mediation and facilitation

8/10/2019 Mediation and Facilitation

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ISNETH Zurich

Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule ZrichSwiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich

MEDIATION AND FACILITATIONIN PEACE PROCESSES

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND SECURITY NETWORK


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Simon A. MasonMediation Support ProjectCenter for Security Studies, ETH Zurich

MEDIATION AND FACILITATIONIN PEACE PROCESSES

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND SECURITY NETWORK


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 4

Conceptual and Theoretical Approaches.....................................................................5

Mediating Peace Agreements .....................................................................................10

Economy and Environment......................................................................................... 12

Justice and Governance ................................................................................................13

Security ...........................................................................................................................15

Society ............................................................................................................................16

Endnotes ........................................................................................................................19

About the Author ..........................................................................................................22


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John Garang, former chairman of the Sudanese

Peoples Liberation Arm, once arued that the

National Islamic Front (NIF) regime in North

Sudan could not be reformed, that the were too

deformed to be reformed and must therefore be

removed not improved.1Yet later he negotiated and

sined the Comprehensive Peace Areement with

this same reime. What happened to enable such a

dramatic shift from a strate of war to a strate

of neotiation leadin to a joint overnment with

the former enem? What was the role of mediation

in endin a war that cost the lives of 2 million

people?

This dossier focuses on the role of and potentialities

for mediation and facilitation in peace processes inviolent inter-roup conicts in countries such as

Sudan, Nepal, Columbia, Mozambique, Anola, DR

Congo, Guatemala, Indonesia and Burma to name

but a few. It does not focus solel on track one

intergovernmental mediation of peace agreements,

but rather aims at a wider assessment of

mediations and facilitations in peace processes,

focusing on the multi-actor (IGOs, goverments,

NGOs, internal and external actors), multi-phase

(pre-negotiation, negotiation and implementation)

and multi-topic (overnance, justice, securit,

societ and econom) dimension of todas

complex processes. The dossiers focus is broaderthan pure track one mediation, et narrower than

peacebuildin and conict resolution in eneral.

Mediation is a wa of assistin neotiations and

transformin conicts with the support of an

acceptable third part.2 Facilitation is similar to

mediation (especiall facilitative mediation), et

it is less directive. Unlike mediation, facilitation

does not focus so much on decision-makin, but

rather on enhancing the mutual understanding of

perceptions, interests and needs or preparing for

joint action.

Since the end of the Cold War, mediation has been

used in about 50 percent of all international crises.3

It enerall leads to a ve-fold reater probabilit

of reaching an agreement compared to a non-

mediated one, and a 2.4 times reater probabilit

of longer-term tension reduction.4 The high

acceptabilit from the side of the conict parties,

and low cost from the side of the third parties, are

some of the reasons for the methods wide use.

Besides mediation and facilitation, other approaches

like sanctions, arbitration, civilian peacebuildin

and militar peace support operations can be used

in a complementar manner as well.

This dossier provides an analsis, introduction oftrends, rationales and lessons learned regarding

mediation and facilitation methodolo. It pools

relevant resources on topics related to mediation

and indicate where and what kind of third-part is

active. The dossier also highlights the processes in

which opponents move from htin in the eld,

to htin over the table, to realizin the can ain

more through compromises and negotiations than

throuh killin.

The rst section of this dossier focuses on

conceptual and general methodologicalapproaches. One of the ke methodoloical

aruments is that various topics pla a role in

peace processes and that these topics need to be

better interlinked in order to achieve sustainable

peace. The second section then examines various

topics related to peace processes, sorted b the

sub-topics: mediatin peace areements, econom

and environment, justice and overnance, securit

and societ. Each topic and its subtopics are brie

introduced, followed b a selection of documents

and links that are accessible on the internet. While

it is beond the scope of this dossier to examine

specic cases, the sections databases, news andreferences from the online version provide links

to external sources that provide basic material to

stud specic cases.

The dossier was formed in the context of the

Mediation Support Project (MSP), a joint project

of the Center for Securit Studies, ETH Zurich and

swisspeace, funded b the Political Division VI of the

Swiss Federal Department of Forein Affairs. Special

thanks oes to Ran Cross, Matthias Siefried and

Vivian Fritschi. The online dossier (http://www.

isn.ethz.ch/news/dossier/mediation) is intendedto be dnamic; to interate new lessons learned,

resources and links as it develops. If ou wish to

contribute to this dossier, please contact us.

