meditation strategies.doc

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H252 Asian Mystical religions James King E8900482 12/10/95 Meditation Strategies in Asian Mystical Religions The art and science of meditation has been practised throughout the ages within the majority of the world's religions and esoteric disciplines. A study of Asian mystical religions reveals a wide variety of meditation techniques utilising a range of human faculties and abilities to achieve the desired goals. Underlying the diversity of methods are common strategies indicating recognition of various levels of mental and spiritual development that can be attained. A similarity in the various objectives of meditation is also observed although expressed in different philosophical forms. These range from healing, longevity, development of the mind and higher faculties of perception and intuition to the ultimate spiritual union with that which causes and maintains life and universal processes. The aim of this essay is to compare and contrast the varieties of meditation strategies by drawing examples from Shamanism, Zen, Therevada and Tantric Buddhism, Taoism, Hindu yoga, Sufism and Javanese mystical religions. The What and the Why of Meditation Meditation strategies and techniques have developed around its perceived function and purpose within the sphere of human life. A look at the word itself gives some interesting insights into its meaning and uses. The prefix MEDI is within the Latin root MEDICO which means to heal or cure (Leo, 1994). The use of meditation for healing is a strong feature within Taoism. The Chinese believe that the mind and body are one (Kohn 1989). Meditation techniques at a basic 1

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Page 1: Meditation strategies.DOC

H252 Asian Mystical religions James King E8900482 12/10/95

Meditation Strategies in Asian Mystical Religions

The art and science of meditation has been practised throughout the ages within the majority of the world's religions and esoteric disciplines. A study of Asian mystical religions reveals a wide variety of meditation techniques utilising a range of human faculties and abilities to achieve the desired goals. Underlying the diversity of methods are common strategies indicating recognition of various levels of mental and spiritual development that can be attained. A similarity in the various objectives of meditation is also observed although expressed in different philosophical forms. These range from healing, longevity, development of the mind and higher faculties of perception and intuition to the ultimate spiritual union with that which causes and maintains life and universal processes. The aim of this essay is to compare and contrast the varieties of meditation strategies by drawing examples from Shamanism, Zen, Therevada and Tantric Buddhism, Taoism, Hindu yoga, Sufism and Javanese mystical religions.

The What and the Why of Meditation

Meditation strategies and techniques have developed around its perceived function and purpose within the sphere of human life. A look at the word itself gives some interesting insights into its meaning and uses. The prefix MEDI is within the Latin root MEDICO which means to heal or cure (Leo, 1994). The use of meditation for healing is a strong feature within Taoism. The Chinese believe that the mind and body are one (Kohn 1989). Meditation techniques at a basic level were done to harmonise and enhance the natural life force which flows through the human mind and body to maintain health or to cure disease (Chang, 1978). In the Hindu Ashtanga yoga and Tantric Buddhist traditions, health and healing meditations are practised within the discipline of Hatha yoga. These exercises primarily utilise breath control to charge the body's main energy centres (chakras) in order to flush the vital force throughout or through specific areas of the body (Evans-Wentz, 1965).

Various forms of meditation are practised by the Shamans of North, Central and South America (and other cultures) to achieve a trance state for the purposes of making connection with the spirit realms and obtaining the necessary knowledge and power to allow them to heal (Drury, 1989). Similar forms of meditative trance healing are an important function of the Shamans of the Kejawen, the traditional animistic form of Javanism (Epton, 1974). Mass healing meditations are also practised within the 5 major Kejawen Javanese mystical sects of which Sumarah is an example (Geertz, 1976).

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The healing or curative aspect of meditation can be seen in a higher context within the aims of the varieties of Buddhism including Zen, Therevada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. Meditation is the principal means for attaining the ultimate cure from the material world and the human state of delusion, ignorance, desire and endless suffering (samsara). This state of purification and liberation is termed nirvana (Smart, 1992).

MEDI is also the prefix of the Latin root MEDIUS meaning middle or mediate. The mind, the main faculty used for meditation is considered within the majority of mystical religions as the middle ground or space between 'heaven and earth' and is the vehicle or medium in which mediation or union is made with the divine or absolute reality (Naranjo and Ornstein, 1971). The mind permeates the matter of the physical body, yet can connect to the highest levels of spiritual substance. In the Shamanistic sense, the mind is the mediating link between the underworld and the heavenly realms (Drury, 1989).

