MEDICINAL PLANTSpF^HE ASIA-PACIFIC:DRUGS FOR THE FUTURE?

\'\f „ y CHRISTOPHEWIARTUniversity of Malaya, Malaysia

i World ScientificNEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONGKONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI

Contents

Preface VII

Foreword xxxiFarnsworth

Foreword xxxiiiEtkin

Foreword xxxvWilliamson

Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Cronquist,Takhtajan & Zimmermann 1966,

the Dicotyledons 1

I. Subclass MAGNOLIIDAETakhtajan 1966 1

A. Order MAGNOLIALES Bromhead 1838 2

1. Family HIMANTANDRACEAE Diels 1917 nom. conserv.,the Himantandra Family 2Galbulimima belgraveana (F. Muell.) Sprague 2

2. FamilyANNONACEAE A. L.deJussieu 1789 nom.conserv.,the Custard-apple Family 4Anaxagorea javanica Bl. 5Annona muricata L 7Artabotrys suaveolens Bl. 9Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thorns 11Cyathostemma argenteum (Bl.) J. Sinclair 13Desmos chinensis Lour. 14Fissistigma species 15Goniothalamus macrophyllus (Bl.) Hook. f. & Thorns. . . . 1 7Mitrella kentii (Bl.) Miq 19Orophea polycarpa A. DC. 20Polyalthia cauliflora Hook. f. & Thorns, var. beccarii (King)

J. Sinclair 21

XI

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Pyramidanthe prismatica J. Sinclair(Hook. f. & Thorns.) 23

Uvaria grandiflora Roxb 24

3. Family MYRISTICACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv., theNutmeg Family 27Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb 28Knema globularia (Lamk.) Warb 29Myristica iners Bl 30

B. Order LAURALES Lindley 1833 31

1. Family LAURACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv.,the Laurel Family 31Cassytha filiformis L 32Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Bl. 34Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.BV. Robinson 36

C. Order PIPERALES Lindley 1833 37

1. Family CHLORANTHACEAE R. Brown ex Lindley 1821 nom.conserv., the Chloranthus Family 37Chloranthus eliator R. Br. ex Link 38Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nak 39

2. Family PIPERACEAE C. A. Agardh 1825 nom conserv.,the Pepper Family 40Piper cubeba L.f 41Peperomia pellucida (L) HBK. 43

D. Order ARISTOLOCHIALES Lindley 1833 44

1. Family ARISTOLOCHIACEAE A. L de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Birthwort Family 44Apama corymbosa (Griff.) Willd. 45Apama tomentosa (Bl.) O. Ktze 46Aristolochia indica L 46Aristolochia tagala Cham 49Asarum sieboldii Miq 50Thottea dependens Klotzsch 51

E. Order RANUNCULALES Lindley 1833 52

1. Family RANUNCULACEAE A.L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Buttercup Family 52Coptis japonica (Thunb.) Mak 54Ranunculus sceleratus L 56

Contents xiii

2. Family BERBERIDACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Barberry Family 57Berberis thunbergii DC. 59Caulophyllum robustum Maxim 60

3. Family LARDIZABALACEAE Decaisne 1838 nom. conserv.,the Lardizabala Family 62Akebia quinata (Thunb.) Decne 62

4. Family MENISPERMACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Moonseed Family. 63Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers 65Pericampylus glaucus (Lamk.) Men. 66

F. Order PAPAVERALES Cronquist 1981 67

1. Family PAPAVERACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Poppy Family 68Argemone mexicana L 69Chelidonium majus L 70

2. Family FUMARIACEAE A. P. de Candolle 1821 nom.conserv., the Fumitory Family 72Corydalis incisa (Thunb.) Pers 74

Subclass HAMAMELIDAE Takhtajan 1966 75

A. Order URTICALES Lindley 1833 75

1. Family CANNABACEAE Endlicher 1837 nom. conserv., theHemp Family 75Cannabis sativa L 76Humulus scandens (Lour.) Men. 79

2. Family MORACEAE Link 1831 nom. conserv., the MulberryFamily 80Antiaris toxicaria Lesch 81Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk 83Parartocarpus venenosus (Zoll. & Mor.) Becc. ssp.