Mediation and Facilitation in Peace Processes

4International Relations and Security Network (ISN) 2007 ISN

INTRODUCTION


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Dimensions of Analysis

Various dimensions can be used to help examine a

mediation or facilitation effort, for example if the

conict is hihl escalated or not, or if the mediator

uses a ver direct approach or not. In realit it is

ver difcult to t a specic mediation effort to a

specic cateor. These dimensions, however, can

help us oranize our intuition and thinkin when

examin a third part effort.

Numerous dimensions have been proposed tostructure the analsis of mediation or facilitation.

Some examples of such characteristics are:

Escalation:5 Escalation describes the dnamics of

increasin tension between the conict parties.

The choice of third-part method depends on the

level of escalation, enerall the more escalated,

the more interventionist the third part has to be.

Schools of thought: Various schools of thouht or

worldviews about how to resolve or transform

conicts have been described. Jean Nicolas Bitterproposes three distinct worldviews that inuence

how one approaches a conict.6

The most mainstream approach in the West

is the Harvard Approach, which focuses on

specic interests (wh people want what the

want) and uses neotiations to nd a mutuall-

acceptable settlement to the different interests.

Neotiations also seek mutuall-acceptable

criteria for assessin solutions. It tends to becontent and output-oriented, and is based on an

individualist worldview.7

The Human Needs Approach refers to all needs-

based approaches to (permanentl) resolve the

root causes of a conict. It arues that some

issues cannot be neotiated and no conict can

be dealt with in a sustainable wa if the basic

needs (for example reconition and identit) of

the conict parties are not satised. Universal

needs are also seen as a bride between different

conict parties. It analses the problem and can

be output, process or relationship-oriented.8

Finall, the term conict transformation refers

to all relationship-focused approaches that

view conicts as culturall constructed realities.

Conicts are not just conicts of interests, but

of values, that take place in a specic cultural

context. Conicts can be motors of social chane.

Understandin the lanuae and the terms

of reference, is important to empower conict

parties and support reconition between them.

This approach is process-oriented.9

Tracks: The various levels of decision-makin andlinks between conict actors have been described

as tracks,10

Track one (ofcial, overnmental and decision-

makin level),

Track two (non ofcial, but inuential and linked

to decision-makers), and

Track three (rass roots and civil societ).

Recentl, one has also seen the use of the term

track 1.5 which refers to processes involvin both

track one and track two actors, or track one actorsworkin in their personal capacit.11

CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO

MEDIATION AND FACILITATION METHODOLOgy



The followin analsis provides an overview of various dimensions that are used to analze mediation and

facilitation, trends in international mediation and facilitation, rationales for the use of the method, and

lessons learned on determinants on what makes the method effective.


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Phases:Various phases are central to the analysis of

mediation and facilitation in peace processes. One

can differentiate between a pre-negotiation phase, a

negotiation phase and the implementation phase.

The pre-neotiation phase consists of buildin

and keepin contacts and talks about the talks,

sometimes over ears or even decades.

The neotiation phase is when the parties are

actuall sittin at the same table. Neotiatin

a cease-re areement ma be one step before

negotiating a peace agreement, that should

support the development of a vision of societ

and includes political issues such as forms of

power-sharin.

The implementation phase often needs a greatdeal of muscle, often external militar power in

the form of peace support operations, to enforce

what has been areed to in the peace areement.

The peace areement should brin the countr

out of a conict and pave the wa for the

inclusion of more actors from societ to shape the

more denitive constitutional and institutional

set-up. Elections are often one milestone in the

implementation process, as peace areements b

their ver nature lack democratic leitimac.12

Assertiveness: Various mediation stles can beapplied, varin in their deree of assertiveness:

facilitative (minimal inuence on content, focus

on process and support of communication),

formulative (focus on coordination and proposing

solutions), and manipulative (creating incentives

and disincentives, greater use of pressure and

increasin the zone of areement). Manipulative

meditation (usin incentives, such as mone and

disincentives, such as sanctions or bombs) seems

to be more effective in reachin areements, while

facilitative mediation seems more effective in

longer-term tension reduction.13

Orientation:Mediation can also be more oriented

towards the output (settlement/evaluative/

substantive/task-oriented) on the one hand, or

towards the process (facilitative/procedural/socio-

emotional/relational) on the other.14

Mediator role:Finall the mediator role is enerall

described in the West as bein outsider/neutral

and in other cultures more insider/partial.15 The

trend seems to be movin from the arument

that mediators need to be neutral, then to the idea

that the should be impartial, then multi-partial,to now focusin on them bein acceptable. While

it is impossible to be full-neutral or full multi-

partial, the bottom-line is that a mediator has to be

acceptable, and trin to be multi-partial ma help

but is not alwas a necessit. The US is aruabl not

an impartial plaer in the Middle East, nevertheless

it is accepted b Israel and PLO-overned Palestine,

as it is seen as the onl third part that can deliver.