The middle aspect of meditation also relates to the strategy of internal con-centration, which is a centering of consciousness within the self or the mind in order to attain union with and wisdom of the core of being (Naranjo and Ornstein, 1971). The mind, as the highest organ of perception, is perceived within the majority of Asian mystical religions, particularly Hindu and Buddhist, as the microcosm of the macrocosm. It is likened to a mirror which is a reflection of the cosmos at all levels. It follows from this reasoning that the core of mind is a point of access for experiencing the various levels of cosmic process, from the creative to the created.

Another aspect of meditation which is alluded to in the word is that of it being ANTI TO, which is obtained by anagramming the suffix TATION (Leo, 1994). Anti to is used in the sense of against. As an example, more emphasis is placed on meditation within the esoteric religions of the world rather than the exoteric, and by those in which withdrawal from conventional life and society or monasticism is considered critical for liberation. Thus it is a means Anti to the mainstream, 'normal' way of life. In Buddhism, meditation could also be considered the means to the antithesis of life itself, as the ultimate state aimed for beyond nirvana is nirodh, extinction of consciousness and awareness. At this level the meditator's metabolism apparently ceases but the body does not decay as long as the mind maintains some degree of attachment to it (Goleman, 1977).

Javanese mysticism and Shamanism differ in this respect from other mystical religions in that they are praxis or this world traditions. Rather than withdrawing from life and seeking liberation from the earthly plane, they strive for greater meaning and enhanced experience while living (Geertz, 1976). Thus, it is the strategy of mediation which is the main element of meditation within these forms of mystical religion.

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The practice of meditation is also 'anti to' in the sense of being against or causing withdrawal from all superfluous external and internal sensory stimuli in order to focus the mental awareness on the intended goal. This is exampled in Zen Buddhism where systematic elimination of analytical, imaginative and other mental processes through the practice of zazen (meditation) leads to the antithesis of 'no mind' or satori (Izutsu, 1978). In Hindu Bhakti or devotional meditation the strategy is to exclude all impressions and distractions and align the body, soul and mind to the ishta or object of devotion (Goleman, 1977).

This anti to aspect is expressed by Naranjo (1971) in terms of the 'negative way' because through meditation, preconceived notions, expectations, habits and filtering mechanisms have to be eliminated or sacrificed before anything new can be obtained. Meditation is therefore against habituation and automatism due to the constant striving for enhanced awareness of simple experiences such as breathing, walking or 'just sitting' as practised in Zazen (Ornstein, 1975). There is a striving for consciousness of each moment in the now and full perception of reality as it is rather than conceptions of it based on social conditioning, limited and fixed constructs. This is a prerequisite for experiences of union beyond the self with the unknown, unseen worlds or that which causes existence to be (Goleman, 1977). The experience of union with that which is higher than human is one of the main aims and results of meditation common to the Asian mystical religions exampled in this essay.

Strategy and Technique

A useful way of classifying the multitude of meditation techniques used by Ornstein (1977) is in terms of two strategies;

1.Concentration - a fixing of the mind's attention on a singular object or aspect.2.Expansive awareness- a state of detached, receptive awareness of the mind, mind impressions or mind objects.

These two strategies in various forms are used either singularly or together within the range of Asian mystical religions. The strategy of concentration is to focus the consciousness in a singular and simplistic fashion on what is wanted, which simultaneously excludes and purifies the mind of what is not wanted. This results in a process of absorption, where the observer and the observed become one. The experience of expanded awareness often follows on from proficient exclusion of excess stimuli through extended periods of concentration (Ornstein and Naranjo, 1971).