forbesii (King) Janet 85

B. Order FAGALES Engler 1892 86

1. Family FAGACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. conserv., theBeech Family 86Castanea crenata Sieb. & Zucc 86Castanopsis cuspidata (Thunb.) Schottky 88

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Lithocarpus elegans (Bl.) Hatus. ex Soepadmo 89

Quercus acutissima Carruthers 90

III. Subclass CARYOPHYLLIDAETakhtajan 1966 91

A. Order CARYOPHYLLALES Bentham & Hooker 1862 91

1. Family AIZOACEAE Rudolphi 1830 nom. conserv., theFig — marigold Family 91Tetragonia tetragonioides (Pallas) O. Ktze 92Trianthema portulacastrum L 93

2. Family CACTACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Cactus Family 95Opuntia dillenii (Ker — Gawl.) Haworth 96Pereskia bleo DC 98

3. Family CHENOPODIACEAE Ventenat 1799 nom. conserv.,the Goosefoot Family 99Chenopodium album L 100Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrader 101

4. Family AMARANTHACEAE A. L de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Amaranth Family 103Achyranthes aspera L 103Achyranthes bidentata Bl. 107Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. 108Aerva lanata (L.) Juss 110Amaranthus spinosus L 112Celosia argentea L 113Cyathula prostrata (L.) Bl. 116Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Men. 117Gomphrena globosa L 118

5. Family MOLLUGINACEAE Hutchinson 1926, nom. conserv.,the Carpet - weed Family 119Mollugo pentaphylla L 120

6. Family CARYOPHYLLACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Pink Family 121Drymaria cordata Willd. 122Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk. 124Saponaria vaccaria L 125Silene aprica Turcz 126

Contents xv

B. Order POLYGONALES Lindley 1833 127

1. Family POLYGONACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Buckwheat Family 127Polygonum barbatum L 128Polygonum chinense L 130

IV. Subclass DILLENIIDAETakhtajan 1966 132

A. Order DILLENIALES Hutchinson 1926 132

1. Family DILLENIACEAE Salisbury 1807 nom. conserv., theDillenia family 132Acrotrema costatum Jack 133Dillenia excelsa (Jack) Gilg 134Dillenia indica L 135Tetracera indica (Houtt. ex Christm. & Panz.) Men. 136

B. Order THEALES Lindley 1833 138

1. Family DIPTEROCARPACEAE Blume 1825 nom. conserv.,the Meranti Family 138Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb 139Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer 140Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Miq 141Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn 142Hopea odorata Roxb 144Shorea sumatrana (van. SI. Ex Foxw) Sym 145

2. Family THEACEAE D.Don 1825 nom. conserv., theTea Family 146Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Ktze 147

3. Family CLUSIACEAE Lindley 1826 nom. conserv., theMangosteen Family 149Calophyllum inophyllum L 150Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Bl. 152Garcinia mangostana L 154Hypericum japonicum Thunb 156Mesua ferrea L 158

C. Order MALVALES Lindley 1833 160

1. Family ELAEOCARPACEAE A. P. de Candolle 1824 nom.conserv., the Elaeocarpus Family 160Elaeocarpus grandiflorus Smith 161

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Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) K. Sch 162Elaeocarpus stipularis Bl 163

2. Family BOMBACACEAE Kunth 1822 nom. conserv., theKapok-tree Family 164Durio zibethinus Murr. 164

D. Order LECYTHIDALES Cronquist 1957 166

1. Family LECYTHIDACEAE Poiteau 1825 nom. conserv., theBrazil-nut Family 166Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn 167

E. Order NEPENTHALES Lindley 1833 168

1. Family NEPENTHACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. conserv.,the East Indian Pitcher-plant Family. 169Nepenthes ampullaria Jack 170

2. Family DROSERACEAE Salisbury 1808 nom. conserv., theSundew Family. 170Drosera burmannii Vahl 171Drosera indica L 173

F. Order VIOLALES Lindley 1833 173

1. Family FLACOURTIACEAE A. P. de Candolle 1824 nom.conserv., the Flacourtia Family 174Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. 174Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Mor. 175Hydnocarpus species 176Pangium edule Reinw. 177Xylosma congesta (Lour.) Men. 178