Post- Cold War Trends of Mediation and Facilitation

Besides the conceptual aspects inuencin how we

approach a mediation effort, there are also trends

that affect present da mediations, and that should

be considered when focusin on specic cases. The

approach of labelin armed non state actors as

terrorists for example, has become much more

dominant in the post-9/11 context. The increasinstandardization of peace processes and the tension

between these standards and local norms is another

trend inuencin most present da peace processes.

Conicts in the post-Cold War era are typically

inter-state, often involving power and status

asymmetry between conict actors

Classical diplomac on track one has limitations

when dealin with non-state actors. A mult-track

approach in mediation/facilitation is crucial. There

is a reat temptation to focus on the media-read

triumph of track one hand-shakes even if it isclear that peace requires efforts at all levels of

societ; nearl half of all countries that have ended

a civil war have fallen back into conict within the

rst decade.16

Decline in armed conicts, genocide and human

rights violations since the 1990s

Possible reasons for this decline include the end of

the Cold War, an increase in peacebuildin efforts

of third-part actors (for example the UN), increase

in state capacit and equitable economic rowth.17

Mediation and facilitation has become a popular

tool in the post-Cold war era

Accordin to International Crisis Behaviour (ICB)

data, of the 434 international crises that occurred

between 1918 and 2001, 128 experienced some form

of mediation. While this is onl a 30 percent rate of

incidence durin the entire period, when we narrow

our focus to the post-Cold War era, we nd that 46

percent of all crises were mediated.18 According

to one count usin news sources, there were 3,452

mediation events in relation to 309 international

conicts between 1945 and 1995. About a third ofthese (1,040) in relation to internationalized ethnic

conicts.19




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Increasing complexity of peace processes

generall, mediators have moved from mediatin

a clear-cut areement, to trin to develop a

vision for societ and a means to neotiate and

consolidate this in the post-conict phase thus

leading to longer and more complex processes.

Increasing number, diversity and competition of

third-party actors

UN and other international organisations, states

and NgOs, pla or seek to pla an increasinl

important role in mediatin intrastate conicts.20

Peace processes will have man different third

parties involved. The coordination between these

third-part actors is difcult. The harmonization

of NgOs/states/IgOs role in the mediation settinis not clear. generall, the lower level has the

advantae of exibilit, workin below the radar,

the hiher level has the advantae of ofcial

leitimac and more power. There are cases where

third-part competition has been detrimental to the

peace process. Conict parties are ood at plain

third parties out aainst each other so third-part

coordination is essential. groups of friends21 is

one wa to coordinate the various third parties or at

least keep all involved informed. Members of such

groups should not have a major strategic interest

in the outcome of the conict and should be ableto pla a benecial role in transformin it.

Increasing standardization of peace processes

While experience shows that no peace process

is the same, no size ts all there is nevertheless

an increasin standardization of peace processes.

Human rihts and international law are

increasinl shapin peace processes. International

standards and thresholds regarding human rights

that mediated areements have to fulll ma make

the neotiatin space narrower, for the ma scare-

off negotiators that have perpetuated human

rihts crimes. Here there is a difcult balancebetween the benet of judin the top criminals

on the one hand, and neotiatin with these

people to reach an agreement and change societal

structures on the other hand. On the positive side,

however, international standards allow mediators

to deleate the issue of amnest and impunit

(for example no amnest for war crimes, crimes

aainst humanit or enocide) to the international

communit in particular the International

Criminal Court (ICC). Furthermore, human rights

elements in an areement tend to make peace

more sustainable and deter offences. The challenefor mediation/facilitation is therefore often a

question of sequencin, when and how to include

the human rights aspects into the negotiations.2223

Increasing impact of the interests of various

international actors on peace processes

International communities are not neutral, but

have strong interests in the outcome of a peace

process, as well as in how the process is carried out.

Interests ma concern support of one or other actor,

securit considerations (who to talk to, who to list

as a terrorist), access to resources and economies

and political prestie (where talks are held), etc.

Tension between internal and external legitimacy

of peace processes

The process and outcome of a peace process has

to be leitimate both in the ees of the local

actors, as well as for the international communit.

Since a lack of cultural diversit is at the root ofman conicts,24 the internal leitimac of peace

processes have to be iven reat consideration, if

the are to be sustainable.

