglebetweengroupstodecidewhathastobecommemoratedandwhatnot,whicheventsandfiguresdeserveamonumentoratelevisiondocumentaryandwhichdonot,andwhathierarchyofimportancehastobegiventoalltheeventsandfiguresthatmakeupthehistoricalmemory,whichispluralandmoveswithinaregimeofdebatingmajoritiesandminoritiesandwithchangesinthecorrelationofforces,atleastwhenthereisnodictatorshipabletoimposeitscensoredversionofthememorybyforce,withtheaimofhavingthelastanddefinitiveword.

Pluralismdoesnotentaileachpartyortradeunionbeingabletosetupitsstallofretrospectivepropagandainapublicmuseum,devotedtothehistoricalmemory.

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Memory should not exclude contradictionsandhastoassumethedialecticbetweenthedifferentforcesdownthroughtheages.Thatthehistoricalmemoryisnoteruditedoesnotmeanthatithastoruleoutthecriticaldimension.Itisregrettablethathistoricalself-criticismisveryoftenconspicuousbyitsabsenceintheretrospectiveexhibitionsandpamphletsofparties,unionsandreligiousdenominations.

Onlythehistoricalmemoryagreedbyconsensusisdestinedtoendureinthefaceofthefragmentary,inwhicheachgroupmountsitsownexhibition,holdsitsowncommemoration,hasitsownmuseum,preservesitsownsanctuary.Everyagehassharedvalueswithinwhichthehistoricalmemoryhastomove.Yetpoliticalpower,local,regionalornational,isneverabsentfromitevenwhenthemonumentsareerectedbypopularsubscription,whichhasneverbeenenoughtoachievetheproposedobjective.

Nevertheless,monuments,whichreflectthevaluesoftheirtimes,mayinanotheragebereducedtosimplehistoricalpatrimony,bereftofthesymbolismthatwasonceattributedtothem,andtheyareluckyiftheyarenotsimplyremovedasaleftoverfromthepoliticalpropagandaofaperiod,unwantedbythegreatmajorityofcitizensinademocraticsociety.

Justasabuilding,aplaceorasanctuarycanbecomeaplaceofmemorythroughthedeliberatewishesofaninfluentialcircle,theycanlaterbe“strippedofmemory”.OneexamplemaybeRipollAbbey.ReconstructedbyCatholicCatalanism—vigatanisme—asthe“cradleofCatalonia”in1893,ontheinitiativeofJosepMorgades,theBishopofVic,todayitisaplaceofmemorywithoutmemory.

Inthepoliticsofmemoryhistorianscanactashistoricaladvisors,butnotasguarantorsofthescientificnatureoftheoptionschosenbytherepresentativepoliticalinstitutions.Iftheydoso,theyimmediatelybecomefunctionariesofaparticularpoliticsofmemory,whichtendstode-contextualizetheevents.

Afield,ontheotherhand,inwhichhistorianscancarryouttheirresearchworkindependentlyisthehistoryofthepoliticsofmemorydownthoughtheyearsandindifferentcountries,beginningwiththeirown.Thereisaverybroadandexcitingfieldforresearchifwestudyhowaplacebecomesaplaceofmemory,howandwhyanoldmonumentisrestoredorrebuilt,howaplaceofmemorytakesondifferentsignificancesorlosesitsinitialone.Itmaybeworthwhiletoresearchtheprocess,oftenfullofargumentsanddisagreements,wherebyasongbecomesacountry’snationalanthemorthedateofthenationalholidayisdecidedoracommemorativeritualiscreatedandgraduallychanges.Inthecaseofanationwithoutitsownstate,likeforexampleCatalonia,initiativeshaveoftensprungfrombelowandhavetakentimetobeadoptedofficially.Theargumentspriortotheerectionofamonumentandthereasonswhysometimesitnevergetssetuparerevealing,orwhyitssymbolismanditssitearechanged,orhowthemonumentandthenameofthesquareitiseventuallyerectedinormovedtodonotmatch.Itmayalsobeproductivetostudythesubjectsofhistoricalpainting,sorichinthenineteenthcentury,withitsalmostoperaticrhetoric,withoutforgettingthatthiskindoflanguagealsooverlapsintothetwentiethcentury,especiallyintimesofchange,forexample,thatwhichwasintendedtoillustratethesocialistrealismofSovietpropagandaintheformerUSSR.

Thisverybroadfieldhasalreadybeguntobeexplored,ashasthestudyandinterpretationoflegends.Fromcontemptforlegend,consideredtheantithesisofhistory,

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therewasaswingtoanappreciationoflegend,alsoconsideredasubjectforhistoricalstudy.Insimilarfashion,thehistoryofthehistoricalmemoryhastobeincorporatedandisbeginningtobeincorporatedintothesubjectmatterofhistoricalstudies.