Expansive awareness is a process of non-attachment, opening up consciousness to increasing levels of perception of the mind and reality. Mindfulness is the terminology used in the Buddhist tradition for the initial stages of this process. Krishnamurti defined mindfulness as choice-less awareness

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(Goleman, 1977). The form of expansive awareness meditation practised by the Sumarah teacher, Sudarno, is referred to as relaxed awareness. The goal here is for the mind to connect with the inner-self feelings (alus) behind the everyday life feelings (rasa). As feelings are closer to God, this assists in the process of surrender (Stange, 1977). The common element of this strategy is an opening up of awareness to receive and perceive truth, in whatever form it is expressed.

Another way of contrasting the two strategies is that in concentrative meditation, experience of and union with higher domains is obtained via total absorption into microcosmic aspects of the universe, whereas in expansive meditation union is achieved by the mind? extension into and gradual encompassment of the macrocosm. Both lead to the same goal because of the wisdom expressed in the maxims As above so below or we are a microcosm of the macrocosm

Concentrative meditation

This strategy is common to the majority of Asian mystical religions. In general the techniques usually involve sitting in a position that is erect and conducive to alertness. The lotus (cross-legged with both feet resting on the opposite thighs) or half lotus (one foot resting on opposite thigh, the other tucked underneath) position are commonly used throughout Asia. The practitioner aims to maintain the focus of attention continuously for a set period of time on an object, process or impression. As the attention wanders it is repeatedly brought back to the focal point. One of the effects of excluding all other impressions is a quietening of the mind. Proficiency in concentration controls and tempers the mind and strengthens the will (Ornstein and Naranjo, 1971).

In the 5th century Buddhist Visuddhimaggha (Path of Purity) text, the aim of concentrative or absorptive meditation is psychological purity. Eight jhanas or levels of absorption and associated meditation exercises are described. These range from cessation of hindering thoughts and sensory perceptions through to a state of neither perception or non-perception, equanimity and one-pointedness. The 8th jhana is described as a state of oneness with formlessness (Goleman, 1977).

Some of the most common methods and focal points for concentrative meditation include;

The breath - This is used widely in the Hindu and Buddhist traditions (Ornstein, 1975). There are many specific techniques but the most common are to focus on the rise and fall of the solar plexus and the pauses between the in and out-breath or the sensation of the breath moving in and out of the nostrils. In Buddhist Vipassana meditation it is important that breathing is natural and not forced in any way (Kornfield, 1977). This is also true of the Zen Buddhist form of concentrative breathing meditation (Goleman, 1977). In Zazen, breathing (as

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with other forms of meditation) is practised with the eyes partially open but unfocused, sometimes facing a blank wall. This is designed to help maintain wakefulness and to reduce the impact of experiencing ecstatic or visionary trance states (Johnston, 1978).

In Hindu and Buddhist tantric practices, breathing may be done in specific ways, varying the lengths of the in, out-breath and pause to obtain specific mental or energy states (Wood, 1962, 1952). A tantric Tibetan book of instruction suggests trying to achieve the aim of counting the breaths from 1 to 21 600 which is the approximate number of cycles (in and out) in a 24 hour period (Evans-Wentz, 1968).

In Patanjali's Ashtanga yoga, rhythmic breath control (Pranayama) and concentration (Dharana) training are prerequisites to and combined eventually with meditation (Dhyana) and contemplation (Samadhi). Specific breathing rhythms are practised until they become automatic. The purpose is to train the body to breathe in a fuller way to assist the process of meditation (Wood, 1962).

Word repetition - The repetition of words or phrases either mentally, in song or chant is a predominant form of devotional concentrative meditation practised within the majority of Asian mystical religions. One of the most well known is the mantra, a Sanskrit word meaning 'instrument of thought' which is a word or phrase containing the essence of spiritual power or divinity. One of the most well known and used mantra in the tantric Hindu and Buddhist religions is the threefold expression AUM or OM interpreted in Hinduism as Brahman or God in his fullness (Wood, 1962) or in Buddhism as the mind principle or 'it is, it exists' (Evans-Wentz, 1968). There are numerous mantras in use within the Tibetan Vajrayana tradition, another common one being ?m Mani Padme Hummeaning ?ail to the jewel in the lotus(Fontana, 1993).

In Ashtanga yoga, mantra meditation involves 4 aspects of concentration on;

1. sound2. meaning3. ideas that are embodied4. the spiritual root meaning (Wood, 1962).