Policy of ostracization instead of dialogue with

armed non-state actors post-9/11

The post-9/11 situation has made the distinction

between terrorists and freedom hters more

delicate. Some arue that isolation is the onl wa

forward to avoid leitimizin armed non-state

actors, others argue that dialogue does not mean

a leitimization of means and ends, but ratherkeepin channels open, and is the best wa to

support moderates, avoid greater extremism and

allow for transformation.25

Rationale for Mediation and Facilitation

In this section some of the basic assumptions and the

loic behind mediation are explored. One such ke

rationale, for example, is to differentiate between a

person and the persons behavior, thereb allowin

for respect for people, even if one is horried b

their behavior. Another ke belive shared b man

mediators is that process and transformationis possible: people can chane their behavior.

Mediation leads to a change of perspective,

allowing for a change in positions

The ke loic behind mediation is that conict

parties form their positions (what the want) as a

reaction to how the perceive the positions of the

other, whom the often have never met. Once at

the table, hearin their opponent, parties bein to

realize that their view of the other part was not

full correct thus allowin them to adapt their

own position and the development of mutuall-acceptable options.26 This process often requires

the support of an acceptable third part facilitatin

communication and structuring the process.




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Differentiation between the behavior and the

person

Eliminatin people is one wa of dealin with

behavior that oes aainst ones own interests the

Savimbi approach, (Jonas Savimbi was head of the

UNITA movement and was killed b the Anolan

overnment arm after havin sined and broken

a peace agreement and having ignored election

results).27 yet non-state actors ma enjo some

form of political leitimac and murder does not

change the situation, as others then replace them.

The mediation approach does not inore inoble

behavior (for example human rihts violations), but

seeks to maintain respect for all people, irrespective

of their actions. If respect for the intrinsic value of

the other is no loner iven, an work at chaninor transforming the situation through mediation is

not possible. The question of justice has to be dealt

with, but often b other actors and at a different

point in time.

Process and content are two separate levels that

are linked, but are equally important

In the words of Fink Hasom the riht answer in

the wron process sinks like a stone. generall a

facilitator or mediator will focus on the process,

structurin and supportin it, while the content

level is left to the attention of conict parties andexperts.

The use of mediation in violent conicts is due to

the acceptability of mediation

If a fraile state cannot take on the function of

peacefull settlin conicts (throuh leitimate

rules and institutions, a monopol of power or

a central authorit) or if a conict exists in the

international anarchical context where there is

no monopol of power, then the processes b

which international disputes are manaed and

(perhaps) settled have to be larel informal and

larel depend upon their acceptabilit to thoseindependent and soverein entities enaed

in the conict. If the are not acceptable, the are

not used.28 This also leads to the Golden Rule

of mediation: the mediator has to be accepted/

mandated b the conict parties.

Mediation is acceptable, because it maintains the

independence, sovereignty and freedom of choice

of the conict parties.

Mediation seems (on the face of it) to offer a

ood practical method of manain conicts

and helpin to establish some sort of reional orinternational order: It can do so because its ver

essence is guaranteed to guard the independence,

sovereint and freedom of choice that all actors in

conict so jealousl value.29

Attractiveness of mediation as an effective low-

cost method. Mediation increases the possibility of

successful negotiations and managing conicts.30

In relation to other was of dealin with conict,

for example via militar peace support operations

(PSO), mediation is ver cost-effective. It cannot be

used alone, however, but as one tool amon others.

Durin the implementation phase, militar PSO is

normall needed to enforce the areement.

Possible soft-power niche for small countries

Because the power of mediation lies in bein

acceptable to the conict parties, it is a possibletool for small countries. The cannot compete on

the international market in terms of hard power,

et here the have some room. Lack of power can

be an added-value in that small powers are less

threatening.

Rationale for facilitation as a complementary tool

to mediation

Even if the conict parties seek mediation and a

neotiated areement, these are often insufcient

inredients for sustainable peace. As peace

processes become loner and more complex,reater variet of third-part support is required,

thus there is a need for facilitation alonside an

explicit mediation mandate. Mediation can also

be used as a tool in an implementation phase, for

example in brinin various actors toether to

discuss on how to deal with the past.31

Lessons Learned on Determinants of Successful

Mediation and Facilitation

This section includes some of the experiences

on what works and what does not work. This

partl includes some of the aspects in the previoussections, however, the are more directl drawn

from cases studies as well as lare n empirical

studies. One of the ke lessons, is that mediation

works - it increases the liklihood of reaching an

agreement and easing tension in the long term.

