medicinal and aromatic plants in the sudan-1
TRANSCRIPT
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research and Development
Ahmed Khidir Yagoub
College of Applied and Industrial Science, University of Juba,
P.O.Box 794, Omdurman, Sudan.
email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
This paper is a plan for a proposal to develop a Medicinal and Aromatic plants project
consisting of documentation, collection, chemical and pharmaceutical investigation and
trade initiation.
A description of the geography, social and political structure, biodiversity and nature
conservation as well as a short survey of wild plant collection and trade is given to
outline the high potential of the Sudan as a rich projection of diverse geographic and
climatic zones.
A suggestion for the relevant legislation for nature conservation and protected areas is
presented with a tentative code for regulating wild plants trafficking, collection and trade.
This has not been the concern of environmental and wild life conservation bodies and
lawmakers before.
A plan is set for creating a database to include the little phytochemical research work
done locally together with the literature on the country's flora and the associated folk
medicine.
The technical investigation plan include collection of plants with taxonomic and
population analysis. Constituents are reached through cold extraction and freeze drying to
preserve sensitive components. Mapping of constituents is done with GC/Mass
Spectrometry analysis. This opens the way for preparative chromatography and for the
unknown candidate components for structure elucidation. New components are to
undergo elaborate biological screening on mammals and microorganisms by conventional
methods. Modern screening with microprocessor controlled chip robotics is
complementary to map and model the full potential of a plant. The information on
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collection and technical investigation is a feedback to the database to guide future
economic development plans.
Setting the proposal layout and work plan determines the required facilities, work force,
premises and the logistics for the establishment.
CONTENTS:
1. Introduction.
2. The Potential.
2.1 Social and Political structure.
2.1.1 Government and Politics.
2.1.2 Society.
2.2 Geography and Climate.
2.2.1 Geography.
2.2.2 Climate.
2.3 Ecosystem.
2.3.1 Natural Vegetation.
2.4 A Model Ecosystem.
2.4.1 Biological Diversity.
2.4.2 Environmental Awareness.
2.5 Conservation and Protection.
2.5.1 National Concern.
2.5.2 Biodiversity Prospecting.
2.5.3 Commitment.
2.6 Economic Status.
2.6.1 The Trade.
2.6.2 The Handicap.
2.6.3 Promotion Prospects.
3. The Proposed Establishment.
3.1. Database.
3.1.1 Literature Data.
3.1.2 Created Data.
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3.1.3 Post-Collection Processing.
3.1.4 Folk Medicine.
3.1.5 Data Retrieval.
3.1.6 Examples of Database.
3.2 Agricultural Promotion.
3.3 Industrial and Large Scale Production.
3.4 Laboratory Investigation.
3.4.1 Extraction.
3.4.2 Analysis.
3.4.3 Screening.
3.5 Laboratory and Inventory Requirement.
3.6 Project Phases.
4. References.
5. Appendices.
Appendix A.
Appendix B.
1. INTRODUCTION.
This is a tentative proposal and a road map for establishing a research body to deal with
medicinal and aromatic plants and the wild flora of the Sudan in collaboration with
learned institutes. The link with the outside world is meant to attract the interest in the
research outcome and therefore maintain the logistics. This has been thought of within
the New Sudan model now being envisaged.
Medicinal plants, since times immemorial, have been used in virtually all cultures as a
source of medicine. The widespread use of herbal medicines and healthcare preparations,
as those described in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Bible, and obtained from
commonly used traditional herbs and medicinal plants, has been traced to the occurrence
of natural products with medicinal properties. The use of traditional medicine and
medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a basis for the maintenance of good
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health, has been widely observed [1] furthermore, an increasing reliance on the use of
medicinal plants in the industrialised societies has been traced to the extraction and
development of several drugs and chemotherapeutics from these plants as well as from
traditionally used rural herbal remedies [2]. Moreover, in these societies, herbal remedies
have become more popular in the treatment of minor ailments, and also on account of the
increasing costs of personal health maintenance. Indeed, the market and public demand
has been so great that there is a great risk that many medicinal plants today, face either
extinction or loss of genetic diversity.
It is very important to promote, in all countries, taxonomic research on the native flora to
validate traditional uses, and at the same time discover new compounds that might be
applied in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, and in agriculture.
The beginning is information; the target is a data base to document earlier work, which is
a very limited phytochemical investigation, including information on traditional medicine
and other uses of plants. The data base will be a guide to the strategies and priorities on
which candidate plants are subjected to research study. Extraction, chemical analysis and
biological screening are of course the motto of the establishment. We hope that the
establishment will offer guidance and technical assistance to researchers in the field and
make suggestions to successful investment on products for local consumption and for
export. A strong affiliation to a centre of learning specialized in the field is strongly
recommended. This is understood in the frame of advice, technical assistance by real
presence and contribution to the research work and appraisal for both the establishment
and the donor.
2. THE POTENTIAL.
In this major section the geography climate and ecosystems of the country are briefly
describe to show its natural wealth in comparison with other African and developing
nations. Information on trade and economics of natural products and investments on
processing them are scarce not only because of secrecy but because of many undefined
attributes of the trade and lack of standards.
2.1 Social and Political Structure of the Sudan
2.1.1 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS.
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Government: Before the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), 2005, all executive
and legislative powers vested in Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation
(RCC-NS), fifteen-member body of military officers. RCC-NS chairman Lieutenant
General Omar Hassan Ahmad al Bashir designated president of the republic and prime
minister. RCC-NS appointed members of Council of Ministers, or cabinet, governors of
states, and judges of courts.
The Sudan government and rebels from the south have signed the accords making up a
peace deal to end 21 years of fighting. The agreement includes a permanent ceasefire, and
protocols on sharing power and wealth. The conflict left some 1.5m people dead and
double as much refugees at the north and neighbouring counteries. UN Secretary General
Kofi Annan says peace in the south would pave the way for an end to the conflict in the
western region of Darfur. This is what optimists, such as Mr Annan, believe. They argue
that a framework for sharing power and wealth with the southern rebels can serve as a
model for Darfur. Apart from an 11-year period from 1972-1983, Sudan has been at war
continuously since independence in 1956.
Both sides began formal talks in 2002. When an agreement was reached in May 2004,
negotiators hoped everything would be finalized within weeks. But disagreements
prolonged the talks, until in November both sides promised to reach a final deal by the
end of the year.
On 31 December 2004 the final issues - a permanent cease-fire, and how to implement
the peace deal - were settled. The government and the southern rebels have agreed to set
up a 39,000-strong army comprising fighters from both sides. They agreed that the south
should be autonomous for six years, culminating in a referendum on the key issue of
independence. Sudan has recently become an oil exporter and both sides have agreed on
the key issue of how to share out the revenue, which mostly comes from the south. The
SPLA has secured a large share of Sudan's oil money and lots of jobs The signing of the
framework deal went ahead after months of delay over a number of issues. Much of the
wrangling was over the distribution of government and civil service jobs between the two
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sides. In the end, they agreed on a 70:30 split of all jobs in the central administration in
favor of the government.
Administrative Divisions: In 1991 RCC-NS decreed division of Sudan into nine states.
Each state further subdivided into provinces and local government areas or districts.
Justice: Court system consisted of civil and special courts. Civil courts required to apply
Islamic law, or sharia, but also permitted to consider customary law in reaching
decisions. Apex of civil judicial system was High Court of Appeal. Lower courts
consisted of state courts of appeal and at local level, major courts and magistrate's courts.
Special courts, under military jurisdiction, dealt with offenses affecting national security
or involving official corruption.
Politics: Although RCC-NS banned all political parties in 1989, it tolerated political
activity by National Islamic Front (NIF), a coalition dominated by the Muslim
Brotherhood. All other parties persecuted, and their leaders had reorganized abroad or in
southern areas outside government control. Opposition parties tended to be sectarian.
Umma Party and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) represented Muslim constituencies in
northern Sudan; Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) drew support from
predominantly non-Muslim and non-Arab population of south. See Appendix A, Table 1,
(Sudan Data Profile).
2.1.2 SOCIETY
In Sudan’s 1993 census, the population was calculated at 26 million. No comprehensive
census has been carried out since that time due to the continuation of the civil war.
Current estimates from the Central Intelligence Agency fact-book as of 2004 estimate the
population to be about 39 million. The population of metropolitan Khartoum (including
Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is growing rapidly and ranges from 6-7
million, including around 2 million displaced persons from the southern war zone as well
as western and eastern drought-affected areas.
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Sudan has two distinct major cultures Arabicized Africans, Africans and Arabs with
hundreds of ethnic and tribal divisions and language groups, which makes an
inhomogeneous ethno-religious setup.
The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most of the urban centers. Most
of the 22 million Sudanese who live in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though
the majority also use a traditional non-Arabic mother tongue--e.g., Nubian, Beja, Fur,
Nuban, Ingessana, etc. Among these are several distinct tribal groups: the Kababish of
northern Kordofan, a camel-raising people; the Ga’alin , Rubatab , Manasir and
Shaiqiyah of settled tribes along the rivers; the seminomadic Baggara of Kurdufan and
Darfur; the Hamitic Beja in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the northern Nile areas,
some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara River; and the Nuba of southern
Kurdufan and Fur in the western reaches of the country.
The southern region has a population of around 6 million and a predominantly rural,
subsistence economy. This region has been negatively affected by war for all but 10 years
since independence in 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure
development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have
died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced or have become refugees as a result
of the civil war and war-related impacts. Here the Sudanese practice mainly indigenous
traditional beliefs, although Christian missionaries have converted some. The south also
contains many tribal groups and many more languages are used than in the north. The
Dinka--whose population is estimated at more than 1 million--is the largest of the many
black African tribes of the Sudan. Along with the Shilluk and the Nuer, they are among
the Nilotic tribes. The Azande, Bor, and Jo Luo are “Sudanic” tribes in the west, and the
Acholi and Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into Uganda.
2.2 Geography and Climate.
Sudan's total population in 2003 is 31 million, of whom 75% live in rural areas. The
economy is predominantly agricultural (including livestock production, forestry, and
fishing), and this contributes about 40% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
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Agricultural exports have, up till now, been the mainstay of the Sudan's economy,
with cotton in the lead followed by livestock, meat and oil seeds. Sudan is also the
world's largest producer of the non wood forest product gum Arabic. Sudan started
exporting oil in august 1999 and this is now its number one foreign exchange earner.
2.2.1 GEOGRAPHY.
Sudan is a country of nearly 2,500,000 km2 and is extended between latitude 3°53' N
and 21°55' N and longitude 21°54' E and 38° 30' E. bounded by the Red Sea and by
nine other African Nations. Sudan is essentially a vast plain interrupted by few hills
or mountains and divided from south to north by the River Nile and its tributaries.
The soil is dominated by the central clay plain soils; however, sixteen soil regions
were identified in this country, including in addition to central clay plain, the southern
uplands soils, Jebel Marra, southern clay plain, central Kordofan basin, Nuba upland,
Gash and Tokar Delta, alluvial plain complex, ironstone, marshes soils, etc. See
Figure (1).
The most salient geographical feature of the country is the Nile system. The Blue Nile
with its tributaries, originates in the Ethiopian Highlands, and annually provides some
66 milliard cubic meters (md.c.m) of water. The White Nile flows from lake Victoria,
but the greater part of its run off is lost in the Sudd swamp area inside Sudan,
bringing only some 20 milliard cubic meters up from Southern Sudan towards
Khartoum. At Khartoum, the two rivers meet to form the main River Nile, which runs
north to the Mediterranean.