2. Family BIXACEAE Link. 1831 nom. conserv., theLipstick-tree Family 179Bixa orellana L 179

3. Family ANCISTROCLADACEAE Walpers 1851 nom.conserv., the Ancistrocladus Family 181Ancistrocladus tectorius (Lour.) Men. 181

4. Family CARICACEAE Dumortier 1829, nom. conserv., thePapaya Family 183Carica papaya L 184

5. Family CUCURBITACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Cucumber family 186

Contents xvii

Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn 188Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nak 190Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl. 191Luffa acutangula Roxb. 193Momordica charantia L 194Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng 198Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim 200

6. Family DATISCACEAE Lindley 1830 nom. conserv, theDatisca Family 201Octomeles sumatrana Miq 202

7. Family BEGONIACEAE C. A. Agardh 1825, nom. conserv.,the Begonia Family 202Begonia species 203

G. Order CAPPARALES Hutchinson 1926 205

1. Family CAPPARACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Caper Family 205Cleome gynandra L 206Cleome viscosa L 208Capparis zeylanica L 210Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. 211Stixis scortechinii (King) Jacobs 212

2. Family BRASSICACEAE G. T. Burnett 1835 nom. conserv.,the Mustard family 213Brassica juncea (L.) Cosson 214Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic 215Cardamine hirsuta L 217Nasturtium indicum DC. 218Nasturtium officinale R.Br. 219

H. Order ERICALES Lindley 1833 220

1. Family EPACRIDACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv., theEpacris Family 220Leucopogon Malayanus Jack 221

2. Family ERICACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv.,the Heath Family 222Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude 223Rhododendron moulmainense Hook 224Vaccinium vitis-idaea L 225

xviii Contents

I. Order EBENALES Engler 1892 227

1. Family EBENACEAE Gurke in Engler & Prantl 1891nom. conserv., the Ebony Family 227Diospyros argentea Griff. 228Diospyros kaki L.f. 230Diospyros wallichii K. & G. ex Williams 231

2. Family STYRACACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. conserv., theStorax Family 232Styrax benzoin Dryand. 233

J. Order PRIMULALES Lindley 1833 234

1. Family MYRSINACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv., theMyrsine family 234Ardisia crispa A. DC. 235Embelia ribes Burm. f. 237Labisia pumila (Bl.) Benth. & Hook. 239

V. Subclass ROSIDAETakhtajan 1966 240

A. Order ROSALES Lindley 1833 240

1. FAMILY CONNARACEAE R. Brown in Tuckey 1818nom. conserv., the Connarus Family 240Agelaea trinervis (Llanos) Men. 241Cnestis palala (Lour.) Men. 242Connarus monocarpus L 243Connarus semidecandrus Jack 244Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Leenh 245Roureopsis emarginata (Jack) Men. 246

2. Family CUNONIACEAE R. Brown, in Flinders 1814nom. conserv., the Cunonia Family 247Weinmannia blumei Planch 248

3. Family PITTOSPORACEAE R. Brown in Flinders 1814nom conserv., the Pittosporum Family 249Pittosporum tobira (Thunb.) Ait. 250

4. Family CRASSULACEAE A. P. de Candolle inLamarck & de Candolle 1805 nom. conserv.,the Stonecrop Family 251Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) DC 251Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers 252

Contents xix

Sedum alfredi Hance 254

Sedum bulbiferum Mak. 255

B. Order FABALES Bromhead 1838 256

1. Family MIMOSACEAE R. Brown in Flinders 1814nom. conserv., the Mimosa Family 257Acacia farnesiana (L) Willd 257Adenanthera pavonina L 259Entada phaseoloides (L.) Men. 260Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) deWit 261Mimosa pudica L 264Parkia speciosa Hassk 265

2. Family CAESALPINIACEAE R. Brown in Flinders 1814nom. conserv., the Caesalpinia Family 266Bauhinia purpurea L 268Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. 269Caesalpinia sappan L 271Cassia alata L 272Cassia tora L 274Tamarindus indicus L 276

3. Family FABACEAE Lindley 1836 nom. conserv., the Pea orBean Family 277Abrus precatorius L 279Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 280Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Men. 281Indigofera tinctoria L 283Pongamia pinnata (L.) Men. 284