As the level of absorption increases so does the understanding of that which is embodied within the words, until union with the essence of the mantra is achieved (Wood, 1962).

In the Bhakti form of Hinduism, Kirtan (singing or chanting) and Japa (repetition of the name) are the two major strategies utilised to maintain devotional focus toward the various Gods and deities of the Hindu pantheon (Goleman, 1977). A well known japa is that of the Hari Krishnas; Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare which is

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chanted out aloud in groups to the accompaniment of music or as an individual meditation. Japa is more of a solitary practise in which the name of a god or deity is spoken aloud, softly or mentally. The mala or rosary is often used to assist the automation of the process. The goal is for the repetition of the name of the ishta (object of devotion) to become greater than all other mental habits. This results in a one-pointed purity of thought and action leading to spiritual union with the ishta (Goleman, 1977).

In the Sufi devotional exercise of Zikr (remembrance), Allah is often repeated mentally or softly as a means of remembering God. Alif (rosarys) are also employed (Lings, 1971). Various other formulas are recited such as 'La illaha la illalla'. This is combined with evocation of the feeling meaning of denial of that which is against God and spiritual progression (La illaha - sensed in the solar plexus) and affirmation and devotion towards God (la illalla - sensed in the heart) (Ornstein, 1975). Javanese mystical religions such as Sumarah also use these two expressions, as well as non-Islamic ones (Epton, 1974). The Javanese Ilmu Kasunjatan and Ilmu Sedjata sects combine repetitions with the breath. For example, Hu (inhale), Allah (exhale) or in similar fashion the phrase U - Rip which means life (Geertz, 1976).

Chanting meditations and the use of instruments such as drums, bells or gongs is also a common strategy used by Vajrayana Buddhists to obtain one-pointedness and mental purity (Evans-Wentz, 1968). In the Shamanic tradition repetitional chanting usually accompanied by a drum beat is a common technique for evoking the trance state. This is also observed in certain Taoist mediations where prayer chants are combined with the striking together of pieces of wood (Drury, 1989).

Sound - The use of a continuous natural external or internally amplified sound for concentrative meditation is called Nada yoga and is a common practice in Hindu and Buddhist tantric disciplines (Saraswati, 1992). These may include such sounds as running water, bees, birds, the wind, rain, the heart beat or other sounds of internal body processes (Court, 1984). The inner sound which is produced by the mind and which differs according to the level of consciousness, is also a focus for meditation in the tantric tradition (Wood, 1962).

One of the reasons behind the effectiveness of sound for meditation, is that the force is considered circular in nature, rather than linear (as in light). Sound therefore encompasses the person and they become the central point. The Hindu God Shiva advises to bathe in the centre of sound (Rajneesh, 1988). Both the ears and the skin (the body's largest organ) are in receipt of the force of vibration which is multi-directional, bouncing off surrounding external objects. Thus, sound is more conducive to reception by the human system than light, smell, taste or sensation, allowing for a more rapid absorption by consciousness. This may explain why Bhakti yoga, in which chant and music are the main

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vehicles for meditative worship, is the most popular of the various forms of Hindu yoga.

Visual form - The use of visual forms as the object of concentration is another common meditation strategy. The mandala (meaning group or association), a circular symbolic form often containing lettering and the human form (Figure 1) and the yantra (Figure 2), which is composed of more geometrically based symbolism (Fontana, 1993) are used within Hindu and Tibetan tantric practices (Wood, 1962. Goleman, 1977). The mandala is used to embody the principles of the relatedness of all phenomena and that everything acts as a central point for other elements to revolve around (Trungpa, 1976). The greater the level of absorption during the meditation the greater the union and the degree of revelation of that which is embodied in the symbol.

Often a solid object such as a vase, candle, picture of a religious teacher or deity is used as the focus for attention. Within the Ashtanga yoga doctrine this is called tratakum or steady gaze. It is practised as a form of cleansing in Hatha yoga and concentration in Raja yoga (Saraswati, 1992). It involves a fixed yet relaxed gaze at an object at eye level until the eyes water. When the eyes tire they are closed and rested. Eventually however, the eyes can be maintained open and relaxed for long periods of time (Ornstein, 1975). Inner tratak is the use of a mentally created image as the focus of concentration (Saraswati, 1992). Another tantric yoga practice is the frontal gaze where the eyes are gently fixed on the space between the eyebrows (the third eye chakra area) or the tip of the nose (Ornstein and Naranjo, 1971).