Perhapsthiscoincideswiththecrisisinthepoliticsofmemory,itsplacetakenbythepoliticsofoblivion,underthepretextofcombatinghistoricisminordertoleadtoapost-modernsenseofthepresent.Whentheplacesofmemorybegintobestudied,nottomakeanexegesisandajustificationofthem,i.e.totakepartintherite,buttostudythemasfactsofhistory,itisbecausetheyhavealmostcertainlylostmuchoftheirsymbolicforceandtheirobviousness,astheyarelosingtheirpotentialtomobilizeandevoke,becausewiththeirofficialstatustheyhavebecomeroutineandhavelosttheiremotiveness.

Thenineteenth-centurymonumenttoldastory.Alongsidethesymbolsandallegoriesofneoclassicalroots,thereweretheallusivescenes,rathertheatricalandattimesdressedinratheranachronisticclothes,oftenclassicist,butalso,attimes,thoroughlyofthemomentasisthecasealsowithnineteenth-centuryhistoricistpainting.Thetwentieth-centurymonumentismuchmoredifficulttodecipher,withafemalefigurerepresentingthefatherlandorhumankindorfreedom,andjustamedallioninrelieforabustwiththeportrait,moreorlessfaithful,ofthefigureremembered.Butthepredominanceofabstractioninthecommemorativemonumentofthemostrecentperioddemandsatombstoneoraninscriptioninbronzetoexplainingreaterorlesserdetailwhatisbeingcommemorated.

In any case a minimum knowledge of the facts and their significancehasalwaysbeennecessary.Thedistractedpasser-bydoesnotunderstandwhatthemonumentrepresents,howeverfigurativeitmaybe.Commemorativeceremoniesareneededtomakethemonumenttalk.Thus,explanationhasalwaysbeennecessary,inthepastandnow,sohistoricalknowledgeisessential,howeverbasicitmaybe.Themonumentisnosubstitutefortheteachingofhistoryandthisisfoundintheprintedword,inschoolbooksandinnewspapersandbooksforadults.Teachingtodayhastheaidoftelevision,althoughitisnotusedveryfrequentlyinthecaseofthehistoryofCatalonia,incontrasttothetelevisionchannelsofothercountrieswiththeirownhistory.

Attimes,intoday’sbooksandmagazinesandevenonthepostersannouncinghistoryconferences,thereisnooptionbuttoresorttotheoldhistoricalpainting,sodiscreditedintheeyesofhistorians,tobreathelifeintothedeadpagesofthepast,repeatingwhat,astheonlyrecourse,theschoolbooksonSpanishhistoryofthefortiesandfiftiesdid,whentheyusedcopiesdrawninpenandink,andnotcolourphotography,ofoilpaintings,rathermoresuggestive,astheynowappearinbetterpublishedhistorybooksandmagazines.

Exhibitions,museumsand,aboveall,televisiondocumentariesfuelthehistoricalmemoryinafarbetterwaythanmonumentsandthenamesofstreetsandsquaresdotoday.

History and memory have to recognize mutually their respective legitimacy and independence, without hierarchical superiorities

3737 II Memory, history and politics Albert Balcells

Needlesstosay,thehistoricalmemoryhasalsobeenfuelledbyhistoricalnovelsandfilmsonahistoricaltheme,whichdifferfromhistorydocumentariesbypresentingexclusivelyfictionalsceneswithactorsorintroducingmoreorlessplausibleandrepresentativefictionalcharactersalongsidethehistoricalones.

However,thenamesofurbanplaces,eventhoughtheirsignificancemaybeunknown,areefficientinthattheyareaconstantpresence,theypenetratetherepertoryofpublicnamesthatthepeopleknowandhereinliestheiradvantageoveramoredirectandexplicitbutincidental,minoritymessagesuchasthevisittoanexhibitionoranewspaperarticle.Thenamesofpublicplacesprepareforandfacilitatereceptivenesstowardsmoreexplicitmessageswhenthecitizensdiscoverthatsuchawell-knownstreetnamecorrespondstoafigureorahistoricaleventhithertounknowntothem,whenthestreetorsquarehas

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previouslyhadnoaddedvalueforthem.Well-preservedevocativeruins,suitablyrestored,arealsoasignofidentitythatisincorporatedintotheurbanlandscapewithafunctionsimilarlycommemorativeandofthehistoricalmemorybehindtheirpurelyarchaeologicalappearance.Whenanoutstandingoldbuildingistheheadquartersofarepresentativeinstitutionitbecomesaplaceofmemoryoranidentifyingmonument.