Political system: The political sstem does not

seem to have a great impact on the success of

mediation (democracies enerall use mediation

with non-democracies). Mediation is most effective

when parties have equal power. The previous

relationships have a strong impact on the outcomeof mediation.32




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Type of conict: The nature of dispute has an

inuence on mediation success: securit (40

percent chance of success), ideolo (50 percent),

sovereint (44 percent), resources (70 percent),

ethnic (66 percent). Conicts with low fatalities

(up to 500 dead) are more likel be successfull

mediated than ones with a hih number of

mortalit (such as 10,000).33

Ripeness: The timing of a mediation effort and the

conict ripeness34 also seems important, various

aspects have been suested: When actors have

reached a mutuall-hurtin stalemate,35depending

on escalation level,36 dependin on the BATNA/

WATNA (Best/Worst Alternatives to a NeotiatedAgreement)37and/or when incentives /disincentives

have changed.3839

Personality: What impact does the nature of

a mediator have? It seems the emphasis on

impartialit is misleadin, more important is

the abilit to extend the interests of the parties.

Leitimac is one of the ke forms of leverae,

hih mediators rank, as well as a mediators

previous relationship with the conict parties.

Experienced mediators are more successful than

non-experienced ones.

40

Personalit also plas a kerole, for example the capacit to listen, empathize,

patience, perseverance and robustness under verbal

assault.41

Coherence of parties: Mediation is more difcult

without reconizable leaders within the conict

parties, more difcult with internall-divided

conict parties, with spoilers and the involvement

of major powers.42

Pressure and dialogue: The dialoue approach at

the heart of mediation is complementar to the use

of power.43In man cases a joint effort of pressureand dialoue are needed to et parties to move:

et the person carrin the threat should not be

the same person mediating. The important thing

is that various actors take on different roles, and

that these ma have to chane from one phase to

another. The implementation phase needs a lot of

power, a mediator should enerall not be involved

in implementin an areement that he/she has

been involved in durin the neotiation phase.44

Support local cooperative efforts: Facilitation

does not use power and therefore has to focus onsupportin local ener; if this is not present, the

facilitator should leave. It is vital for a facilitator

to watch the relations before startin to inuence

them. Lederach calls this web-watchin before

web-buildin.45

Personal relations are the ke to trust and bein

asked to mediate a conict.46The pre-negotiation

phase ma take a ver lon time (that is decades),

where the main aim is to keep a foot in the door,

keep the conict parties linked to another realit

and to build trust.

One of the main internet resources on mediation and

facilitation methodolo, summarizin numerous

books on the concepts and theories, is based at

the Universit of Colorados Conict ResearchConsortium; in particular Beond Intractabilit and

the Conict Resolution Information Source. Other

ke sources are INCORE on topics related to peace

and conict and the PILPg, for example for peace

areements online. Further sources can be found in

the dossier sorted b topics, databases, news and

full list of references and resources.




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This section investiates issues related to conict

analsis, armed roups, third parties and peace

areements. Conict analsis, conict warnin

sstems and conict indicators (conict analsis

and eopolitics) stud the emerence, escalation

and de-escalation of tensions. Special focus is given

to the various state and non-state actors usingviolent means in trin to reach their political

interests, as well as the various third-part actors

that become involved in the conict to assist the

parties in negotiating an agreement. The most

tpical product of third-part assisted neotiations

are cease-re areements endin hostilities and

the more complex peace areements outlinin new

structures and institutions on how to share power

and deal with differences in a non-violent manner.

Conict Analysis and GeopoliticsConict analsis is one of the rst steps before a

third part becomes involved in mediation. Besides

focusin on analzin hostilities, this must also

assess whether cooperative relations still exist

between the conict parties, as well as local and

external efforts supportin these. Analsis varies

reatl dependin on the time-scale and level

of conict (for example local, reional, state or

international). Often the links between these levels

are extremel important but nelected.47 Parties

often onl enter into serious neotiations when

the are pressured to do so, when unilateral means

of achievin a satisfactor result are blocked.At that ripe moment often in a mutuall

hurtin stalemate parties are more amenable

to alternatives.48 Conict analsis, amon other

thins, seeks to understand the alliances and hostile

relations between various actors as well as their

respective interests, means to reach these interests,

perspectives of each other and the issues at stake.

Various sstems of earl-warnin of conict have

been developed; enerall, the problem is not a

lack of knowlede, however, but a lack of adequate

action. geopolitical considerations should also be

factored in, such as the inuence of reional powerblocks, particularl inuential states, historical

relations or the availabilit of natural resources (for

example oil). In this dossier conict is understood

to mean an incompatible interaction between two

or more political roups, where one or both actors

are intentionall damaed b the other actor

through the use of violence.