Each tributary is shared by more than one country: The Blue Nile transcends the
boundaries of Ethiopia and Sudan. The White Nile runs across Uganda and Sudan.
The Main Nile crosses Sudan and Egypt. The Sudan shares Nile water, and the costs
of storing it, with Egypt under the Nile water Agreement of 1959. The big variation in
flow of both the Blue Nile and the White Nile between the flood season (June-
September) and low river (March to May), has necessitated the construction of dams
to store irrigation water and to generate hydroelectric power.
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The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (NSA) is a huge fossil water resource, located in the
eastern Sahara desert in northeastern Africa (see Figure 2 and 3). It is shared among four
countries—Chad, Egypt, Libya and Sudan—and contains an estimated 150 000 km3 of
groundwater [3]. The total current extraction from the NSA is estimated at 1 500 million
m3/yr. The Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe
(CEDARE) is developing a regional strategy for the sustainable utilization of the aquifer,
to be adopted by the four sharing countries. This strategy will consider sustainability of
the resource, as well as the development dimension in each country, based on current and
future needs.
2.2.2 CLIMATE.
Sudan lies entirely within the tropics, with predominantly continental climate. An
exception is the narrow coastal plain and the eastern slope of the Red Sea Hills where
maritime characteristics domain. Two main flows of wind can be recognized i.e.
northerly and southerly winds. The northerly air masses are extremely dry due to their
continental origin and descent from higher altitudes as they move southwards. The
southerly humid winds originate in the Indian and Atlantic oceans loose most of their
humidity during their long and slow passage over East and Central Africa to Sudan.
Nevertheless, they become maritime when they reach the Sudan and cause rainfall in the
autumn. The maritime influence of the Mediterranean Sea is sometimes felt in the
northern Sudan but that of the Red Sea , though of considerable local importance near the
coast, is negligible in land. Climatically Sudan can be divided into three regions. The
desert region, north of latitude 19° N, with daily maximum temperature of 24 °C in
January and 49.5 °C in June. The rain fall is infrequent due to the prevailing of the dry
northerly winds through out the year. The typical tropical continental climate south of
latitude 19° N, which is dominated by the movement of the inter-tropical convergence
between the dry northerly and moist southerly winds. The rain fall range from less than
100 mm in the desert to 1500 mm in the high rainfall Savannah and mountain rain forests
of the subtropics. The third region is the Red Sea Coast and Eastern slopes of the Red Sea
Hills where the northerly winds prevail throughout the year but the climate is modified by
the maritime influence of the Red Sea. The mean daily Temperature is 27.1 °C in January
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and 40.9 °C in June. Other regions of specific local climate are Jebel Marra, Eastern and
South Eastern Uplands, and the Arid South Eastern Plains of the Sudan. See Appendix A,
Table 1, (Sudan Data Profile).
2.3 Ecosystems.
The ecosystems of Sudan are deteriorating rapidly due to multiple interacting factors
mostly due to socio-economic changes which result in excessive grazing, felling, soil
erosion, desertification, over-hunting, land degradation and declining biological diversity.
There is evidence that many aquatic and terrestrial species have either disappeared, or are
subjected to serve threats resulting from the destruction of their habitats. Limitation of
legislation and law enforcement efforts which call for protection of biodiversity have led
to improper utilization and misuse of natural resources and adversely affected the biota
both at sea and land. Lack of clear policy and strategy for the conservation and
management of resources has led to non-sustainable use of resources and irreversible loss
of biota.
2.3.1 N ATUR AL V EGETA TION
2.3.1.1 Forest Plants Diversity [4]
The Forest Resources Assessment by FAO in 1990 indicated a tree cover of 19% of the
Sudan's area (excluding the southern part of the country) while the National Forest
Inventory estimated forest cover to be 24.9% of the total area of the country. Reserved
forests amount to 837 forests distributed all over the states of the country. They constitute
a great potential for biodiversity conservation. Forests play a pivotal role as a component
of natural resources and land use. Since production is not as good an indication as
variability of biodiversity, what is considered as unproductive forests and bush land does
not reflect less diversity. It is estimated that there are about 533 tree species in Sudan of
that 25 species are exotic. In addition, there are about 184 shrub species of that 33 are
exotic. However, the forest wealth has neither been adequately explored nor has it been
well documented. What is known is that there are unique forest formations in Sudan in
form of relic rain forests termed "Bowl" forests in Equatoria States in southern Sudan
such as in Azza, Talenga and Leboni. These areas deserve to be reserved. There are
diverse uses for forest products in Sudan the magnitude of which depend on distribution
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and composition within the region and/or location. These uses can be summarized in
timber, non-timber, building material, fuel wood, fodder, gum and tannin production, and
medicine and for bee forage and building hives. There are some important trees species
that are under pressure and endangered as a consequence of repeated droughts or over-
cutting and felling. Some of these do not have the ability to regenerate such as Adansonia
digitata (Tabaldi), Borassus aethiopium (Daleib), Hyphaene thebaica (Doum), Cordia
abyssinica (Gimbeel), Dalbergia melanoxy/on (Abanos), Grewia tenax (Gudeim),
Anogeissus leiocarpus (Sahab), Lonchocarpus laxiflorus (Horhor), Ziziphus spina-christi
(Sidir)and Khaya senega/ensis (Mahogany). There are many others that are endangered to
a less degree. 3156 species representing 1137 genera and 170 families of medicinal plants
were identified in Sudan. The experience of traditional use of medicinal plants in Sudan
had evolved for centuries as a part of the Sudanese authentic culture. It is believed to
have been introduced from West Africa and the Middle East. There is good
documentation of medicinal plants, but more research is needed for scientific evaluation
and investment in this area. See Figure 4
2.3.1.2 Range Plants Diversity. [4]
Rangeland areas of Sudan are variable as they extend over six ecological zones: desert,
semi-desert, low rainfall savanna on clay, high rainfall savanna and mountain regions.
These rangeland areas occupy about a 117 million ha. Communal grazing is the dominant
use of rangeland. There is no legislation governing rangeland use. So far, 204 range plant
species are collected and identified. Currently, perennial and desirable plant species are
declining due to expansion of cultivation on rangeland areas and heavy grazing, recurrent
droughts and increasing livestock populations. Perennial species are almost extinct and
annual grass species constitute more than 94% of the grassland vegetation. The most
dominant grass species are Hyparrhenia spp., Pennisetum pedice/latum, Brachiaria spp.,
Chlorisvirgata, Artistida Spp., Cenchrus biflorus, and Eragrostistremula. An example of a
unique group of rangeland plants is the "gizzu" vegetation, which grow in the desert area
and provide highly nutritious winter grazing. Range plant species under pressure are;
Blepharislinarifo/ia, Andropogan gayanus, Panicum turgidumand Aristidap/umosa.Some
endangered plant species are such as Cymbopogonproximus, schoenofe/dia graci/is and
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Rottboe//iaexa/ata.
There are also five regionally recognized hotspots in Sudan, these are:
The isolated Jebel Marra volcanic massifs near the Sudan border with Chad, with
about 950 plant species. See Figure 5,6,7,8
Jebel Elba, a mountainous ecosystem bordering the Red Sea between Egypt and
Sudan. This is a transitional area between Afrotropical and palaearctic
biogeographic realms and has an estimated three to four times as many plant
species as desert areas further north.
A unique feature of western Sudan is the Nuba Mountain range of southeast
Kurdufan in the center of the country, a conglomerate of isolated dome-shaped,
sugarloaf hills that ascend steeply and abruptly from the great Sudanic plain.
Many hills are isolated and extend only a few square kilometers, but there are
several large hill masses with internal valleys that cut through the mountains high
above the plain. See Figure 9,10,11,12,13
The Imatong Mountains and surrounding lowlands on the border between Sudan
and Uganda. This area has nearly half of the total flora of Sudan and 12 endemic
species of plants. See Figure 14,15.
The White Nile bisects the plain and provides large permanent water surfaces
such as lakes Fajarial, No, and Shambe. Second, As Sudd, the world's largest
swamp, provides a formidable expanse of lakes, lagoons, and aquatic plants,
whose area in high flood waters exceeds 30,000 square kilometers. See Figure
16,17,18,19,20,21
Coral reefs are widely spread and well developed in the Red Sea, with 194 species of
coral and at least 450 common reef-associated species. These are also some of the most
northerly located coral reefs, and have many endemic species.
Mangroves are found along the southern Red Sea coast, and are important sources of
molluscs, crabs, shrimp, fish, and raw materials for construction, animal fodder, and fuel.
They are also important nesting sites for migratory water birds. Sea grasses are also fairly
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common along the southern Red Sea, and rare or protected species such as turtles and
dugongs add to the species richness and diversity that attracts an estimated one million
tourists per year to the region [5].
Relatively little has been done on the ecosystems of the Sudan. A proper study is
dynamic in the sense that it is regularly updated within the frame of open systems which
are interacting and exchanging the organism and the physical features. Because of the
war and the regional disputes this has rarely been done and at some regions not even a
survey or an observation tour. See Appendix A, Table 1, (Sudan Data Profile).
2.4 A Model Ecosystem.
The Blue Nile and main Nile ecosystem has received wide study and monitering
[6]. In the Sudan this ecosystem falls within the administrative boundaries of seven of
the Sudan's 26 'states' and below them within the jurisdiction of provinces, and local
and village councils. It is managed by the ministries of Irrigation & Water Resources,
Electricity, and Agriculture & Forestry and recently The ministry of Environment and
Physical Development.
The Nile waters in the ecosystem sustain a number of public sector agricultural
irrigation schemes such as Gezira and others, and a number of private holdings.
The river basin, 5-10 kilometres (km) wide is physically and biologically inseparable
from the surrounding drylands, but the importance of the Nile's water, and the
complexity of its management, tends to overshadow the considerable importance of
the rainfed areas in the ecosystem.
In the far north of the ecosystem, it is true, the Nile valley is little more than an
elongated oasis in the desert; but further south, semi-arid rainfed areas are vital both
for crop production and for their dry forest and rangeland vegetation. However, the
irrigated areas have been focused on at the expense of the rainfed areas, and the two
have not been conceptualized sufficiently as a single ecosystem.
2.4.1 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Agricultural Diversity in Blue and Main Nile Ecosystem
Cereals, vegetables, legumes, fruit trees, fibre and medicinal and aromatic plants,
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many of which have formed part of the roster of Nile valley crops since Pharaonic
times, are grown in the ecosystem. Some such as vegetables and cotton are
predominantly crops of irrigated areas; but others are mainly rainfed crops. Many
wild products are important too.
The Sudan is a centre of origin for sorghum and all three wild sorghums believed to
be the progenitors of cultivated sorghum are found there. It is home to the important
forage crop S. sudanense (Sudan grass). The Sudan is also an important source of
sesame genetic diversity. Three wild relatives of sesame are recognized in Sudan, and
selection by farmers has resulted in many land races adapted to particular ecological
areas.
More than 30 species indigenous to Sudan are used for fibre production, most
growing wild. The most widely used is the Dom palm (Hyphaene thebaica). The most
important cultivated fibre crop in the country is cotton, and the growing and spinning
of cotton in the Sudan dates back to pre Christian times. True wild cotton species are
reported in Sudan.