Maximumcommemorativeefficiencyisachievedwhenthenameoftheplace,forexampleasquareorgardens,andthefigureoreventrememberedonthemonumentsettherecoincide.Whenforwhateverreasonthisisnotthecase(becauseithasbeenmovedorforanotherreason),themostappropriatethingwouldhavebeentochangethenameoftheplaceandmakeitmatchtheneworreinstalledmonumentthere.Theimpersonalmonotonyoftheurbanlandscapeisbrightenedupbythemonumentsthatbecome

Harar (Ethiopia), Toni Catany (2007)

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landmarks,referencesorpointstoguideourselvesby.Itisthereforeamistakeifthenameofacrossroadsdoesnotcoincidewiththatofthefigureortheeventonthemonumenterectedinthesameplace.Whenthisoccursitmeansthatthecountry’shistoryhasbeenveryunstableorthatthecityhashadtochangeagreatdeal.SeveralexamplesofthisanomalycanbefoundinBarcelona.

Thehistoricalmemoryhasbeenassociatedwiththeideaofcultureassomethingsacred,acharacteristicaccentuatedincountrieswherethedistinguishingcollectiveidentityisdeniedinanauthoritarianwayor,atleast,isfragileorthreatened.Thechangefromasacredideaofculturetoamanagerialone,forexampleofCatalancultureafter1980,besidesbeingthesignofanongoingprocessofnormalisation,mayentailalackofmodelsandideasonthesubjectofculturalandmemorialpolicy.Efficiencyshouldnotresultinbanality.Withaninsufficientdegreeofpoliticalautonomy,actingwithalackofconcernthatwouldnotbeadvisableevenwithproperself-governmentcanonlybeinterpretedasarenunciation.Theideaofmonumentsintermsoftourismandrecreation,astheme

II Memory, history and politics Albert Balcells

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j o u r n a l o F c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e

02nsfertraAitana Guia, Jordi Sànchez, Salvador Cardús, Isidor Marí, Laila Karrouch, Julià Guillamon

“ Immigration and social change, the Catalan experience”

And also: Intelligent design and the assault on science

Juli Peretó; The psychology of terrorism Adolf Tobeña;

Empire and freedom Josep M. Colomer; Labeling

modernity Jordi Sales; The Holocaust and literature Rosa

Planas; The end of science Pere Puigdomènech, …

focusfocusfocus

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Albert Balcells is professor of Contemporary History at the Autonomous University of Barcelona.

parks,isonlyvalidandlegitimateifatthesametimeonedoesnottrytodoawaywiththeculturalnatureofcommemorativemonuments.Thisisanageofdisbeliefwithregardtobothtraditionalreligionandthepoliticaldoctrinesthatwerehopingtoreplaceitasdoctrinesofearthlysalvation.And,notwithstandingthis,abuilding’soriginalusefulness,eventhoughitmayhavegonewaybeyondthelimitsofthatpurpose,continuestofuelunderlyinghostilitiesasifthosebeliefscouldreappearintheiroldformorbenefitfromapublicre-emergencethankstothenewscenarioofferedthem.Forexample,Gaudí’sSagradaFamíliatempleinBarcelonacontinuestobethesubjectofunderlyingloveandhatredwhoseoriginsareevident.

I have tried to outline the relationships between memory and historywithouthidingthefactthatbothconstitutefieldsofconflictandargumentandatthesametimeareasofconsensusinsearchofthesupportofmajoritypublicopinion.Therelationshipsbetweenthetwocanonlybearfruitiftheyacknowledgetheirrespectiveautonomy,iftheyareawarethattheyareactingindifferentareas.Bothrefertothepastbutwithdifferentcriteriaandaims.

Theproblemsgeneratedbythepoliticalmanipulationofhistoryarenotgoingtodisappear.TheancientRomansconsideredthathistorywaspartofrhetoric.Machiavellisaidthathistoryisthemaidservantofpolitics.Historicalresearchtodayneedssubsidiesandtheseareeasiertogetiftheyareinlinewithofficialcommemorations.Historywillcontinuetofightforitspoliticalindependence,thebasisofitsscientificcredibility.Humansocietyisstillgoingtoneed,inordertolaythefoundationsofitscollectiveidentity(national,localandgroup),ahistoricalmemoryandthiswillhavetobenourishedinthemostdiverseways:withmonuments,streetnames,annualcommemorations,historydocumentaries,films,generalormonographicmuseums,andradioortelevisionprogrammesonthesubjectofhistory.

Thememoryhastobeconstructedonbasisoftheacknowledgementofpluralismanddiversity,butalsoofsharedconstructivevalues,whichneitherglorifynorexcuseimposition,oppressionordiscrimination.Therefore,whilepastinjusticesthatmayberepeatedorperpetuatedshouldoftenberememberedordenounced,itisnecessarytocreateacollectiveimageryessentialforavoidinganomieandthedepersonalisationoftoday’sworld.Historicalsciencecanandmusthelpmemory,butnevertakeitsplace.Moreover,historicalscienceshouldnotbesubordinatedtomemory.ThefactthattheysharecommongroundandthatthemoralreasonsmaybesimilarmustnotleadthemtobeconfusedandtoconfuseusII

The memory has to be constructed on a pluralist basis, but also of shared constructive values