Armed GroupsSIPRI characterizes armed roups as non-state

actors that include, but are not necessaril limited

to, rebel opposition roups, local militias and

warlords, as well as viilante and civil defence

roups, when such are clearl operatin without

state control. The diversication of violence and

prevalence of multiple armed groups complicates

traditional conict manaement and resolution,

and poses a sinicant challene for international

securit overnance more enerall. Most

contemporar conicts are intra-state, involvin b

denition at least one non-state actor, and man

are fouht without state involvement, between twoor more armed groups. Nevertheless, international

laws and norms overnin the use of force are still

understood primaril on the state level.49

Mediation and facilitation in peace processes mostl

involve one or more armed roups. Ke questions for

a mediator are to what deree armed roups have

a political agenda, or excuse of a political agenda,

to distinuish them from oranized criminal

actors, as well as if the tacit areement of the host

countr or international communit is needed

before enain with such actors. The mediationapproach arues that a lack of enaement

enerall strenthens hardliners and these roups



The use of mediation and facilitation in a peace processes requires the consideration not onl of the

method in and of itself (as described in the Analsis section), but also a rane of other overlappin topics.

The rationale for examinin these topics is based on the experience of a mediation ap between the use

of mediation and mediative approaches in the core business of mediatin peace areements on the one

hand, and its (still limited) use in the other elds relevant to an effective peace processes.

MEDIATING PEACE AGREEMENTS


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often hold the ke to endin violence. Some form of

often informal contact with the outside world

helps to prevent their loic from oin askew. The

limits of enaement are therefore less viewed in

a principle, in the unethical nature of the armed

roup, but rather in a pramatic assessment of how

benecial dialoue is estimated to be in a specic

situation.

Third Parties and Multi-track Diplomacy

Third parties are actors that become involved in a

conict to help the involved conict actors deal with

the conict in a constructive manner. These can be

internal actors from the conict settin, NgOs from

civil societ, other states, reional oranizationsand interovernmental oranizations such as the

UN. The need to have multiple actors is at the heart

of the multi-track approach, which arues it is not

onl overnment diplomats that are needed to

deal with conict (as was tpical in the Cold War

settin), but various third parties on all levels of

societ. Coordination between the various third

parties is essential to avoidin a waste of resources

or even doin harm. groups of friends involved

in a process, as well as other was of keepin each

other informed, is therefore essential.

Peace Agreements and Cease-re Agreements

Peace agreements are contracts negotiated under

ver different premises, but enerall seek to brin

conict parties and their respective societies out of

a situation of conict and pave the wa to a more

sustainable peace. The are not democraticall

leitimized. The are enerall more comprehensive

than cease-re areements, as the tend to include

political aspects. In some cases, elements of the

peace areement will be interated into the

transitional arranements and ma even end up in

the nal constitution after a process of adaptationand political leitimization. About half of all peace

areements fail, therefore the need to be ver clear

about the implementation modalities alread in

the areement (the devil is in the detail), as well

as agreeing on mechanisms to ensure its forceful

implementation (for example UN peacekeepin,

peace enforcement). A comparison of peace

areements is helpful to provide ideas, however, one

idea pulled out of its context is often inadequate

in another context. The deree to which a peace

areement reects and is based on local knowlede,

histor and customs is an essential determinant ofits effectiveness.

Cease-re areements are sined to suspend

hostilities and enerall consist of three steps: 1)

endin the htin, 2) movin the troops out of

the zone of combat, and 3) makin sure the hold

their position. The are far less comprehensive

compared to peace areements, but are often a

ke step on the wa to peace areements that deal

with political issues. A cease-re areement that is

not followed up b a political process often fails.

Training for Mediators and Facilitators

Mediation techniques can be learned, even if

personalit and experience are perhaps more

important in shaping the effectiveness of a

mediator/facilitator. Basicall two tpes oftrainins are possible: a more academic/theoretical

approach; and a more interactive/workshop-based

method, where interpersonal skills, communication

strateies and role-plain exercises are dominant

tools. Trainin can also be differentiated between

mediation/facilitation trainin in the micro-/inter-

personal eld meso-/oranizational eld, and

macro-political/international context. Some of the

techniques are the same, but there are also major

differences, such as the scope of violence, use of

power, context knowlede and the leal framework.

Besides mediation and facilitation in the narrowsense of the word, conict analsis, personal

conict behavior and neotiation strateies should

all be part of a comprehensive trainin.




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Wealth Sharing, Environment, Resource Conicts

and War Economy

No peace will be secure unless it is rounded in

equitable sharin of scarce resources or offers

a sustainable future for all concerned. Malcom

Rifkind, former UK Forein Minister. Environmental

conicts can be caused b the indirect or directuse of natural resources. Indirect use conicts

arise in connection with the production and trade

of natural resources for the lobal market, for

example, timber, sh, mineral oil or diamonds.