Vegetables grown include okra; onion; cucurbits like melons, watermelon, pumpkins
and squash; root vegetables like radish and carrot; and leafy vegetables like Jew's
mallow, purslane, rocket and chard. Wild types of okra exist in Sudan. Wild melons
belonging to the group of C. melo agrestis grow in the country. So too do wild
relatives of the watermelon e.g. Citrullus colo cyn this.
The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is believed to have been grown in Northern
Sudan and Upper Nubia since 3200 BC, with some cultivars probably originating in
Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan.
2.4.1.1 Forest diversity in Blue and Main Nile Ecosystem.
Recent inventories of forest in Sudan indicate that forests still cover about 20% of the
country's surface area. Large tracts of forest were removed from the ecosystem during
the 20th century for agricultural expansion, urban settlements, and charcoal for
Khartoum.
Nevertheless, the forest sector directly contributes some 4 % of GDP annually. Forest
browse is also vital for the diet of livestock and the 20% of the Sudan's export income
which is derived from livestock depends heavily on it. In-country, most tangible
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benefits derived from the forests are fuelwood (firewood and charcoal), building
poles, timber and non-wood products. Forests also generate indirect benefits in the
form of environmental protection, biodiversity conservation, soil amelioration and
employment.
The most important commercially recognized non-wood forest product in the
ecosystem is gum Arabic from Acacia senegal. Annual exports from the country
range between 20-40 thousand tons, and earn some 50 - 80 million US$. Other
NWFP include fibre from such trees as Hyphaene thebaica, wild edible and semi-
cultivated fruits.
2.4.1.2 Diversity in Medicinal, Aromatic and Culinary Plants.
There are thought to be over 250 species of medicinal, aromatic and culinary plants
belonging in use. Experience has evolved over centuries and been influenced by
influxes of ethnic groups from West Africa and the Middle East.
2.4.1.3 Diversity in Rangelands and Livestock.
Rangelands in the Blue and Main Nile Ecosystem are very variable, and over 200
range species have been collected and identified. Over 70% of the total volume of
livestock feed resources comes from the rangelands themselves, and less than 30%
comes from agricultural residues, green and dry fodder and from concentrates.
The rangeland and its feed resources support a national herd currently estimated at
116 million. Besides generating food security and self-sufficiency in most livestock
products, the sector is the third foreign cash earner after oil and cotton. Both village-
based livestock raising and traditional pastoralism is practiced in the Blue and Main
Nile Ecosystem, though pastoralists are now on the decrease in relation to the total
population.
2.4.1.4 Diversity in Wildlife.
The Blue and Main Nile ecosystem has a rich diversity in wildlife. The Sudan as a
whole is thought to contain 224 species of mammals, 931 species of birds, 106
species of freshwater fish and 90 reptilian species, and many of these are represented
in the ecosystem.
2.4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS.
2.4.2.1 Variability:
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As in many dryland contexts, the Blue and Main Nile Ecosystem is subject to great
variability. Among these major variables can be counted the drought spells of the
1970s and 1980s, and the major floods of 1988, 1994, 1998, 2003 which led to the
loss of homes, pumping units, date palm and citrus groves as river banks were
breached.
2.4.2.2 Modern agriculture:
This is characterized by the use of improved cultivars in a mono-cropping system.
Many high yielding varieties of various crops are being released and introduced in the
Blue and Main Nile Ecosystem, which occur at the expense of indigenous landraces
or older cultivars.
2.4.2.3 Socio-economic factors:
The land tenure system and land fragmentation have forced farmers in the Northern
states in the Blue and Main Nile Ecosystem to shift to high yielding varieties or to
crops with low input and high revenue - such as palm dates production in areas that
used to be cultivated for annual crops. The migration of inhabitants from rural areas
to cities, and the abandonment of farming has its impact on agrobiodiversity.
2.4.2.4 Forest diversity:
Loss of forest in the ecosystem is not only bringing some trees and shrubs to the
verge of extinction, but also destroying habitats for wild animals and birds.
2.4.2.5 Rangelands and livestock, wildlife and medicinal plants:
Rangelands are continuously being encroached upon for often highly unsustainable
agricultural expansion (referred to in the past as 'mechanized shifting cultivation') and
other economic activities. Drought, too, has had a negative impact on the composition
and distribution of range species, and their contraction increases risk.
The livestock sector faces many constraints. There is still poor understanding of the
strategies and needs of the nomadic livestock system; an over-focus on Nile-side
inhabitants and the problems of integrating mobile livestock and intensive agriculture.
Wildlife habitats and animals are also under threat, especially the Oryx gazelle,
Sommering gazelle, Dama gazelle, Addax gazelle, wild sheep, wild ass, and cheetah.
The ostrich, guinea fowl and bustard are now hardly to be found anywhere in the
ecosystem.
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Some species of medicinal flora are threatened by extinction is some habitats such as
Blepharis persica and Salvadora persica. Several indigenous wild or cultivated
species are threatened by illegal bio-piracy practices. e.g. Hibiscus sabdariffa
(karkadeh)
2.5 Conservation and Protection.
The legislation aspects of the environment, protection and conservation of ecosystems
and biodiversity have not received serious attention from authorities and non-government
organizations. Land use and unsustainable management of natural habitat, grazing,
fencing and collection for commercial use is still at large. Identification of social,
economic and ecological factors for a sustainable regional development is lacking and is
not associated with the natural habitat. It is therefore important to establish long-term
strategy for protecting the region ecological diversity and to provide a sustainable
economics prospective for the local population, e.g. tourism, botanical gardens and
protected parks initiative.
2.5.1 NATIONAL CONCERN
Recently the Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded a project in Dinder National
Park, Sudan, aims to preserve biodiversity by encouraging species conservation and the
sustainable use of resources through the integration of local communities in the
utilization and management of natural resources. Dinder National Park lies along Sudan’s
border with Ethiopia and serves as a vital habitat for terrestrial migratory species which
spend the dry season in the park. The park’s extensive wetlands also provide refuge for a
large number of migratory birds. The project will develop and implement an integrated
management plan, in partnership with the impoverished surrounding communities and
with equitable sharing of conservation benefits [7]. The fauna and flora of the park will
receive protection and there are plans to re-introduce certain species which have been
exterminated, such as the Nile Crocodile. This area has received such an extensive effort
because of its Tourism potential. See Figure 22,23,24
It worth mentioning that Ramsar Site management and monitoring has “Through Dinder
Development and Rehabilitation Project”, rehabilitation of some of the Wetlands in
17
Dinder N. Park is going on as well as the ecological baseline surveys were conducted in
support for the management interventions and conservation of the biodiversity that
depend on these wetlands. Scientific reports are available.
In northern Sudan earlier efforts on conservation lent towards forestry more than on the
general concern of biodiversity and therefore include medicinal herbs and plants. Other
positive signs of conservation are shown on Appendix A, Box One, Two and Three;
Table 2 for Protected Areas.
It is imperative that biodiversity conservation efforts in Sudan incorporate modern
knowledge as well as traditional protection systems if they are to be acceptable and
successful. The pressures of urbanization, industrialization, growing population, abuse of
agrochemicals, and uncontrolled fishing and hunting are expected to increase in Sudan
over the next decade. Protection of critical sites and creation of national parks are
therefore needed urgently, together with more sustainable agricultural, forestry and
fisheries practices.
Between 1993 and 1999, more than 30 regional meetings were convened to promote
inter-Arab cooperation on biodiversity conservation, with regular participation by most of
the countries involved. In 1996, the world Conservation Union (IUCN) sponsored a
regional program for Northern Africa and, the Arab League produced a comprehensive
policy program for the Council of Arab Ministers of the Environment meeting, in
November 1997. Trans-border conservation is an issue that has received recent attention,
and plans for protection are underway between Egypt and Sudan.
The establishment of the Council for Natural Resources in 1991 and the creation of a
ministry for Environment by the Government in 1995 was the beginning of taking issues
of conservation and protection seriously.
The NBSAP project's steering committee formulated a task force of seven
national experts to develop the Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP)
18
for the country. The BSAP first draft document was prepared between November and end
of December 1999. It was first reviewed by IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office
(EARO). As part of stakeholders involvement and building consensus the BSAP draft
was distributed to ministries, institutes, agencies and departments of relevance for
comments. To widen the circle of participation five regional based
workshops were held in different parts of the country. The BSAP was also presented in
the project's final national workshop held from 17th to 18th April 2000. It was them
subjected to more discussion and written comments were also received from expert
individuals.
The participants agreed to adopt the BSAP provided that useful comments that have
emerged during the review and discussion of the BSAP draft are incorporated and it is
amended. The BSAP has described the current status and trends of biodiversity in the
country. It identified the threats leading to biodiversity loss. The BSAP has also
identified actions necessary to conserve biodiversity. BSAP covered legislative,
economic and social aspects. It took into consideration the opportunities as well as
constraints and finally proposed projects with associated budgets. It went through a
participatory process of the ministries, institutes and departments involved and/or
represented.
The Higher Council for Environment and National Resources (HCENR) has to efficiently
play its role as a coordinating body for environmental issues. It is fortunate that finally
environmental legislation has been recently enacted and published. This will,
hopefully enhance matters towards conservation [4]. See Appendix A, Table 2.
(Biodiversity and Protected Areas.)
2.5.2 BIODIVERSITY PROSPECTING.
The term bio-prospecting is now used for biodiversity prospecting. It is the collection and
utilization of biological and genetic resources for the purpose of applying the knowledge
derived from them to scientific or commercial purposes.
19
In recent years, there has been an increasing number of contractual agreements that have
been entered into by a number of developing countries with pharmaceutical companies
for the collection of genetic resources of potential useful plants, including medicinals,
and sharing any benefits that may be derived from them[8]. The most commonly cited
and discussed one is that signed in 1991 between INBio (a private non-profit
organization) in Costa Rica and the US-based Merck Pharmaceuticals whereby INBio
would provide Merck with chemical extracts from wild plants, insects and
microorganisms taken from Costa Rica's protected areas for Merck's drug screening
program in return for a two-year research and sampling budget and US$ 1135000 and
royalties on any resulting commercial products.
Biodiversity prospecting has raised a whole series of major social, economic and ethical
issues as well as the biological, chemical, clinical and commercial aspects. Useful
reviews may be found in the volumes[9],[10] and [11]. A summary of the field is given in
a recent article in [12] under the title 'When rhetoric hits reality in debate on
bioprospecting'.
The failure of a large number of companies to follow the example of Merck may be
explained by the fact that the Convention on Biological Diversity signed at the Rio
Summit in 1992 and that came in effect on 29 December 1993, reaffirmed the concept of
national sovereignty of states over the biological resources within their frontiers. Thus
raised issues such as intellectual property rights and access to genetic resources, also
addressed by the Convention. What is not widely realized is that the Convention defines
genetic resources, previously viewed in a mainly agricultural context, in a way that
effectively includes all plant, animal or microorganism material from which genetic
material of actual or potential value can be extracted. Thus collections of plants in
botanic gardens are clearly genetic resources and so are herbarium specimens if DNA can
be extracted from them.
As a consequence some countries have introduced such restrictive legislation that it
makes access to genetic material very difficult and has had the effect of driving away
20
researchers who would otherwise work in the countries concerned on plant exploration
and related fields.