C. Order PROTEALES Lindley 1833 285

1. Family ELAEAGNACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789nom. conserv., the Oleaster Family 285

Elaeagnus latifolia L 286

D. Order MYRTALES Lindley 1833 287

1. Family LYTHRACEAE Jaume St.-Hilaire 1805nom. conserv., the Loosestrife Family 287Ammannia baccifera L 288Lagerstroemia subcostata Koehne 288Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz 290

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2. Family ONAGRACEAE A.L. de Jussieu 1798 nom conserv.,the Evening Primrose Family 291Ludwigia hyssopifolia (D. Don) Exell 292

3. Family MELASTOMATACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789, nomconserv., the Melastoma Family 293Melastoma candidum D. Don 294Memecylon edule Roxb 296Phyllagathis rotundifolia (Jack.) Bl. 296Sonerila begoniaefolia Ridl. 297

4. Family COMBRETACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv., theIndian Almond Family 298Quisqualis indica L 298Terminalia chebula Retz 299

E. Order CORNALES Lindley 1833 301

1. Family ALANGIACEAE A.R de Candolle 1828 nom.conserv., the Alangium Family 301Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms 302

2. Family CORNACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. conserv.,the Dogwood Family 303Aralidium pinnatifidum Miq 304

F. Order SANTALALES Lindley 1833 305

1. Family OLACACEAE Mirbel ex A. P. de Candolle 1824 nom.conserv., the Olax Family 305Olax scandens Roxb. 306Scorodocarpus borneensis Becc 307

2. Family LORANTHACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1808, nomconserv., the Mistletoe Family 309Macrosolen cochichinensis (Lour.) van Tieghem 309Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq 310

G. Order RAFFLESIALES Kerner 1891 311

1. Family RAFFLESIACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. conserv.,the Rafflesia Family 311Rafflesia hasseltii Suring 311

H. Order CELASTRALES Wettstein 1907 312

1. Family CELASTRACEAE R. Brown in Flinders 1814 nom.conserv., the Bittersweet Family 312

Contents xxi

Celastrus monospermoides Loes 314Celastrus paniculata Willd. 315Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Sieb 317Gymnosporia spinosa (Blco.) Men. & Rolfe 319

2. Family HIPPOCRATEACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1811nom. conserv., the Hippocratea Family 320Salacia grand/flora Kurz 321

3. Family AQUIFOLIACEAE Bartling 1830 nom. conserv., theHolly Family 322Ilex pubescens Hook. &Arn 323

4. Family ICACINACEAE Miers 1851 nom. conserv., theIcacina Family 325Gomphandra quadrifida (Bl.) Sleum. var. angustifolia

(King)Sleum 326

5. Family DICHAPETALACEAE Baillon in Martius 1886,nom. conserv., the Dichapetalum Family 327Dichapetalum griffithii (Hook, f.) Engl. 327

Order EUPHORBIALES Lindley 1833 329

1. Family EUPHORBIACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789nom. conserv., the Spurge Family 329Acalypha indica L 330Acalypha siamensis Oliv. ex Gage 332Acalypha wilkesiana M.A 333Alchornea villosa (Benth.) Muell.-Arg 335Aleurites moluccana (L) Willd. 336Aporosa arborea Muell.-Arg 338Breynia fruticosa (L.) Hook. f. 339Breynia reclinata (Muell. Arg.) Hook. f. 340Bridelia penangiana Hook. f. 341Bridelia stipularis (L.) Bl. 342Cleidion spiciflorum (Burm. f.) Men. 344Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl 345Croton argyratus Bl. 346Croton cascarilloides Raeusch 347Croton tiglium L 348Euphorbia antiquorum L 349Euphorbia hirta L 350Excoecaria agallocha L 352Glochidion littorale Bl. 354

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Glochidion rubrum Bl. 355Homonoia riparia Lour. 356Jatropha curcas L 357Macaranga denticulata (Bl.) Muell.-Arg 359Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell. Arg 361Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Bl.) Reichb. F. & Z o l l . . . . . 3 6 3Phyllanthus emblica L 364Phyllanthus niruri L 366Ricinus communis L 368Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb 370Sauropus androgynus (L.) Men. 371