Especiall oil and other lucrative natural resources

are sometimes related to the onset, intensit or

duration of armed conict and civil war.50 Armed

roups and states need mone to wae war, often

ained from marketin lucrative natural resources.

The worlds ener supplies durin the next 30 ears

will continue to depend on fossil ener resources.

An increase in geographical concentration of theremaining oil and gas reserves in the Middle East

has been identied thus a lobal economic

dependenc on the stabilit in this reion. Direct

use conicts on the other hand arise in relation to

the actors directl usin the resource, for example

for ariculture. These kinds of violent conicts over

water and land are enerall found on a local scale

in countries with subsistence ariculture, with

weak economies and political instabilit.

Various approaches at labelin conict free

resources, such as the Kimberl Process fordiamonds or the Extractive Industries Transparenc

Initiative (EITI), are central to end and prevent

conict b excludin conict actors from the

market and creatin more transparenc on how

the natural resources revenues are used. In the

lon run, however, onl sustainable resource

consumption especiall in afuent countries

will address the root causes of conicts related

to resource usage. While focusing on an individualconict, it is therefore vital to keep an ee on the

lobal economic set-up benetin or limitin the

nancin of conicts. The sharin of wealth (for

example oil resources) can be a major issue in a

peace areement. Often the wa forward, as in

the Sudanese Comprehensive Peace Agreement of

9 Januar 2005, is to share the benets of the oil

revenues, rather than the oil resources per se.

Business and Development

A stud b the World Bank shows that civil waris more probable in countries that experience

economic decline, low and unequall distributed

income, and that are hihl dependent on primar

exports (for example natural resources).51 Lack of

development can cause conicts, but the process

of development can also cause conicts in its

own riht. Thus, there is the need for a conict-

sensitive development approach, do no harm,52

if development is to be successful and the costs

of these conicts are to be reduced.53 54 The role

of business in relation to peace and conict is an

evolvin eld; not least of all due to the increasin

role multinational companies pla in man areasof the world. On the one hand, business actors are

interested in stabilit and peace, and central to

post-neotiations reconstruction of a countr. On

the other hand, business can at times also benet

from conict and instabilit, and therefore there is

a need to reulate business actors.



Aspects of wealth sharin, resources, unsustainable development and war economies create particular

dnamics that need to be tackled to nd effective solutions to onoin conicts. Development aid and the

role of business can create situations in which conicts escalate or continue, despite the best of intentions.

On the positive side, however, the can also create incentives for peace and are essential in rebuildin

economies and a stable societ.

ECONOMy AND ENVIRONMENT


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Governance, Institution Building and Creating

Long-term Stability

Buildin peace in a post-conict situation is

perhaps an even greater challenge than ending a

war. Almost half of all post-conict states fall backinto violent conict within a decade. yet this is

avoidable: Experience shows that there are was to

rebuild the fabric of societies and create institutions

that enhance sustainable peace.

Peace areements often form the conceptual basis

for the subsequent overnance structures and

stipulate the specic division of power, resources,

representation or autonom that will be built

into the emerging governance and institutional

structures of societies. These peace agreements

and interim arranements, however, often lackdemocratic leitimac, et the are important

in pavin the wa to these more denitive

constitutional and institutional set-ups. Thus,

buildin successful and lastin overnance and

institutional structures for societies that have

experienced sinicant levels of violence and

unrest hines not onl on the peace process but on

several other factors.

The creation of a constitution is a ke component.

Constitutions dene the polit, the set the rules

of the relationship between the state and its

citizens; the x and reect the social contract thatunderpins the functionin of an oranized societ.

There seems to be a trend from lon-lastin

constitutions, to those that are more frequentl

amended. Often there is also a need for interim

arranements between the peace areement and

the nal constitution.

Human Rights

If ou accept these kinds of jobs, ou o and

mediate between warlords, faction leader, bandits,

all sorts of people, people whom the humanrihts purist want to see han. What I tell them

is, Let me nish, and then o ahead and han

them. Lakhdar Brahimi is quoted as sain.55The

United Nations Universal Declaration of Human

Rights entrenched the concept of humans having

universal rights regardless of gender, location or

ethnicit or nationalit. Human rihts are based onthe notion that there is inherent human dinit,

which should be respected universall and is

inalienable in character. While there is a universal

dimension to human rihts, the problem is often

in the lack of a culture-sensitive terminolo

and manifestation. Imprisonment, for example,

is viewed in some cultures as a far worse form of

torture than beatin.56

B its ver nature, human rihts are at the heart

of mediation and facilitation of peace processes.