Another possible reasons for the reluctance of pharmaceutical companies to enter into
bio-prospecting agreements with countries is the increasing tendency for the industry to
depend on combinatorial techniques to create new molecules and synthetic drugs rather
than searching for new natural products as a source of new drugs. Others see the future as
one in which the emphasis in bio-prospecting will be on seeking gene-sequence
information that can be used in medicine and biotechnology.
The coverage of intellectual property rights (IPR) has expanded to cover even resources
that were previously deemed to be part of the public domain. A major concern
particularly for developing countries is the TRIPs Agreement which obliges all members
to provide patents in all fields of technology and also to provide IPRs (either patents or a
sui generis system) for plant varieties. Several declarations, at national and international
level, emphasize the need for identification, evaluation, conservation, and sustainable
utilization of plant genetic resources (PGR) particularly, medicinal plants. These
declarations have assumed greater significance under post-WTO era where the TRIPS
Agreement requires patent protection for at least 20 years for any invention of
pharmaceutical product or process.
Genetic conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants has received little priority so far
by genetic resource agencies and ex situ collections are very limited in coverage and size
of accessions. There are substantial gaps in our scientific knowledge and understanding
of in situ conservation of wild species such as the distribution of genetic variation within
populations and methods of sampling it effectively, dynamics of gene flow over time, the
role of marginal populations, demography, etc. [13]
The Convention on Biological Diversity has added a new dimension to the context in
which medicinal and aromatic plants are considered today. The Convention specifically
mentions species of medicinal value in the indicative list of categories of the components
of biological diversity to be identified and monitored (CBD, 1994). It also calls for
21
measures to respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of
indigenous and local communities for conserving and sustainable using biodiversity.
The International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources held in Leipzig, 17-
23 June 1996 is also highly relevant. In the 'Global Plan of Action for the Conservation
and Sustainable Use of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture' that was
endorsed by governments, the promotion of the development and commercialization of
under-utilized crops and species and in situ conservation of wild plants for food
production (in the broad sense), were amongst the priorities listed. Medicinal plants come
under both these headings, both wild harvested and underexploited. Likewise, medicinal
and aromatic plants were included in the discussions held at the 'Ad Hoc Inter Agency
Consultation on Promoting Cooperation on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of
Wild Plants of Importance for Food and Agriculture' held in Paris, France, 11-13
February 1998, that was convened by DIVERSITAS, in association with UNESCO,
FAO, IPGRI and the CBD Secretariat[14].
The International Council for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, ICMAP, has issued guide
lines for legislation and set up of convention for the conservation of MAP [8]. We
recommend Sudan to secure its membership and follow these guide lines in its future
legislative attempts.
1. Request ICMAP, association with FAO and IPGRI and other relevant organizations, to
establish a working group, to review the conservation and sustainable use of the genetic
diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants, and in particular to:
a. Make an inventory of the species concerned, their distribution, variability and
conservation status.
b. Make a survey of the location of genetic resource collections of MAPs and the size of
the accessions.
22
c. Make proposals for action, jointly with rural producers, the agricultural; industry and
consumers, for the in situ and ex situ conservation of MAPs through local, regional and
international organizations.
2. To record ancestral knowledge of the species employed in traditional medicine and
protect the cultural and biological capital they represent.
3. To recommend the protection of the natural resources used therapeutically in
traditional medicine, as a matter of priority.
4. To harmonize at international level the standardization and regulation of phyto-
therapeutic preparations through the production of national and international mono-
graphs, pharmacopoeias, regulations and registration systems.
5. To encourage governments and supranational regulatory bodies to accept monographs
prepared by groups of experts as basic elements for the register of phytotherapeutical
preparations.
2.5.3 COMMITMENT.
The most important international conventions relevant to the collection and trade of
medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) and the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and
Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) of the Council of Europe. The Sudan has signed in
June 1992 and ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity in October 1995,
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The purpose of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 5 June 1992) is the conservation of
biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components. In addition, benefits from the utilization of
genetic resources shall be fairly and equitably shared. The convening Parties shall develop national
biodiversity strategy and action plans in order to guarantee the conservation and the sustainable use of
biological diversity. They shall also identify and monitor components of biological diversity important for
its conservation and sustainable use with regard to the indicative list of categories set down (in annex). The
23
Parties shall take steps for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of biological diversity. In particular, they shall
establish a system of protected areas and promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in
areas adjacent to protected areas.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES;
Washington, March 1973) aims at ensuring that the international trade in species of wild fauna and flora is
sustainable; in CITES terminology: ‘not detrimental to the survival of the species’. However, CITES does
not protect animal or plant species from negative impacts caused by the destruction of natural habitats and
by national use and trade of the species listed. The species are listed in three appendices:
The commercial international trade with species which are threatened with extinction is banned, whereas
non-commercial trade and trade in cultivated material can be allowed. For these specimens export and
import permits are required. The export must not be detrimental to the survival of that species, and
specimens must not be obtained in contravention of the laws of the state of export. The import must not be
detrimental to the survival of the species involved, and imported specimens must not be primarily used for
commercial purposes.
Based on the European Union convention and regulation governing the conservation,
trade and research on medicinal plants we recommend the following draft.
* A regulation for the access to genetic resources and one for the access to and the
transfer of technology. It is stated that The States have sovereign rights over its natural
resources. The access to genetic resources for environmentally sound uses by other
contracting parties shall be facilitated. In return, the access and the transfer to other
contracting parties of technologies that are relevant to the conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity and the use of genetic resources shall be provided and/or
facilitated.
* Wild Flora and Fauna.
A convention aims at protecting the Sudanese wild flora and fauna and their natural
habitats, paying particular attention to endangered and vulnerable species. This require a
24
list of plants endorsed Attached as an annex. The deliberate picking, collecting or
uprooting of these species shall be prohibited.
* Sudanese Habitats, Fauna and Flora Directive
A regulation aims at the protection and conservation of wild fauna and flora and their
natural habitats. For this purpose, a list identifying the protected areas shall be installed.
For the survival of the flora and fauna species included in an annex special protected
areas have to be gazetted. The State shall take appropriate measures to establish a strict
system of protection of the plant species listed , prohibiting the deliberate picking,
collecting, cutting, uprooting or destruction of the listed species.
* Organic Production of Plants and Agricultural Goods.
A regulation which deals with the organic production of plants and agricultural goods.
Any producer who intends to market products as organic or bio-products within the
Sudan has to comply with this regulation. This concerns also products that are not
produced but intended to be marketed in the Sudan. The collection of wild edible plants
and parts thereof are considered organically produced, if (1) growing areas have received
no treatments with products other than those listed in the regulation for a period of three
years before collection, and if (2) collection is sustainable.
* Regulations on Medicinal Products.
In Sudan, phytomedical products should be classified as ’medicine’. Intermediate phyto-
products, which are used for further processing by an authorized sales company or for
producing formulas are not regarded as ‘medicine’ and are therefore not subjected to
licensing.
2.6 Economical Status.
Natural products (herbal medicines) have an estimated global market value of US $65
billion [15]. Even a fraction of this market should be economically appealing to Africa.
This global market demand should no longer be ignored by communities, governments
and donors. As income generators, Multipurpose medicinal Plants (MMP) compare
25
favorably with coffee, oil palm, cocoa, and cotton and their value should no longer be
ignored. Furthermore, MMPs do not appear to be affected by OECD market and trade
barriers that affect other commodities from developing countries. This presents a
significant niche and trade opportunity that should be captured and optimized by
developing countries especially those in sub-Saharan Africa. Rural communities have an
opportunity to effectively use their indigenous knowledge to become serious players in
the global herbal medicine market.
2.6.1 THE TRADE.
China is the biggest producer as well as exporter of medicinal plants, accounting for 30%
of total world trade (by value) in 1991, followed by Korea, USA, India and Chile.
Singapore and Hong Kong are the main re-exporters of medicinal plants in Asia. Japan,
USA, Germany, France, Italy, Malaysia, Spain and US are the major markets. Hamburg
is the world trading centre in medicinal plants. About 53 countries supply medicinal
plants to Germany, of which important ones are India, Argentina, former Yugoslavia,
Greece, China, Poland, Sudan, Egypt, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Zaire, Albania, the
Netherlands and France [16].
"It is not possible to assess the volume or value of the trade in all botanicals that are used
medicinally because trade statistics do not identify all the plants individually and of those
listed, the statistics do not identify medicinal and other uses separately. Products reported
as medicinal plants often include gums, spices and plants used in food industry; certain
plant products include those used for teas and infusions; large volume of plants such as
pyrethrum are used in manufacture of insecticides; plants used by cosmetic industry are
also included. While hundreds of medicinal plants are items of commerce, details of the
volume traded in most of these will only be obtained from individual traders and users".
A large number of LDCs supply other medicinal plants. Sudan is the largest exporter,
having supplied about 37% of total LDC exports and averaging about US $27 million per
year during 1995-1999. [17]
2.6.2 THE HANDICAPS [13].
26
Scientific knowledge of the products produced in the developing countries, and of their
systems of traditional medicine, is limited and this also restricts the market for their
herbal products. As markets grow, the search for a wider variety of ingredients is
increasing. ‘Phytomedicines’ have already started to link traditional medicines with
modern (allopathic) medicine, with research and development primarily funded by large
pharmaceutical manufacturers. Some developed countries have already included into
their national curricula medical, pharmaceutical research of a number of alternative
health systems, while traditional medicine is being developed in parallel with allopathic
medicine in Sudan and other African and Asian countries.
Countries have started also to regulate the production and sale of traditional medicines
resulting in greater consumer confidence. However, there is still a general lack of
knowledge within the world market about the whole range of traditional remedies
available, and demand will grow as knowledge increases. The issue of consumer safety is
increasingly important with the USA recently prohibiting the sale of some Chinese
products. The developing countries will need to pay increasing attention to this issue.
Although there is now wide recognition of the important contributions that medicinal and
aromatic plants make to the global economy and to human welfare, one of the greatest
difficulties in assessing their importance as resources, either locally or globally, is the
shortage of hard information about what species are used, what their distribution is, how
they are collected or harvested, which species are cultivated and where, what are the
quantities involved, what are the trade statistics. Much of the evidence is anecdotal
although there has been a concentrated effort in recent years to gather information on
these various aspects. Thus, national and regional assessments have been published for
several countries; also various global reports have been prepared such as Husain [20] on
international trade, marketing and consumption of essential oils, and McAlpine [19] on
future world trends in supply, utilization and marketing.
2.6.3 PROMOTION PROSPECTS.
The problem with LDC ‘s, Sudan is a member, in the Third United Nations Conference
on the Least Developed Countries (LDC), Medicinal Plants Discussion Document, is
27
summarized (see Appendix A, Box Three and Four ). Its major features are lack of
capitalized investment and research and development schemes as well as lack of
knowledge of supply potential and standardization of products. Also intellectual property
rights IPR became insistently a problem because the use of these medicinal plants for
remedies is cultural heritage. A strategy to improve market knowledge and product
quality of standards to appeal to western markets is recommended based on R&D,
modern market prospecting and electronic trade [17]. (See Appendix A, Box Five.)
The ICMAP has also recommended a package for the promotion of trade transactions [8].
1. In view of the lack of information regarding trade in industrial products based on
MAPs, and about the means of access to these, thereby constituting one of the major
obstacles to their development:
a. Make available information on national, regional and international markets.
b. Establish and strengthen the legal infrastructure (sanitary register) for the
commercialization of MAP products used in human health.
c. Prepare technical norms and the cost levels of agricultural, forestry and industrial
production on a sustainable basis.
d. Establish national associations in the production sector, assisting in commercialization
methods.