Kasina is a form of internal visualisation meditation outlined in the Visuddhimagga and practised to attain jhana or states of absorption. Suggested images to be created and maintained in the mind include the 4 elements earth, air, fire and water, various coloured wheels and imagining oneself as a rotting corpse to attain the realisation of impermanence (Goleman, 1977). The strategy of internal visualisation uses the minds faculty of imagination. It is a particularly good exercise in concentration because it involves not only visualising that which has been perceived by the senses, but also in constructing complex images of great clarity and detail. Vajrayana Buddhists are particularly skilled in this form of meditation (Evans-Wentz, 1968).

Visualisation meditations are commonly used in Taoism for physical and psychological healing and as preparation for union with the Tao. The sun, moon and various stars of significance (such as the north star) may be visualised with their energy being drawn in through the crown of the head, meeting and combining with the energy of the body and flushing throughout the system (Chang, 1978). Internal organs and their associated deities are also visualised to enhance the body's natural life force. The One (a cosmic deity, the creator Goddess of the universe) for example is associated with the spleen. Concentrative meditations are usually pre-requisite trainings for expansive

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awareness meditations on the One which lead to realisation, surrender and service to the Tao (way) and immortality (Kohn, 1989).

Eskimo shamans practise a visualisation meditation called 'contemplating the skeleton' for the purposes of initiation and obtaining their spirit power. This involves imagining in detail the stripping off of the skin, flesh, nerves and organs until only the bones remain. Each bone must then be pictured and named in the special language of the Shaman. This is also seen as a process of rebirth, as the Shaman is stripped down to the very essence of life itself, which is stored in the bones. The completion of this exercise may take days of arduous concentration (Eliade, 1964).

Figure 1. Mandala Figure 2. Yantra

Movement - Mudra (Sanskrit), the repetitional movement of limbs while maintaining concentrative awareness, is a form of meditation common to the Hindu Ashtanga yoga and Buddhist tantric traditions (Evans-Wentz, 1968). Movement involves the mind and body and is therefore a more active form of meditation which may assist in keeping the mind energised and attentive. There are numerous forms of exercises, many of which are done in the seated posture using the hands and arms. A simple example is touching the thumb to each finger in repetition (Court, 1984). Various symbolic hand gestures which each have a particular meaning may also be combined for use as a meditation (Evans-Wentz, 1968).

Tai Chi Chuan or supreme ultimate boxing is an extremely well developed form of movement meditation based on the Taoist philosophy. It is predominantly practised for health, longevity and mental concentration. The movements, many of which are based on animals and natural elements, are performed slowly, fluidly and continuously, with a balance of vigour and gentleness and a concentrated yet relaxed awareness. The mind is tranquil, yet alert and is

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consciously co-ordinating the eyes, hands, limbs and torso from moment to moment. These features make it quite an advanced form of concentrative meditation which requires years of practice to perfect (China Sports, 1986).

One of the well known movement meditations of the Sufis is the ecstatic spinning motion of the Mevlevei or whirling dervishes. This is part of the Zikr ritual practised within a group and combining repetitional chanting, drum and flute music. The exercise culminates in ecstatic trance states of Godly union and devotion (Ornstein, 1975).

Eskimo Shamans practise a form of moving meditation which involves sitting in front of a large soft stone and using a smaller harder one to carve a circle on it. The circle is drawn repeatedly and engraved further and further into the rock. Deeper and deeper levels of concentration are reached until the Shaman goes into a trance state (Ornstein, 1975).