J. Order LINALES Cronquist 1957 372

1. Family IXONANTHACEAE Exell & Mendoca 1951nom. conserv., the Ixonanthes Family 372Ixonanthes icosandra Jack 373

K. Order POLYGALALES Bentham & Hooker 1862 374

1. Family MALPIGHIACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789nom. conserv., the Barbados cherry Family 374Hiptage benghalensis Kurz 375

2. Family POLYGALACEAE R. Brown in Flinders 1814nom. conserv., the Milkwort Family 377Epirixanthes elongata Bl. 378Polygala brachystachya Bl. 378Salomonia cantoniensis Lour. 379

L Order SAPINDALES Bentham & Hooker 1862 379

1. Family BURSERACEAE Kunth 1824 nom. conserv.,the Frankincense Family 380Canarium Morale Bl. 381

2. Family ANACARDIACEAE Lindley 1830 nom. conserv.,the Sumac Family 382Anacardium occidentale L 383Campnosperma brevipetiolata Volk. 385Cotinus coggygria Scop 386Mangifera foetida Lour. 388Mangifera indica L 389

3. Family SIMAROUBACEAE A. P. de Candolle 1811nom. conserv., the Quassia Family 390

Contents xxiii

Brucea javanica (L.) Men. 392Eurycoma longifolia Jack 394Harrisonia perforata (Blco.) Men. 396Picrasma javanica Bl. 397

4. Family MELIACEAE A. L. DE Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv.,the Mahogany Family 398Swietenia mahogani (L.) Jacq 400

5. Family RUTACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv., theRue Family 401Acronychia laurifolia Bl. 403Atalantia monophylla DC. 405Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck 406Clausena excavata Burm. f. 408Euodia latifolia DC. 410Micromelum hirsutum Oliv. 411Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack 412Paramignya scandens (Griff.) Craib. var. ridleyi 414Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC. 416

M. Order GERANIALES Lindley 1833 418

1. Family GERANIACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv.,the Geranium Family 418Geranium nepalense Sweet 419

2. Family BALSAMINACEAE A. Richard 1822 nom. conserv.,the Touch-me-not Family 421Impatiens balsamina L 422

N. Order API ALES Nakai 1930 424

1. Family ARALIACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv.,the Ginseng Family 424Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer 425Hedera rhombea (Miq.) Bean 429Polyscias scutellaria (Burm. f) Fosberg 430Schefflera elliptica (Bl.) Harms 432Schefflera octophylla (Lour.) Harms 432

VI. Subclass ASTERIDAE Takhtajan 1966 434

A. Order GENTIANALES Lindley 1833 434

1. Family LOGANIACEAE Martius 1827 nom. conserv., theLogania Family 435

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Fagraea fragrans Roxb. 435Strychnos nux-vomica L 436

2. Family GENTIANACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Gentian Family 438Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Lyons 439

3. Family APOCYNACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Dogbane Family 441Aganosma marginata (Roxb.) G. Don 443Allamanda cathartica L 444Alyxia stellata (Forst.) Roem. et Schult 446Alstonia scholaris (L.)R.Br. 447Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don 450Cerbera odollam Gaertn 452Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston 453Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roxb.) Wall. 454Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardn. & Thw. 456Kopsia fruticosa (Ker.) DC. 458Leuconotis eugeniifolius A. DC. 459Nerium oleander L 460Ochrosia oppositifolia (Lam.) K. Schum 462Parameria laevigata (Juss.) Moldenke 463Plumieria rubra L. sensu lato 465Pottsia laxiflora (Bl.) O. Ktze 467Rauvolfia serpentina Benth 468Rauvolfia verticillata (Lour.) Baillon 470Strophanthus caudatus (Burm. f) Kurz. 471Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) Burk. 472Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum 475Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lindl.) Lem 476

4. Family ASCLEPIADACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv.,the Milkweed Family 478Asclepias curassavica L 479Calotropis gigantea (Willd.) Dry. ex WT. Ait 480Cynanchum caudatum (Miq.) Maxim 482Dischidia rafflesiana Wall 484Marsdenia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. 485Metaplexis japonica (Thunb.) Mak 486Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.)R.Br. 487Sarcolobus globulus Wall. 488Tylophora tenuis Bl 489