2. Make the information available through proper channels in cooperation with the
relevant agencies of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization and the
International Trade Centre.
3. THE PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT.
In this section an outline of a research center and its functions are given. It is meant to be
non-governmental body without permanent research staff. The center has an objective
and a research plan and it provide the facilities for visiting outstanding experienced
chemists, biologists, pharmacist, engineers and supporting technicians to do the
28
investigations. Even financial aspects of investment projects and feasibility studies could
come out from the center. As NGO free interaction with outside world is secured with
avoidance of many shortcomings of beurocracy and redundancy. Short visits by
researchers always maintain a high standard work new ideas and initiatives. Programs
for training the young researcher with outstanding capabilities yet less experienced can be
formulated at will. With such structure we hope that it attracts scientific and academic
interest by donor countries and therefore support and physical presence.
There are continuing indications that the global pharmaceutical industry is suffering from
declining productivity (fewer new medicines are introduced despite increased spending
on research) [20]. Yet there is increasing need for innovation in selecting therapeutic
targets and finding lead compounds.
The vast majority of current drug discovery carried out by the pharmaceutical industry
relies on molecular approaches, involving defined molecular targets. And molecular
approaches in turn are dominated by high-throughput screening. Pharmaceutical
companies with the best and most diverse chemical collections will ultimately dominate
the industry [21]. Broadly speaking, chemically diverse collections can only come from
two sources of large numbers of compounds: combinatorial chemistry and natural
products. Although combinatorial chemistry can provide large numbers of compounds for
high-throughput screening such compounds tend to have limited structural diversity. By
contrast, natural products provide a wealth of small molecules with drug-like properties
and with incredible structural diversity [20].
The most common therapeutic areas for natural product-based drugs are cancer, followed
by metabolic diseases (diabetes mellitus and obesity), anti-infective agents (antibacterial,
anti-fungal and antiviral) and neuropharmacological agents (including analgesics) [22].
There is a vast resource of biodiversity that has not yet been tested for useful
pharmacological activity. Even with higher plants, which probably represent the most
thoroughly examined source, it is estimated that less than 10% of the world’s species
have been tested for biological activity [23]. Of the 20 best selling non-protein drugs in
1999, nine were derived from or developed as a result of leads generated by natural
products [24].
29
3.1 Data base.
The database shall be compiled by any of the available software like “Windows Access”.
In these programs the data is prepared in special forms tailored to the required
information. Latin names or taxonomic names change with time as more elaborate
knowledge piles up on taxonomy and chemotaxonomy. The species, genera and family
names are given with earlier names if available. English, Arabic and vernacular names
should also be given since search should access information with any of these. The
morphological description of the plant with drawings showing the different parts as well
as photographs.
Locality and description of soil type of rain and temperature and climatic attributes are
important for agricultural development from wild cultivations.
Chemical description should be extensive. The method of extraction is fully described
with solvents and physical parameters of the process and all necessary information for
scale up. Any chromatograms or spectral analysis associated with any fractionation or
pure component should be indicated by standardized precise and short presentation.
Unless clear repetition is encountered this should be given for every literature source.
Information on folk medicine may be summarised to show the health problem and the
associated prescription.
The information designated above may not be complete in the earlier literature and
appear as gaps for review in future survey expeditions.
3.1.1 LITERATURE DATA
The information available on the wild flora and medicinal and aromatic plants of the
Sudan shall make the first entry to the data base. The Book, “Flora of the Sudan”, by A.F.
Brounn and R. E. Massey, include the Arabic and tribal names and scientific names as
well as Botanical and taxonomic description. The latter may require updating. The book
also lament the traditional uses and some hints to folklore medicine, this will be extended
to other African, Latin American or Asian experience with ethno-medicine of a related
genus or species. Research and analysis of secondary metabolites and active components,
local and foreign with chemical, phytochemical and pharmacognical goals will be entered
as abstract.
30
The entry shall include the following:
1. The publications of the Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Institute
(MAPRI)., (See Appendix A, Box Three.) They documented their work in several
monographs and research papers published in reputable journals. Their data is a
very important resource for the database: A series; “Medicinal plants of the
Sudan,” in five volumes each is a report on a field trip to a region of the country
where a survey has identified and compiled medicinal information from herbalist
in the area.
Volume I ; covered Erkawit area at the red sea hills region.
Volume II; covered Eastern Nuba Mountains.
Volume III; covered White Nile State.
Volume IV; covered Northern Kordufan State.
Volume V; covered Ingassena Hills at southern part of Blue Nile.
The last trip was (Volume V) at 2003. The work was not continued to all regions
of the country because of the war stricken regions in the west and south and lack
of funding. Each volume contains an average of 60 species. A typical entry for a
species is Latin, family and vernacular name, a short morphological description
with drawing, habitat distribution, and chemical constitution with literature
references, a description of folk uses and occasionally a photograph of the plant.
2. Other Publications of MAPRI based on their research and study tours include;
a. Sudanese Plants of High Medicinal Potential. (Arabic), with similar
entries as above containing 91 species.
b. Aromatic Plants of the Sudan; contains 377 species from 51 genera and 86
families. Data is similar to above plus a description of odor. The data is
compiled mainly from literature.
c. Common Medicinal Plants used in Khartoum State; (Arabic), with 136
species.
d. Proceedings of the Conference on Medicinal Plants of the Arab Nations,
held at Khartoum in October 2002.
e. Bibliography of Sudanese medicinal Plants. A compilation of abstracts
containing 556 entries ( 36 in Arabic).
31
All monographs are supplemented with indices of Arabic, English and Latin
names.
Other important Catalogues of Sudanese medicinal plants, which can enrich the database,
are:
Medicinal Aromatic and Toxic plants in Arab nations, published by the Agricultural
Development Organization, Arab League.
And
The Flowering Plants of the Anglo Egyptian Sudan (1950, 1951, 1952), Vol. 1, 2, 3. By
Andrews, F. W., Buncle & Co. Ltd. Arbroath.
3.1.2 CREATED DATA.
The ecosystems of the country are divided into areas of suitable accessibility and located
on the (1:250,000) map, preferably inline with the world map which is also observed in
satellite maps. Wild plants are collected and their statistical distribution is noted with
location. Among many instruments that will be acquired for this work are high-tech
global positioning systems that will pinpoint the exact location of the plant populations
by sending a satellite signal to determine the location's latitude, longitude and altitude.
Researchers will map and catalogue the plant location in case recollection is needed.
Landsat Multi-spectral Imagery use to Inventory and Detect Changes in Wetlands and
Riparian Areas techniques are also empoloyed[25]. This is accompanied usually with
modern information extraction and representation using digital processing image analysis
and integration with supplementary data using geographical information system (GIS)
[26]. When these tecniques are coupled to principle component analysis and maximum
likely-hood classifier, they are used for land cover classification [27]. We recommend
this and similar digital analysis of imagery data to be used in floral and natural vegetation
classification. Inovations in the interpretation of the data are too many and we report here
an example:
{West Chester University, [28] in cooperation with the Amazon Center for
Environmental Education and Research, has developed a Phytohabitat Index model for
ethnophamacologically important plants found in the tropical rain forests of the Peruvian
Amazon. The Index identifies the most probable locations in the rain forest for these
32
plants. To calculate the Index, a series of numerical weights and ratings are given to the
following factors that are important to the spatial distribution of plants: forest types, soils,
geology, ecological life zones, physiography, and phases of forest succession. A
geographic information system (GIS) was used to process data and calculate the index
from digital maps, data from low level aerial photographs, and Landsat TM satellite
images. Field data were then collected to verify the predictive accuracy and precision of
the index. In each case, the index accurately predicted the occurrence of the most
probable habitats for all of the plants in this study. The study was conducted in a 4700
square mile area of northeastern Peru near the city of Iquitos, a region with some of the
highest plant biodiversity on the planet. The project was aided by the expertise of local
ethnobotanists and shamans practicing natural healing in the region using these plants.}
3.1.3 POST-COLLECTION PROCESSING.
Samples are required for laboratory extraction and analysis, for Herbarium specimen
preservation and for gene bank preservation of dry frozen samples. The latter is process
demanding and need to be done in the field. When preserving sensitive biological
materials, the main enemies are water, oxygen, and heat. Water is a powerful solvent, and
is required for many chemical reactions, including enzymatic breakdown. Oxygen causes
adverse chemical changes through oxidation, which is why anti-oxidant compounds are
so popular. Heat can decompose or breakdown ingredients by itself, while at the same
time accelerating other chemical changes, including enzymatic breakdown and oxidation.
The general process of freeze drying objects has been around for over 70 years. The
process for freeze dried plants began in 1989. By removing all the moisture from the
plant is preserved. As long as they are protected from exposure to sunlight, insects and
humidity, they should last for years and years. The freeze drying machine drops the
temperature to a 20 degrees C then it slowly returns the freeze dried plants to room
temperature over a four week period. This slow preservation process allows the freeze
dried plants to retain their original form. Such frozen samples are preserved in freezing
chamber as genetic material.
3.1.4 FOLK MEDICINE.
33
Information on folk medicine is collected through a questionnaire to standardize the
information and data types of herbalists and local people. Information other than remedial
effects of the plant may also be extracted. Subject area for questionnaire:
- Types of plants harvested over the rainy season
- Types of plants harvested over the dry season
- Wild, weed
- Edible, fodder
- Parts use
- Prescription
- Symptoms
- Ethno-veterinary knowledge
- Availability or non-availability of the plant used i.e. whether the plant had
become more difficult to find in recent years.
- The most important plants used during a one-year period.
3.1.5 DATA RETRIEVAL.
Access to information of the database should use modern serch techniques used in
internet and other databases:
Search by Names, for all given names, Latin, English and the different dilect.
Search by morphological description.
Search by use of the plant as medicinal priscription, remedy, ailment.
Search by native geographical range, locality, habitat.
Search by chemical constitution and name of chemical compounds.
Search by literature authers.
3.1.6 EXAMPLES OF DATABASE.
There are many databases that compile information on natural products and medicinal
plants. Among the important sources of information in this area are NAPRALERT,
Chemical Abstracts, the Dictionary of Natural Products and Beilstein. However, a large
body of knowledge that is generated in Africa is not included in these databases. In most
cases information on plants from Africa is not entered into the databases using the source
34
country as keyword. This shortfall was considered in the construction of the ALNAP
Database.
1. ALNAP staff regularly scan major natural products journals such as
Phytochemisty, Journal of Natural Products, Planta Medica, Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, Phytotherapy Research, Fitoterapia and several African
Scientific journals, Proceedings, Monographs, books, Dissertations and other
miscellaneous manuscripts. Articles that deal with the biology, chemistry,
ethnobotany, and pharmacology of African plants are selected for entry. The title,
authors, keywords, abstract, biological activity, geographic area, etc are entered in
the database. The information can, when needed, be generated through a quick
search, which is then transferred to a text format, saved, printed or transferred via
e-mail. The entries in the database are nearly 13,000.
As of September 2001, the ALNAP Database is on the Internet, managed by the
National Information Services Corporation (NISC - USA) through its branch in
Grahamstown, South Africa. The database can be accessed at www.nisc.com.
(See Appendix A, Box Six).