Mental concepts - The koan is a form of concentrative meditation unique to Zen Buddhism, particularly the Rinzai school of Zen. It consists of a question or statement that is paradoxical, with no apparent logical basis or answer. Some examples are 'What is the sound of one hand clapping?' (Goleman, 1977) or Does the dog have Buddha nature?' (Ornstein and Naranjo, 1971). The strategy of this meditation is that the student must solve the koan which causes a focusing of the mental faculty over an extended period of time. The intensity is increased due to self expectation, pressure from other students and a requirement from the teacher for an answer to be demonstrated, often non-verbally (Ornstein and Naranjo, 1971). The meditation aims to bring about rapid, unexpected and random shifts in awareness and consciousness. The meditator must exhaust all rational attempts and go beyond to direct perception and knowing, to be at one with the essence of the koan (Ornstein, 1975). Meditation (Dhyana) as practised in the Ashtanga yoga system is a process of concentrated thinking about a subject until thought goes beyond the normal reasoning processes and a union with the subject is reached. The aim is for direct knowing and full comprehension of the subject. Examples of concepts meditated upon are usually relational such as the strength of the elephant or the nature of the cat (Wood, 1962). Although the form is different, the aim of this strategy is similar to that of the Zen koan meditation.

The Buddhist Visuddhimagga text outlines 40 subjects for conceptual concentrative meditation ranging from the physical elements to sublime states such as compassion and the attributes of the Buddha (Goleman, 1977). Such meditations in Vajrayana Buddhism involve complex rituals in which precision and correct sequencing is vital. This complexity may assist in maintaining concentration over long periods of time. Preparation before the actual meditation may include;

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1.Cleaning the meditation chamber.2.The arrangement of alter images of the Buddha, scriptures and symbols.3.Correct positioning of the body,4.Visualisation of various assemblages of Buddhist masters and deities and the offering of mandalas to evoke their assistance.5.Generation of feelings of supplication to lineages of previous gurus.6.Various contemplations from texts and the generation of aspirations for enlightenment.

The meditation itself may involve further offerings, prayers, recitations, supplications, confessions, entreaties and dedications. The whole meditation is aimed at attaining specific results such as 'the cultivation of an altruistic aspiration towards the highest enlightenment' or the cultivation of love and compassion. The specifics of the meditation vary according to the aim, the school and the practitioner but in general this is a common strategy to both the sutra and tantra methods of Vajrayana Buddhism (Sopa and Hopkins, 1976).

Expansive awareness or opening-up meditation

In general terms this strategy has the mind in a state of relaxed receptivity, aware of what passes through it but without attachment or any attempts to think about or focus on anything. The meditator just observes what is taking place. There are a number of different methods of approach and descriptive terminologies and philosophies, but again there is largely a common underlying purpose within the Asian mystical religions exampled.

One of the aims and early results of this strategy is dishabituation and a more direct perception of that which is no longer perceived consciously due to familiarity with surroundings and everyday life experiences. Direct perception through mindfulness or 'bare attention' is the first step to expansion of consciousness because it begins to strip the mind of pre-conditioned and automatic reactions to, and judgements of that which is experienced (Ornstein and Naranjo,1971). The ultimate state attainable is the expansion of consciousness to encompass and directly perceive the reality and true nature of the source and processes of the universal cosmic drama.

The strategy of mindfulness (Satipatthana) meditation is outlined in the Visuddhimagga. It has been defined by one modern day monk as 'the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and in us at the successive moments of perception'. It is considered the first step towards gaining punna or discriminating wisdom. Mindfullness leads to insight (vipassana) and finally nirvana. Proficiency in Jhana meditation (absorption meditation or concentration through tranquillity and stillness) is considered a useful pre-requisite but is not imperative (Goleman, 1977).

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Methods for mindfulness and Vipassana meditation have been clearly outlined and advanced upon by the Burmese monk, Mahasi Sayadaw from the Therevada Buddhist school. The four kinds of mindfullness consist in the awareness of;

1. Body - breath, sensations, posture, movement2. Mental states 3. Feelings - likes, dislikes, worry, fear, pleasure, etc. 4. Mind objects - impressions that cause the mind to react (Goleman, 1977)

A basic technique involves making a mental note of as much as possible in one of the above categories as it occurs. For example, mental states that occur such as wandering, intending, imagining, inner talking, etc., are mentally noted. With the body, a mental note is made of each movement and sensations such as stretching, turning, breathing, rising, falling, itching, tingling, etc. As proficiency is increased, the first three categories can be combined. This is often done as a walking meditation along a set path over a short distance. Mindfulness can also be practised during daily activities. At more advanced levels there begins to be awareness of the object and the mind observing it, as well as the intention before each action, thought or feeling. Observation of the minds ephemeral nature leads to the insight of the impermanence of mind and phenomena (Kornfield, 1977).

