MemoryMemory

Chapter 7 Continued…Chapter 7

Continued…

How is knowledge organized?How is knowledge organized?

Clustering: the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups

Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

Clustering: the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups

Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

How is knowledge organized?How is knowledge organized?

Schemas: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event

People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with the schemas than things that are not and people sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schema-based expectations

Schemas: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event

People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with the schemas than things that are not and people sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schema-based expectations

How is knowledge organized?How is knowledge organized?

Semantic Networks: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts

Proven to be useful in explaining why thinking about one word can make closely related words easier to remember

Semantic Networks: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts

Proven to be useful in explaining why thinking about one word can make closely related words easier to remember

Semantic NetworksSemantic Networks

RetrievalRetrievalTip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach

Usually happens about once a week – especially with names

Clearly constitutes a failure in retrieval

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach

Usually happens about once a week – especially with names

Clearly constitutes a failure in retrieval

RetrievalRetrieval Retrieval Cues: stimuli that help gain

access to memories

Reinstating the Context of an Event: this is trying to recall a memory by putting yourself back in the context in which it occurred – this involves working with context cues to aid retrieval

Context Cues: often facilitate the retrieval of information

Used successfully in legal matters and investigations

Retrieval Cues: stimuli that help gain access to memories

Reinstating the Context of an Event: this is trying to recall a memory by putting yourself back in the context in which it occurred – this involves working with context cues to aid retrieval

Context Cues: often facilitate the retrieval of information

Used successfully in legal matters and investigations

Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect

Reconstructing Memories and the Misinformation Effect: when you retrieve information from long-term memory you aren’t able to pull up a “mental videotape” that provides an exact replay

to some degree, memories are just reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and may include details that did not actually occur

Reconstructing Memories and the Misinformation Effect: when you retrieve information from long-term memory you aren’t able to pull up a “mental videotape” that provides an exact replay

to some degree, memories are just reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and may include details that did not actually occur

Misinformation EffectMisinformation EffectElizabeth Loftus

Researched the misinformation effect and found that reconstructive distortions show up very frequently in eyewitness testimony

ｧ 3 Stages 1. View event 2. Exposed to information about

event, some of which is misleading 3. The recall of the original event is

tested to see if the post-event misinformation alters the memory of the actual event

Elizabeth LoftusResearched the misinformation

effect and found that reconstructive distortions show up very frequently in eyewitness testimony

ｧ 3 Stages 1. View event 2. Exposed to information about

event, some of which is misleading 3. The recall of the original event is

tested to see if the post-event misinformation alters the memory of the actual event

Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect Ex subjects shown a video of an

accident and then “grilled” to provide testimony

Biasing information was introduced Words such as “hit” and “smashed

into” were used A week later, recall of the event was

tested and people who were asked questions with vivid imagery words like “smashed into” remembered seeing things like broken glass (which wasn’t present)

Why are there distortions in eyewitness testimony?

People’s Schema’s put words like “smashed into” and broken glass or tons of damage together in the same category

Ex subjects shown a video of an accident and then “grilled” to provide testimony

Biasing information was introduced Words such as “hit” and “smashed

into” were used A week later, recall of the event was

tested and people who were asked questions with vivid imagery words like “smashed into” remembered seeing things like broken glass (which wasn’t present)

Why are there distortions in eyewitness testimony?

People’s Schema’s put words like “smashed into” and broken glass or tons of damage together in the same category

Measures of ForgettingMeasures of Forgetting

Retention:the proportion of material retained

(remembered) Recall:

Reproduction of information on your own without any cues

Recognition: The ability to select previously learned

information from an array of options Relearning:

memorizing information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before

Retention:the proportion of material retained

(remembered) Recall:

Reproduction of information on your own without any cues

Recognition: The ability to select previously learned

information from an array of options Relearning:

memorizing information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before

Why We Forget?Why We Forget? Ineffective Coding

Information may have never been inserted into memory properly

Pseudoforgetting: you can’t really

forget what you haven’t learned

Another name for Ineffective Coding

Ineffective Coding Information may

have never been inserted into memory properly

Pseudoforgetting: you can’t really

forget what you haven’t learned

Another name for Ineffective Coding

Decay Theory Forgetting occurs

because memory traces fade over time

Can we really forget what has been stored in Long Term Memory permanently?

Decay Theory Forgetting occurs

because memory traces fade over time

Can we really forget what has been stored in Long Term Memory permanently?

Why We Forget?Why We Forget? Interference

Theory Retroactive

Interference: new info impairs the

retention of previously learned material

Interference Theory Retroactive

Interference: new info impairs the

retention of previously learned material

Proactive Interference:

retention of previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material

Proactive Interference:

retention of previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material

Why We Forget?Why We Forget? Retrieval

Failure A mismatch

occurs between retrieval cues and the encoding

Retrieval Failure A mismatch

occurs between retrieval cues and the encoding

Motivated Forgetting People keep

embarassing or painful events buried in the unconscious

Also called Repression

Motivated Forgetting People keep

embarassing or painful events buried in the unconscious

Also called Repression

Think About It…Think About It…

When it comes to school & your study habits, what causes you to forget the most?

Discuss your answers with the class. Are there similarities among your answers? Why?

When it comes to school & your study habits, what causes you to forget the most?

Discuss your answers with the class. Are there similarities among your answers? Why?