2. Protabase of Prota; an international foundationwith the objective of the synthesis
of the dispersed information of the 7000 useful plants of tropical Africa and
provide access to the information.
3. Prelude medicinal plants database; A German funded database specialized in
Central African medicinal plants. The data is limited to published work. Search is
by, auther, symptoms, name of family and genus, vernacular and Latin names,
recipe of treatment and title of paper.
4. Plants For A Future database; is a British funded database. Elaborate and detailed
information is given for species including all known names and variation in the
name, range and habitat, agricultural attributes .. cultivation details and
probagation or e.g. for a weed, noxious, invasive and injurious. Physical
characterisics, medicinal and other uses, edible, scent etc. Acomprehensive list of
web references and literature refernces.
35
3.2 Agricultural Promotion.
The loss of natural resources is a constant complaint of rural communities. Providing
communities with the tools and materials as well as the training to manage these resource
investments can help restore their resource base. This is especially true for the sustainable
harvesting and cultivation of MMPs which can help rehabilitate degraded land, generate
household income, provide local affordable healthcare, and help fill the demands of a
rapidly expanding global market for natural health products.
Local residents are well aware of the plants’ ecological requirements and can play an
important role in species selection. Village leadership and institutions (women annd
farmers) can facilitate the establishment of nurseries to produce seeds and seedlings.
Maintenance of established revegetated sites (woodlots, dunes, rangelands, etc.,) would
become the responsibility of the communities and herders. There are a number of good
practices that build on the World Health Organization’s [29] guidelines on good
agricultural and cultivation practices for medicinal plants [30].
Beyond their immediate health values medicinal plants have important ecological,
income generation, cultural, social and religious roles. Like certain other species, planted
medicinal trees, shrubs, and herbs can help check runoff and erosion, control flooding,
purify water, and protect against wind. They can have a positive impact on microclimates
and buffer the effects of desertification. Yet the distinctive opportunistic advantages of
MMPs to help reduce rural poverty have not yet been sufficiently recognized or exploited
in SSA (or globally) by governments or donors. Their uses are poorly defined by resource
managers and researchers, and are generally not reflected in official statistics and
development policies. Neither the socio-economic value nor the potential market for
MMPs is well understood by decision-makers.
The ICMAP has given guidelines for agricultural development of MAP in its first
conference which should be followed by the proposed establisment as one of its prime
goals [8].
36
1. To compile information regarding the cultivation of MAPs, their propagation and their
edapho-climatic requirements as a result of surveys, with a view to preparing guidelines
on specific domestication and cultivation methods.
2. To promote the cultivation of MAPs for the development of phytotherapeuticals and
food supplements of plant origin for the feed of animals used in human diet.
3.3 Industrial and Large Scale Production:
Sudan is very rich in medicinal and aromatic plants and there exists a long experience
in traditional medicine practices at popular level [31]. It is becoming a priority to
develop the production of phyto-pharmaceuticals from local medicinal plants on an
industrial scale. Therefore industrial utilization of indigenous medicinal and aromatic
plants is an important add on to any development on medicinal plants.
By developing the industry of medicinal and aromatic plants, the country will resolve
major bottlenecks in health care, achieve substantial foreign currency savings and
consolidate the socio-economic development plans and programmes.
ICMAP recommendations for industrial scale production:
1. To promote the application of Good Manufacturing Practices and methods for the
validation of industrial processes applied to these plants or extracts from them
2. To recommend that UNIDO and other relevant organizations provide technical
assistance in developing countries for the industrial processes used in MAPs; and to
continue and strengthen training programs in the industrial use of MAPs for the benefit of
humankind.
3. To create a technical information system in modular form, on agriculture, industrial
processing, quality control, equipment design, formulation of products derived from
MAPs; and that this should be freely accessible though suitable means of information
communication.
37
An example of pilot plant project for extraction of Artemisinin from herb leaves. n-
Hexane is used for the extraction of Artemisinin from leaves of Artemisinin Annua,
because it is safer than other solvents. Artemisinin was isolate from mixture of
Artemisinin and wax by Ethanol 5%. The average yield was 2.5 - 3.5 kg Artemisinin per
a ton of dried leaves of Artemisinin Annua, according to international standard. The
process involved countercurrent extraction of artimisinin leavesby n-hexane. The residue
is crystallized from ethanol and wax isolated with solvent washing followed by
recrystallization from alcohol and active charcoal and assaying to give pure artemisinin.
3.4 Laboratory Investigation.
Plants are chosen on the basis of the information obtained from the data base. Candidates
are solvent extracted with literature work as a guide. Extraction is done at room
temperature by percolation and freeze dry evaporation. The extracts are subjected to
GLC/MS analysis for identification of components. Unknown ingredients are isolated by
HPLC and preparative TLC. Elucidation of structure is further done by 1H and 13C n.m.r
and MS. Components with known structures and with abundance giving them potential
for production should be considered for commercialization.
New compounds are tested for biological activity. Toxicity on animals e.g. rodents is
measured and the necessary pharmacological parameters are determined as well as full
fletched physiological activity on the different functions is screened. Alkaloids are tested
for psychosomatic activity.
Microbiological screening is done for types of bacteria, protozoa, fungi and other
pathogenic and non pathogenic organisms. Modern techniques incorporating
nano-gram/liter scales and single cell interaction with microprocessor controlled
electronic-chip type microropotics, should be used for detailed bioactivity studies to
evaluate the newly isolated components.
3.4.1 EXTRACTION.
Extracts are created by first disrupting the botanical at the cellular level while in full
contact with the extraction solvent, releasing the (phytochemicals) without damaging
38
them. This technology is the most efficient form of solubilizing the phytochemicals of the
herb. The traditional and prominent method involving milling, creates heat and oxidation.
No one solvent is adequate to extract the "whole" of the botanical's phytochemical nature.
Therefore, multiple extractions of the herbal material with various solvents in order to
extract all ingredients is recommended. Each one of these solvents can only dissolve a
specific amount of solute per liter, at which point, it is said to be 'saturated'. Ample
amount of solvent is provided to completely exhaust the herb of the phytochemicals the
particular solvent can dissolve. The solvent is removed through evaporation at low
temperature and under vacuum conditions.
Usually the first solvent used on a botanical is distilled water. This extracts polar type
molecules and those which provide hydrogen bonds. This is followed by an extraction
with pure alcohol (ethanol), and sometimes a third organic solvent (non-polar in nature)
to dissolve oils, resins and other materials that are not dissolvable in water or alcohol.
Mixing water and alcohol in a compromise ratio and do one extraction isn't advisable
because many herbal molecules won't dissolve, especially the organic molecules.
Therefore, to produce different character extracts, first dissolve all the water solubles,
press the herb (collect the extract), and begin a second extraction of the pressed herbal
cake, in pure alcohol or other solvent. Then, these organic solvents are collected by
pressing after they have dissolved their payload.
Extracts, usually gumy or oily and rarely preciptated crystals are dried under room
temperature or with freeze drying. The latter is vacuum drying at temperatures below
zero ˚C, a process which is quite lengthy, may take 10 to 20 hours. It is advisable to do
the first extraction in the cold and vacuum drying. If this is compared with solvent-
boiling extraction and steam distilation had no components destroyed by the elevated
temperature, one can then use fast hot extracts and boiling evaporation.
3.4.2 ANALYSIS.
The extracts are analyzed by GC/MS to separate components and identify them by their
mass spectra. Identification is effected by pattern recognition searches on a library of
39
spectra. This is now the accepted technique for separating a mixture of biological
materials and identifying its components. Unidentified components are destined to be
unknown compounds and need the effort of structure determination.
Isolation of the unknown may be rendered by GLC, HPLC or manually by column
chromatography and fraction collector or else more efficiently and neatly by preparative
TLC with up to 100 mg of pure organic compounds.
Successfully isolated compounds has to enter the phase of structure elucidation. A
preliminary investigation with MS and nmr reveal the family and structural units and
whether the compound is bound to a suger or a protein and restrict the analysis within a
narrow subset of candidates. For more complicated structures elaborate study with
MS/MS and 2D nmr like COSY, NOESY and INADEQUATE for 1H and 13C is required.
3.4.3. SCREENING
Screening the biological activity of the newly discovered compounds is the key to the
success of the whole research program. Conventional screening on microorganisms and
higher animals reflect the potential of the compound as a drug or toxin. The interaction of
the drug with bacteria, fungi and protozoan like malaria in different media is monitored
by state of the art procedures. Higher animals like rodents are investigated on the basis of
mortality and investigating the effect on the physiological functions of the animal like
liver and kidney function.
Microrobotics screening is the modern techniques which give information on the
interaction of the molecule investigated with the cell at the level of cell-physiology.
Access to this is through silicon chip fitted with micro-channels paved with micro-
electrode sensitive to cell membranes exchange function. Commercial examples of such
devices are shown in the following two paragraphs.
BioTrove has developed a versatile nanofluidic platform, termed the Living Chip™, for
performing very large numbers of biochemical, chemical and cell-based storage and
screening operations in a massively parallel manner. This technology is based upon a
high density, spatially-addressable array of nanovolume chemical reaction vessels. It has
40
built modular bench-top instrumentation and robotics to enable individuals or small
groups of scientists to perform high throughput screening in these nanoplates. Using
these prototype modules basic operations necessary for performing screens in chips with
up to 25,000 through-holes. Most of these operations, including loading, mixing and
washing are also applicable to chemical library synthesis and materials discovery. In
particular rapid and precise dispensing of nanoliter reagents into each reaction container
of an array allows for combinatorial synthesis of a unique hemical in each container.
Thus the large compound libraries of known molecular sequences could be quickly
generated and screened using this technology.[32]
In order to eliminate the throughput restrictions of classical patch clamp ectrophysiology,
Essen Instruments has developed a plate-based ion channel measurement platform. The
system is capable of measuring whole-cell electrophysiological recordings in a manner
which allows for thousands individual cells to be tested in an 8-hour day. Data
demonstrating typical throughput, measurement fidelity and comparative pharmacology
will be presented for Type III Na channels, the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.5
and hERG. The commercialized instrument is called IonWorksTM HT and will be sold
and supported by Molecular Devices Corporation.[33]
3.5 Laboratory and Inventory Requirement.
(1) Extraction and isolation laboratory consisting of glassware and supporting tools like
rotatory evaporator, freeze dryer, column and thin layer chromatography and liquid
nitrogen plant.
(2) Instrumental analysis laboratory with infra red, uv-visual, HPLC, GLC, GC/MS
spectrometer and multinuclear n.m.r..
(3) Microbiological laboratory with incubators and laminar hood.
(4) Animal physiology and clinical chemistry tests laboratory e.g. liver function etc.
(5) Computerised in vitro microropotics for nano-liter and single cell tests.
(6) Computer Network station for data base setting.
(7) Freezing chamber for storage and gene bank preservation.
(8) Animal House for rodents and domestic animals.
41
(9) Library.
(9) Offices.
3.6 Project Phases.
The project is to be implemented in three phases. The importance of phasing is many
faceted. It reflects the problems that may stem out facing a serious research establishment
in its day-to-day running since this bring in interaction with government and private
sector bodies. It will test the validity of the infrastructure for such an activity. It will also
draw on the academic capabilities of the researchers and their potential for implementing
the goals and aims of the project efficiently and in a sustainable manner.
First Year:
(1) Data base building, field survey and remote sensing correlation, sample
preservation and herbarium. Establishment of herbarium and computer network
For the data base.