In Hindu tantric yoga there is a form of mindfulness meditation called Pratyahara (abstracting, withdrawing or letting go). Expansive awareness is achieved by practising detachment from habitual mental reactions that occur when the mind receives impressions. Instead of subjectively judging the impression, the mind remains passive, receptive and expands to encompass and experience the impression as it is (Saraswati, 1992). A similar exercise called the Witness is practiced in Ashtanga yoga. The mind watches itself as if it were external to itself. The aim is for clarity of perception without judgement, allowing things to speak for themselves (Ornstein, 1975).

A form of mindfulness meditation that is a major discipline within the Soto school of Zen Buddhism is Shikan-Taza or 'just sitting'. This is considered a more advanced meditation in which the mind is occupied with nothing except just sitting (Shapiro, 1978). The aim of this is for a gradual opening up of consciousness rather than through rapid and intermittent bursts as in the Koan meditation (Ornstein and Naranjo, 1971). Informal mindfullness meditations are also practised throughout the day by Zen Buddhists. All that is required is that every action is performed and observed with a detached awareness (Shapiro, 1978). This is very similar to that practiced in Therevada Vipassana Buddhism.

The Zen tea ceremony is an example of a more elaborate and ritualised form of mindfulness meditation. This was originally practised by Samurai warriors as a

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means of detaching themselves mentally and emotionally from the rigours and traumas of battle. All 6 senses are focused on each action and interaction (the mind being the 6th sense) creating a feeling of expansive timelessness, appreciation and oneness with the beauty, simplicity and uniqueness of the present moment (Shapiro, 1978).

In Zen Buddhism, more advanced forms of expansive awareness strategies are practised which are considered forms of meditation. They may also be described as expressive creative awareness meditation. In Sumi-e or brush stroke painting, concentrative meditation is practised while the paint is made by grinding charcoal in a circular motion on a rock slab. Then the artist empties the mind and in a state of expansive meditative awareness, absorbs the scene (usually from nature) and spontaneously responds to it by making quick, clear, deliberate, precise and free-flowing brush strokes in an attempt to capture, embody and express the moving spirit of the scene and the moment (Shapiro, 1978).

Haiku is another method in which the same non-discriminatory receptivity is employed to produce simple poetry of 17 syllables grouped in a 5-7-5 pattern. An example from the Zen Buddhist monk Basho reads;

Over the darkened seaOnly the shrill voice of a flying duckIs visibleIn soft white

(Note that the form is lost through translation) (Shapiro, 1978).

A common goal of the strategy of expansive awareness meditation in the religions exampled, is that it eventually becomes a permanent state of consciousness. This is expressed in the saying Zen is walking, Zen is sitting, Zen is eating. Meditation changes from being an exercise to a way of life.

The Trance State

The trance state and associated feelings of ecstasy, bodily flight and visions is commonly experienced during meditation and is documented within the majority of Asian mystical religions studied. It can be reached by both concentrative and expansiveness meditations and could be considered to be an advanced level of expansive consciousness meditation. Within Buddhism, particularly the Zen and Therevada traditions, the novice is warned not to place any significance on the trance state except that it is indicative of a certain level of attainment which must be gone beyond to achieve liberation. This is in contrast with Sufism, Sumarah and Tantric Buddhism where counsel and warning are given about perceiving false experiences as real. The

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trance state itself however is an integral and important part of the meditation process and the practitioners development. (Goleman, 1977. Ornstein and Naranjo, 1971). Emphasis on the relevancy of experiences varies within each of these esoteric disciplines. Within Shamanism, the attainment of trance states and experiences is the central and most critical element (Eliade, 1964).