Contents xxv

B. Order SOLANALES Lindley 1833 492

1. Family SOLANACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. Conserv,the Potato Family 492Datura stramonium L 493Physalis angulata L 495Solanum torvum Sw. 497

2. Family CONVOLVULACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Morning - glory Family 499Argyreia mollis (Burm. f.) Choisy 500Erycibe malaccensis C. B. Clarke 501Erycibe rheedii Bl. 502Evolvulus alsinoides L 503Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. 504Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet 505Ipomoea pes - caprae (L.) R.Br. 507

C. Order LAMIALES Bromhead 1838 509

1. Family BORAGINACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Borage Family 509Carmona microphylla (Lamk.) Don 511Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. 512Heliotropium indicum L 515

2. Family VERBENACEAE Jaume St. - Hilaire 1805 nom.conserv., the Verbena Family 516Vitex negundo L 517

3. Family LAMIACEAE Lindley 1836 nom. conserv., theMint Family 519Ajuga decumbens Thunb 520Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth 522Glechoma hederacea L 525Hyptis suaveolens Poit 526Leucas zeylanica R.Br. 529Ocimum basilicum L 530Orthosiphon stamineus Bth 531Prunella vulgaris L 533

D. Order SCROFULARIALES Lindley 1833 535

1. Family BUDDLEJACEAE Wilhelm 1910 nom. conserv.. theButterfly - bush Family. 535Buddleja asiatica Lour. 536

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2. Family GESNERIACEAE Dumortier 1822 nom.conserv.,theGesneriad Family 537Aeschynanthus radicans Jack 538Cyrtandra cupulata Ridl. 539Cyrtandra pendula Ridl. 540Didymocarpus crinitus Jack 541Didymocarpus platypus C. B. Clarke 542

3. Family ACANTHACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Acanthus Family 542Acanthus ebracteatus Valh 543Acanthus ilicifolius L 544Andrographis paniculata Nees 546Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders 550Barleria prionitis L 551Graptophyllum pictum (L.) Griffith 552Hemigraphis alternata (Burm. f.) T. Anders 553Hygrophila angustifolia R.Br. 554Justicia gendarussa Burm. f. 555Justicia procumbens L 556Lepidagathis incurva D. Don 558Peristrophe roxburghiana (Schult.) Bremek 559Pseuderanthemum graciliflorum Nees 560Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz 561Ruellia repens L 562Staurogyne setigera (Nees) O. Ktze 563

4. Family BIGNONIACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Trumpet-creeper Family 564Dolichandrone spathacea (L. f.) K. Schum 566Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. 567Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv. 568Stereospermum fimbriatum (Wall.) DC. 569

E. Order CAMPANULALES Lindley 1833 570

1. Family CAMPANULACEAE A. L de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Bellflower Family 571Codonopsis lancifolia (Roxb.) Moeliono 571Laurentia longiflora (L.) Peterm 573Lobelia angulata Forst 573Lobelia chinensis Lour. 575Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC. 577

Contents xxvii

2. Family GOODENIACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv., theGoodenia Family 578

Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb 578

F. Order RUBIALES Bentham & Hooker 1873 580

1. Family RUBIACEAE A. Lde Jussieu 1789 nom conserv., theMadder Family 580Borreria articularis (L. F.) F. N. Williams 582Canthium horridum Bl. 583Coptosapelta tomentosa (Bl.) Val. ex K. Heyne 584Gynochthodes sublanceolata Miq 584Hedyotis capitellata Wall, ex G. Don 585Hydnophytum formicarum Jack 587Lasianthus stipularis Bl. 587Morinda citrifolia L 588Morinda umbellata L 590Mussaenda mutabilis Hook. f. 591Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. 591Nauclea officinalis (Pierre ex Pitard) Men. & Chun 593Ophiorrhiza communis Ridl. 595Paederia foetida L 596Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) K. Schk. 597Psychotria curviflora Wall 598Randia esculenta (Lour.) Men. 599Rennellia speciosa (Roxb.) Hook. f. 600Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. f. 601Urophyllum glabrum Wall. 601