(2) Chemical extraction and isolation laboratory establishment.
(3) GC/MS identification of components and determination of new compounds and
further work with n.m.r and MS structure elucidation by collaboration with other
institutions.
Second Year
(4) Conventional Screening: Animal toxicity, physiological and neurological activity
tests, microbiological tests. Establishment of biological screening laboratory and
animal house.
(5) Microropotics tests in collaboration with other laboratories.
Third Year:
(6) Establishment of Instrumentation laboratory; GC, HPLC, FTIR, UV-VIS,
GC/MS.
(7) Establishment of Microrobotics screening.
Fourth Year:
(8) Establishment of Instrumentation laboratory; 500MHz nmr , MS/MS and x-ray
diffraction facility for single crystal work.
42
4. REFERENCE.
[1] UNESCO (1996). Culture and Health, Orientation Texts – World Decade for Cultural
Development 1988 – 1997, Document CLT/DEC/PRO – 1996, Paris, France, pgs. 129.
[2] UNESCO (1998). FIT/504-RAF-48 Terminal Report.
[3] Africa Environment Outlook, UNEP, 2002.
[4] First National Report on the Implementation of the Convention on Bilogical
Diversity, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Republic of the Sudan, 2000.
[5] World Atlas of Desertification, Nairobi, Kenya,UNEP, 1997.
[6] Hassan Osman Abdel Nour, FAO regional office, Cayro, Egypt.
[7] The Red Data Book, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), 2000.
[8] Vernon H. Heywood, Second World Congress on Medicinal and Romatic Plants, 10
November, 1997, Mendoza, Argentina.
[9] Reid, W., Laird S., Meyer C. and Juma C., 1993, Biodiversity prospecting: Using
Genetic Resources for Sustainable Development. World Resources Institute, Washington,
DC.
[10] Crucible Goup, The 1994, People, Plants and Patents. The Imppact of Intellectual
Property on trade, plant biodiversity and rural society. International Development
Research Center, Ottawa.
[11] Mugabe, J., Barber, C.V., Henne, G., Glowka, L. & La Vioa, A. (eds) 1997. Access
to Genetic Resources. Strategies for sharing benefits. ACTS Press, WRI, & IUCN
Environmental Law Centre. ACTS Press, Nairobi.
[12] Colin Macilwain, ‘When Rhetoric Hits Reality in Depate in Bioprospecting’,
Nature,392, 535-540, (1998).
[13] Reference [11].
[14] Reid, W., Laird, S., Meyer, C., Gamez, R., Sittenfeld, A., Janzen, S.H. & Juma. C.
1993. Biodiversity Prospecting: Using genetic resources for sustainable development.
World Resources Institute, Washington DC.
[15] WHO, 2001. “ Herbs FOR Health, But How Safe Are They?” WHO News, Bulletin
of the World Health Organization, 79(7) p691.
[16] International trade On non-wood forest products, An overview..
43
[17 International Trade Center, Third United Nations Conference on the Least Develped
Counteries, Business Sector Round Table, Product Profile: Medicinal Plants, Brissels, 16
May, 2001.
[18] Scrip Reports, 2001: Natural Product Pharmaceuticals: A diverse approach to drug
discovery.
[19] Strohl, 2000: Drug Discovery Today.
[20]Husain, F.A. 1996. International Trade, Marketing and Consumption of Essential
Oils. Paper to Asian Symposium on Industrial Utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants. Bangkok 4-9 November 1996.
[21]McAlpine, Thorpe and Warrier Limited 1996. Future World Trends in the Supply,
Utilization and Marketing of Endangered Medicinal Plants. In association with the Herbal
Medical Database Limited and Agros Associates.
[22] Pharmaprojects, 2001.
[23] Verpoorte R, 1998: Drug Discovery Today, 3, 232-238.
[24]Promotion of Ethnobotany and the Sustainable Use of Plant Resources in Africa, pgs.
60, Paris, 1998.
[25] Remote sensing applications, Oral presentation, Montana State University, USA, 20
November, 2003.
[26] Onywere, S. N., Opiy-Aketch S. J., African Journal of Science, 1(1), 2000, 56.
[27] ibid.
[28] Mustalish Roger W., Evans B., Tucker C., ISHS Acta Horticulturae 426,
International Syposium on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
[29] WHO, 2003, “WHO guidelines on Good Agricultural and CollectionnPRACTICES
(GACP) for medicinal Plants”, world Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Swizerland.
[30] ibid.
[31] UNIDO Project XA/SUD/95/613, Sudan.
[32] IonWorksTMHT - A New High-Throughput Electrophysiology Measurement
Platform" Jennings Worley, Amphora.
[33] The Living Chip™" Tanya Kanigan, Director of Chip Technology, BioTr.
44
5. APPENDICES.APPENDIX A: TABLE 1.
SUDAN DATA PROFILE2000 2003 2004
People
Population, total 31.4 million 33.5 million 34.4
million Population growth (annual %) 1.9 2.3 2.4 Life expectancy (years) .. 58.6 .. Fertility rate (births per woman) .. 4.4 .. Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 65.0 63.0 .. Under 5 mortality rate (per 1,000 children) 97.0 93.0 .. Births attended by skilled health staff (% of total)
.. .. ..
Child malnutrition, weight for age (% of under 5)
40.7 .. ..
Child immunization, measles (% of under 12 mos)
47.0 57.0 ..
Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population aged 15-49)
.. 2.3 ..
Literacy rate, adult male (% of males ages 15 and above)
69.2 .. ..
Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above)
49.9 .. ..
Primary completion rate, total (% age group)
.. .. ..
Primary completion rate, female (% age group)
.. .. ..
Net primary enrollment (% relevant age group)
.. .. ..
Environment Surface area (sq. km) 2.5 million 2.5 million ..
Forests (1,000 sq. km) 616.3
thousand .. ..
Deforestation (avearge annual % 1990-2000)
1.4 .. ..
Internal freshwater resources per capita (cubic meters)
.. 894.3 ..
CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) 0.2 .. .. Access to improved water source (% of total pop.)
.. .. ..
Access to improved sanitation (% of urban pop.)
.. .. ..
45
Energy use per capita (kg of oil equivalent) 449.7 .. .. Electricity use per capita (kWh) 65.5 .. .. Economy GNI, Atlas method (current US$) 10.3 billion 15.4 billion 18.2 billion GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) 330.0 460.0 530.0 GDP (current $) 12.2 billion 17.8 billion 19.6 billion GDP growth (annual %) 6.5 6.0 6.0 GDP implicit price deflator (annual % growth)
8.4 8.2 10.6
Value added in agriculture (% of GDP) 41.2 .. .. Value added in industry (% of GDP) 18.5 .. .. Value added in services (% of GDP) 40.4 .. .. Exports of goods and services (% of GDP) 16.0 16.3 .. Imports of goods and services (% of GDP) 13.7 12.1 .. Gross capital formation (% of GDP) 17.9 18.2 20.0 Revenue, excluding grants (% of GDP) .. .. .. Technology and infrastructure Fixed lines and mobile telephones (per 1,000 people)
13.2 46.6 ..
Telephone average cost of local call (US$ per three minutes)
0.0 0.0 ..
Personal computers (per 1,000 people) 3.2 .. .. Internet users (per 1,000 people) 1.0 9.0 .. Aircraft departures 7,800.0 7,800.0 .. Trade and finance Trade in goods as a share of GDP (%) 27.6 28.3 .. Trade in goods as a share of goods GDP (%)
45.6 .. ..
High-technology exports (% of manufactured exports)
3.8 .. ..
Net barter terms of trade (1995=100) 100.0 .. .. Foreign direct investment, net inflows in reporting country (current US$)
392.2 million
1.3 billion ..
Present value of debt (current US$) 14.8 billion 17.1 billion .. Total debt service (% of exports of goods and services)
2.5 0.9 ..
Short-term debt outstanding (current US$) 6.0 billion 6.8 billion .. Aid per capita (current US$) 7.2 18.5 .. Source: World Development Indicators database , August 2005
TABLE 2
EARTH TRENDS COUNTRY PROFILE
46
BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS IN THE SUDAN
SUDAN SUB-SAHARAN WORLD AFRICATotal Land Area (000 ha) 250,581 2,429,241 13,328,979Protected AreasExtent of Protected Areas by IUCN Category (000 ha), 2003:Nature Reserves, Wilderness Areas, andNational Parks (categories I and II) 8,473 78,828 438,448Natural Monuments, Species ManagementAreas, and Protected Landscapes andSeascapes (categories III, IV, and V) 143 63,482 326,503Areas Managed for Sustainable Use andUnclassified Areas (category VI and "other") 3,683 122,080 692,723Total Area Protected (all categories) 12,299 264,390 1,457,674Marine and Littoral Protected Areas {a} 26 X 417,970Protected Areas as a Percent of Total LandArea, 2003 {b} 4.9% 10.9% 10.8%Number of Protected Areas, 2003 27 6,867 98,400Number of Areas >100,000 ha, 2003 13 425 2,091Number of Areas > 1 million ha, 2003 4 50 243Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites), 2002:Number of Sites X X 1,179Total Area (000 ha) X X 102,283Biosphere Reserves, 2002Number of Sites 2 46 408Total Area (000 ha) 1,251 X 439,000Number and Status of SpeciesHigher PlantsTotal known species (number), 1992-2002 3,137 X XNumber of threatened species, 2002 17 X 5,714MammalsTotal known species (number), 1992-2002 267 X XNumber of threatened species, 2002 23 X 1,137Breeding BirdsTotal known species (number), 1992-2002 280 X XNumber of threatened species, 2002 6 X 1,192ReptilesNumber of Total Known Species, 1992-2003 161 X XNumber of threatened species, 2002 2 X 293AmphibiansNumber of Total Known Species, 1992-2003 9 X XNumber of threatened species, 2002 X X 157FishNumber of Total Known Species, 1992-2003 130 X XNumber of threatened species, 1992-2002 X X 742Legal Trade in Selected Wildlife and CITES {c} StatusYear CITES Ratified XNet International Legal Trade Reported by CITES, 2000 (number) {d}Live Lizards -2,075 -150,281Live Snakes X -148,644Live Primates X -12,677
47
Live Parrots 51 -201,235Lizard Skins -148,500 -270,275Snake Skins -3,770 -24,245Crocodile Skins X -104,282Wild Cat Skins X -754
Footnotes:a. Marine and littoral protected areas are not included in the "Total Area Protected" above.b. Includes IUCN categories I-V. Marine and littoral protected areas are excluded from these totals.c. CITES is an acronym for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.d. Postive numbers represent net imports; negative numbers represent net exports. Regional figures are the sum of country-level trade statistics, therefore,these numbers include trade between countries in the same region.