In Sumarah, although wary of the false being perceived as real, trance states are very much a part of the meditative experience. The state is one of surrender and the dissolution of the boundaries of ego, thought and feeling in order to experience union with the spirit and the source of life (Epton, 1974). It is a means by which the religious leaders receive spiritual counsels which are passed on to the members during communal trance meditations which may last as long as 6 hours (Epton, 1974). This is achieved by various means depending on the teacher. Some utilise concentration methods whereas others such as Sudarno believe that meditation should be a process of emptying oneself so that God can enter, rather than filling oneself with fixed attention (Stange, 1995). In Sumarah, seven levels of meditative trance states have been identified, the 7th usually characterised by visions (Epton, 1974).

Concentrative meditation is the main method used by Shamans of various traditions to enter the trance state. Shamans, rather than seeing visions as a level achieved prior to superior states of consciousness, perceive them as real experiences within the realm of the Gods or the underworld where power and knowledge is attained. The effectiveness of Shamanic mediation in which a drum is used, was shown in an experiment comparing the frequency of brain waves between shamans and experienced Zen meditators. The shamans reached the trance state in as little as 10 minutes. A similar state was reached by experienced Zen Buddhist monks after 6 hours of work (Drury, 1989). Siberian Shamans perform a meditation with an aim similar to that of the 'contemplation of the Skeleton' performed by Eskimo Shamans. The difference is that rather than concentrating, the Shaman calls upon ancestors and spirits to induce the trance and then within that state becomes a passive observer as mythical deities perform the dismemberment and re-formation of their body (Eliade, 1964).

During the practice of Zikr in Sufism, the trance state (mahaba) is reached through concentration on God, movement and sound until the Zikr (remembrance), the zakir (one who remembers) and the mazkur (one remembered) become one. The Sufi becomes lost in an ecstatic enhanced awareness of his beloved in which visions are commonly experienced (Goleman, 1977).

The most common strategy for obtaining the trance meditative state appears to be one of saturating the consciousness with impressions utilising absorptive concentration until it switches off allowing the subconscious mind to transcend waking consciousness and become fully activated. This may explain why the trance state is reached much quicker when chant, movement and music are

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combined, as all the senses are in receipt of impressions resulting in a more rapid saturation of the consciousness. Thus, it is a surrender of the conscious mind and its associated limitations, to the subconscious mind which seems somehow to be a bridge to the unknown and unseen worlds. In this state, the practitioner can unite with and have direct experience with that which is considered higher and more powerful than the human.

Conclusion

Concentration and expansive awareness are the two major strategies underlying the diversity of meditation techniques utilised within the Asian Mystical religions exampled. Concentration is a process of turning off awareness by tuning onto a fixed point. It results in absorption and a union with the element of focus. Within Tantric yoga, Mahayana, Therevada, Vajrayana and Zen Buddhist traditions, it is practised predominantly as a cleansing and training for the mind and to assist in more advanced meditations and contemplations towards the attainment of specific psychological states culminating in release from cyclic existence and union with the ultimate reality. In the more anthropomorphic devotional religions such as Sufism, Hindu Bhakti yoga and Sumarah, it is a means of purification of the mind and renunciation from the coarser aspects of the self leading to a union with the Divine.

In Shamanism, Sufism and Javanism concentration effectively switches off consciousness allowing trance states of union and direct experience of the higher worlds through the realm of the subconscious mind. Concentrative meditation leads to an expansion of consciousness characteristic of the trance state.

Expansive consciousness meditation is based on the strategy of non-attachment, self observation, dishabituation and de-automatisation which opens up the mind to greater levels of perception and experience of reality. It is a stronger feature within Taoism and the Therevada and Zen Buddhist traditions, although concentration is also employed in the early stages of spiritual development.

At the higher levels of consciousness achieved through these strategies, differences appear to diminish as the goal of experiencing higher levels of being and knowing through integration with the more refined, unseen, unknown worlds is attained. The Shaman and Javanese mystic makes frequent journeys to this realm, returning to the present world to make it a better place. For the Taoist, Buddhist, Hindu and Sufi the ultimate aim is complete renunciation of this world and a return to the primordial source from which they came. Meditation is thus a means to attainment of the highest goals of religious humanity.

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