G. Order DIPSACALES Lindley 1833 602

1. Family CAPRIFOLIACEAE. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Honeysuckle Family 602Lonicera japonica Thunb 603Viburnum dilatatum Thunb. 605

H. Order ASTERALES Lindley 1833 607

1. Family ASTERACEAE Dumortier 1822 nom. conserv.,the Aster Family 607Adenostemma lavenia (L.) O. Ktze 609Ageratum conyzoides L 610Artemisia vulgaris L 611Bidens pilosa L 613Blumea balsamifera (L) DC. 615

xxviii Contents

Carpesium abrotanoides L 616Dichrocephala latifolia (Lamk.) DC. 618Eclipta prostrata (L.) L 619Elephantopus scaber L 621Emilia sonchifolia (L.)DC. 623Eupatorium fortune! Turcz 624Eupatorium odoratum L 625Galinsoga parviflora Cav. 626Gnaphalium luteo-album L 627Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Men. 628Pluchea indica (L.) Less 629Saussurea lappa C. B. Clarke 631Spilanthes acmella (L.) Murr. 633Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn 635Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less 636Xanthium strumarium L 638Wedelia biflora DC. 639

Class LILIOPSIDA Cronquist,Takhtajan & Zimmermann 1966,

the Monocotyledons 641

I. Subclass ARECIDAE Takhtajan 1966 641

A. Order ARALES Lindley 1833 641

1. Family ARACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom. conserv. theArum Family 641Acorus calamus L 642Aglaonema oblongifolium (Roxb.) Kunth 644Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) G. Don 645Arisaema japonicum Bl 647Pistia stratiotes L 648Raphidophora minor Hook. f. 649

II. Subclass COMMELINIDAE Takhtajan 1966 650

A. Order COMMELINALES Lindley 1833 651

1. Family COMMELINACEAE R. Brown 1810, nom. conserv.,the Spiderwort Family 651Aneilema medicum (Lour.) Kostel 652Commelina nudiflora L 652Floscopa scandens Lour. 654Forrestia griffithii C.B. Clarke 654

Contents xxix

B. Order ERIOCAULALES Nakai 1930 655

1. Family ERIOCAULACEAE Desvaux 1828 nom.conserv, thePipewort Family 655

Eriocaulon australe R.Br. 656

C. Order RESTIONALES J. H. Schaffner 1929 657

1. Family FLAGELLARIACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom.conserv.,the Flagellaria Family 657

Flagellaria indica L 657

D. Order CYPERALES G.T. Burnet 1835 658

1. Family CYPERACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom conserv.,the Sedge family 658Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Kunth 659Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk 660Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Suring 660Cyperus rotundus L 661Eleocharis dulcis (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Henschel 662Fimbristylis miliacea 663

2. Family POACEAE Barnhart 1895 nom. conserv, theGrass family 664Apluda mutica L 665Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Mak 665Bambusa multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch 666Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin 667Coix lacryma-jobi L 668Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf 669Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers 672Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. f 673Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. 674Lophaterum gracile Brongn 675

III. Subclass ZINGIBERIDAE Cronquist 1978 676

A. Order BROMELIALES Lindley 1833 676

1. Family BROMELIACEAE A. L. de Jussieu 1789 nom.conserv., the Bromeliad Family 676

Ananas comosus (L.) Men. 677

IV. Subclass LILIIDAE Takhtajan 1966 678

A. Order LILIALES Lindley 1833 678

xxx Contents

1. Family AMARYLLIDACEAE J. St. HILAIRE 678Agave americana L 678Crinum asiaticum L 680Curculigo latifolia Dryand. 682Narcissus tazetta L 684

2. Family IRIDACEAE A. L. de Jussieu nom. conserv., theIris Family 685Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC. 686

3. Family TACCACEAE Dumortier 1829 nom. Conserv., theTacca Family 687Tacca integrifolia Ker-Gawl 688

4. Family DIOSCOREACEAE R. Brown 1810 nom. conserv.,the Yam family 689Dioscorea hispida Dennst. 690

B. Order ORCHIDALES Bromhead 1838 692

1. Family BURMANNIACEAE Blume 1827 nom. conserv.,the Burmannia Family 692Burmannia disticha L 693

Index 695

List of Native Names 705

Appendix 719