© EarthTrends 2003. All rights reserved. Fair use is permitted on a limited scale and for educational purposes. page 1
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BOX ONE Tree Seed Center (TS C ) TSC was established in 1990 by a project funded by the Danish Government (DANIDA)in cooperation with UNSO-UNDP. Its mandate includes the security of a sustainablequantity of good tree seed, tree improvement and gene conservation. Currently the TSCsupplies the FNC with about 40 tons of seeds annually. About 90% of these amounts areindigenous species such as Acacia nilotica, Acacia seyal, Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis,Acacia melliffera and Balanites aegyptiaca. This amount accounts for about 53.3% of theFNC total annual seed requirements. National Botanic Garden (NBG) The NBG was established in 1954 on an area of about 4.13 hectares in El Mogran,Khartoum. It is responsible for the ex-situ conservation of plant genetic resources, whichentails collection of different tree seeds for planting in the garden and for exchange withnational and international bodies. Also the NBG is responsible for propagation ofdifferent plants, adaptation of exogenous plant species, and conservation of availabletrees by pruning and application of fertilizers, registration and classification of differentplant species.Plant Genetic Resources Unit (PGRU)PGRU was established in 1985 for the conservation of horticultural germaplasm. In1995 the PGR became a central unit for the conservation of the genetic resources ofdifferent crops. The objective of the PGR unit is to conserve the agriculturalbiodiversity of the different crops from loss or extinction and to enhance theirutilization in genetic improvement. This was achieved through the followingactivities:Exploration and collection of samples from the local genetic resources of crops fromvarious ecological zones.Conservation and maintenance of seed germplasm of different crops using differentsystems in a seed gene bank.Utilization, which, is usually done after characterization and evaluation of germplasmto assist in its utilization through the use of the information, gained in cropimprovement.Documentation of all relevant data collected during the collection, characterizationand evaluation time.
49
BOX TWOB. Medicinal and Aromatic PlantsCapacity Needs in Managing Access to Genetic ResourceNeeds1- Inventory and Documentation: - including establishment of a digitalized database ofthe floristic wealth and associated traditional knowledge systems of Sudan withspecial reference of to MAPs.2- Conservation of MAPs and other important plants of Sudan, using mainly ex-situmethods of conservation and in-situ methods for non-wood forest products"NWFP" covering:i) Field Gene Bankii) Seed Bank.iii) Cryo-Bankiv) Pollen Bankv) DNA Bank3- Domestication, cultivation and commercialization of important MAPs through:i) Selection of potential species for cultivation.ii) Genetic enhancement.iii) Development of location specific cultural practices for cultivation.iv) Establishment of high tech nurseries and micro-propagation.v) Development of post-harvest technology for handling the MAPs productsto maintain quality, safety and standards.vi) Development of diverse value-added products from MAPs.
Box Two, the recommendation on MAP conservation and protection in the second report for the Concention on BioDiversity.
50
BOX THREEMEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS RESEARCH INSTITUTE (MAPRI)is one of the institutes of the National Center for Research (NCR) and the onlyspecialized Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research in its kind in the country. TheNational Council of Research established it in 1972 as a unit responsible for studying anddeveloping traditional medicine. It was upgraded in 1983, to the status of an institute andbecame MAPRI, and was entrusted with the responsibility of medicinal and aromaticplant research. The efforts of the Institute are geared to exploration, documentation,protection, and utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants including the traditionallycultivated ones. Its major program falls into six multidisciplinary areas namelyTraditional Medicine, Agro-technology, Pharmacology and Toxicology; Microbiology,Phytochemistry and Taxonomy. The major objectives of the institute are basic andapplied botanic, horticultural and related photochemical and biological activityresearches.
51
BOX FOURCapital and R&DThe capital requirements and R&D facilities needed for entering into major markets such as Germany and France are too costly for small LDC exporters. Their entry into the countries where herbal medicines are not sold as over–the-counter products is also made difficult, as distribution outside food outlets is hard to access and risks are incurred by selling in unlicensed markets without being able to make claims of benefits.Lack of available technologyPoor local technology as well as skill shortages result most often in inadequate post harvest handling, storage, processing, and packaging resulting in poor quality and low unit values for exports.MSTQLDC exporters lack systems of measurement, standards, testing and quality (MSTQ) required by exporters to ensure their products meet international standards for hygiene, product specification and quality.Lack of knowledge of supplyFew, if any, LDCs have carried out an inventory of species and sustainable off-take on the basis of gathering or limited husbandry. Prospects for cultivation are yet to be studied. The supply potential is thus virtually unknown. At present, few LDCs have the resources and the institutional capability to advise on policy and regulatory mechanisms to provide consistently high-quality products. Know-how in processing technologies is also deficient, as is the availability of sustainable production processes.Limited knowledge of propertiesThere is limited knowledge also of the medicinal properties of the herbs beyond traditional knowledge and belief. This restricts the use and marketability of the plants. A systematic process is required to work with end-users in the developed countries to study their use in herbal supplements and herbal remedies manufactured by them, explore the possibility of selling traditional herbal supplements and tonics and lastly, to examine the requirements for marketing traditional medicines. The sale of the latter requires regulatory approvals that are usually expensive and time consuming, beyond the resources of most LDC exporters.Intellectual property rights (IRP)An issue of potentially huge importance to the LDCs and all developing country exporters is intellectual property. These plants have been used in traditional medicines for centuries and hence cannot be protected by patent. They can be registered as individual or regional trademarks, with explicit rules of origin. Knowledge of the whole intellectual property rights (IPR) field is limited in the LDCs and access to IPR systems limited. There is evidence of organisations in developed countries taking advantage of lack of IPR knowledge. Recently the European Patent Office revoked a six-year-old patent covering the use of neem tree oil as a fungicide, upon learning that the oil had been used for the same purpose in India years before the patent was filed. Such patents are becoming increasingly common as new botanical uses are discovered – there are close to 70 patents covering neem tree products alone. ‘Biopiracy’ of plants or genes hurts exporters in LDCs, not only denying them the use over their intellectual property but potentially transferring their rights to foreign companies.Market accessMarket access issues have also constrained LDC export development. Generally, most medicinal plants and crude drugs are allowed without any tariff restrictions in several countries. They are exempt from import duty in Canada, Japan, the European Union and the USA. However, tariff charges in China and South Africa vary between 10% and 20% of the value of goods, depending on product and origin, while Japan levies a 5% tax on imports of ginseng roots, peppy straw, sandalwood and some others.
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BOX FIVEP ro s p e c t s , Po l i c i e s & S t r a t e gi e s for LDCLDCs have the opportunity to expand their global export share of medicinal plants. They should aim to penetrate at the early stages of the value chain by supplying firstly, developed country manufacturers with unprocessed raw materials and then move towards providing herbal supplements before tackling the highly regulated market for herbal remedies. Export strategies for LDCs should aim to:Improve market knowledgeExport development strategies should seek to increase exporters’ knowledge of consumers and end-user requirements and preferences, market access conditions, and appropriate marketing channels and techniques. The preliminary transmission of import requirements and regulations to suppliers and exporters is critical to allow them to reach the high standards of quality and sophistication required in the international markets. Agencies responsible for export promotion and sector business associations are expected to play a crucial role in this respect and their capacity needs to be strengthened. Following this, producers should be trained in sustainable harvesting techniques, sorting and grading, packing and shipping activities to enable them to meet customer requirements.Research products adequatelyThe starting point for any programme to develop exports of medicinal herbs and plants after having gained market knowledge must be to map the areas in which they occur naturally and attempt to estimate sustainable off-take. The available species should then be market tested by laboratories and end-users in Europe and the USA to determine which of the available species have the highest market potential. Having identified the scale of the opportunity, the nextstep would be to examine husbandry and/or cultivation methods, at which point firmer estimates could be made of supply potential. An active programme of marketing herbs and plants to end-users should follow this.Explore Alternative sales techniquesAlternative sales techniques are also available to the LDCs by taking advantage of the Internet. Dietary supplement sales on the Internet reached US$ 40 million in 19982, an increase of $12 million over 1997 figures. This accounts for only 0.3% of the total 1998 US supplement market of $13.6 billion. However, the rate of sales growth for supplements on the Internet far exceeds that of natural foods stores, mass-market stores, and multilevel marketing.
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BOX SIXEthiopian model.
ALNAP is an acronym for the African Laboratory for Natural Products, which is based at the Chemistry Department of the Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. ALNAP is established to serve as a forum for scientific research and co-operation in order to contribute to the development of the science of natural products in Africa.
Profile of Essential Oils from the African Flora:
ALNAP engages its staff and visiting researchers on the study of the chemistry of plants that may have medicinal, commercial and industrial importance. One of the areas of emphasis is the study of essential oil bearing plants originating from different parts of Africa. We would like to express our gratitude to all our collaborators who have contributed samples and information that have been used in this study. In this regard we are particularly grateful to the Essential Oil Research Center (EORC) in Ethiopia, headed by Dr Tadele Worku. The data generated on over 200 such oils are now gradually being made available at this website.
Regional Workshops/Short Courses:
ALNAP is well paced to organize regional and national workshops and short courses on GC, GC-Ms, HPLC and NMR and on operation and maintenance of scientific equipment.
Exchange of Researchers:
ALNAP is also well positioned to host young researchers from the region. Such researchers from the region in the past have come from various countries including Burundi, Cameroon, The Comoros, Eritrea, Sudan, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa.
Collaborating with Other Networks:
scheduled to take place in September 2003. This will entail considerable organizational and logistics input. In this respect NAPRECA-Et has already accumulated significant experience in having organized in Addis Ababa several meetings in the past, including the 1st (1988) and 4th (1991) NAPRECA Symposia as well as the IOCD 2nd "International Symposium on the Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacological Properties of African Medicinal Plants (1999)".
2. ALNAP also cooperates with NABSA (The Network for Analytical and Bioassay Services in Africa), coordinated by Professor Berhanu Abegaz of Chemistry Department, Botswana University. An electronic monograph on medicinal plants of Africa is under preparation jointly by ALNAP and NABSA.
Funding comes from Sida-SAREC (Sweden), the International Program in Chemical Sciences (IPICS-Sweden), the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission (ESTC) and the Addis Ababa Univeristy also ICS-UNIDO (Trieste, Italy) hosts the website.
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APPENDIX BSATALLITE & GRAPHICAL MAPS.
Figure 1Sudan Political Map.
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Figure 2Nubian Sandstone Aquifer, a rich underground water resource shared by the Four countries.
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Figure 3Satallite map of the north eastern corner of Sudan showing Gebel Awainat Mountain and part of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer region.
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Figure 4Natural Vegetation.
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Figure 5Dar Fur State, Gabel Mara region within the triangle township of El Fasher, Nyalla and Zallingi.
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Figure 6The lower right corner of the triangle is the region near Nyalla.
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Figure 7The vertex of the triangle is at El Fasher .
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Figure 8The Lower left region of the base is Zallingi.
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Figure 9Nuba Mountains at the south eastern region of Kordufan State.
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Figure 10The region satellite map is divided into four qudrants: the Upper left quadrant is Kadugli.
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Figure 11The lower left quadrant is lake Kailak.
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Figure 12The Upper right quadrant include Rashad town.
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Figure 13The Lower right Quadrant include Talodi town.
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Figure 14East of Nimolli is the Imatong Mountains.
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Figure 15Satallite Map of Imatong Mountains.
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Figure 16By the town of Mangalla the river Bahr El Gebel starts to broden.
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Figure 17East to North east of town of Yorol water spreading to wider areas.
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Figure 18Lake Shambi, full fletched swampy region.
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Figure 19Adok, Swampy region.
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Figure 20Lake No, Northern end of the swampy region, the river then starts to gain its natural course further north.
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Figure 21Near Malakal town White Nile river emerge.
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Figure 22Dindir National Park
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Figure 23Upper Part of the Dindir National Park (the green area in figure 22) seen here to the left of the satellite map.
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Figure 24Lower Part of the Dindir National Park (the green area in figure 22) seen here to the left of the satellite map.
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