However, if chared and explicitl labeled as human

rihts violators too earl in the process, there is adaner that the conict parties will stand up and

walk out. The conict then continues and no service

is done to human rihts. Thus, the question is not so

much justice and human rihts versus peace, but a

question of sequencin, brinin human rihts on

board at the riht moment and in the riht form.

Transitional Justice, Dealing with the Past,

Reconciliation

The repression and violence that occur during

a conict leave a mark on all efforts at buildinsustainable peace. If the past is not adequatel

dealt with, there is the daner that it will repeat



JUSTICE AND gOVERNANCEThe role of international law in the settlement of intrastate or interstate conicts is becomin increasinl

important. Transitional justice and addressin the past is ke to creatin cultures of peace. The same people

and institutions that must create peace have often perpetrated rave injustice in the conict. How to

integrate notions of human rights and functioning institutions into the governance model is a challenge

that requires an in-depth understandin of local codes and practices and how the local interates into

international norms. Buildin stron institutions and overnance structures plas a critical component in

preventin a return to violence and creatin the conditions for lon-term stabilit.


14/22

itself. Transitional justice involves judicial and non-

judicial means. The truth must be acknowleded.

The process of dealin with the past must be

leitimate in the ees of the local civil societies.

The culture of violence as a means of dealing

with conict needs to be transformed, and the

oal of depolarizin the societ needs to be kept

at the forefront. These tasks call for a multitude

of mediation efforts between various actors and

on various issues.57 The International Center for

Transitional Justice works alon ve main lines:

prosecuting perpetrators, documenting and

acknowledin violations throuh nonjudicial

means such as truth commissions, reforming

abusive institutions, providin reparations to

victims and facilitating reconciliation processes.58

International Law

No present-da peace areement has international

support if the conict parties aree between

themselves on amnesties reardin war crimes,

crimes aainst humanit or enocide. Amnesties

allowed under international law are those applied

to insurent forces for belonin to, or htin

with, insurent forces and minor crimes associated

with rebellion.59 The International Criminal Court

(ICC) is one of man possible avenues of seekinjustice and applin the rule of law to individuals

accused of the most serious crimes of international

concern, namel enocide, crimes aainst humanit

and war crimes. Mediation and neotiation in

peace processes are intimatel tied to concepts of

justice and law, and some observers have arued

that the evolution of the ICC has made mediation

and neotiation harder as blanket amnesties

for crimes committed b conict parties are no

loner possible. On the other hand, the ICC has also

claried the framework mediators must work with

and has allowed mediators to deleate some of

the difcult issues to the international communit.Thus, a mediator can never ive a blanket amnest,

but he or she can sequence when these issues

are dealt with in the process so that the are not

a burden to a process. Human rihts issues ma

effectivel onl be explicitl brouht up (that is

labeled as such) in a neotiation process after the

point of no return, such as when substantive issues

have been dealt with, or when it is ver likel parties

will reach an areement, so that it is less likel the

conict parties will walk out.




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Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration

(DDR) and Small Arms and Light Weapons

The United Nations Development Program

(UNDP) denes disarmament, demobilisation and

reintegration (DDR) as a multi-faceted exercise

requirin a multi-dimensional response that seeksto demobilize and reinterate former combatants,

militia and retirin members of the armed forces or

roups into societ. DDR is not just about providin

alternative sources of income; it is vital that former

combatants receive some pscho-social support

in order that the ma reinterate into their

communities and effectivel adjust to life durin

peacetime.60 During the mediation of a peace

areement, it is important to shape the basis for a

successful DDR process, often this entails allocating

resources to communities to provide for education

and infrastructure to interate former combatants,rather than ivin mone directl to them.

A component of DDR is the problem of small

arms and liht weapons (SALW). The problem of

the rowth and uncontrolled spread of SALW has

gained importance on the international agenda

over recent ears. This is a loical conclusion of its

neative consequences: destabilization of complete

reions; escalation, rowth or the prolonin of

conict; the hinderin of peace operations and

humanitarian assistance; the thwartin of post-

conict reconstruction and development; and the

contribution to oranized crime and social violence.These weapons both leal and illeal can

present grave dangers to national governments

and to international and reional peacebuildin

efforts.

Security Sector Reform (SSR)

Militar and police forces often pla a contrar roledurin a conict, are often involved in human rihts

violations and often clearl alined to one or the

other of the conict parties. Securit sector reform

in a post-peace agreement phase often entails a

process in which the armed forces from both sides

of the conict are interated, trained and their

respective institutions adapted and democraticall

leitimized. If SSR is not successful, there is a far

reater probabilit of violent conict reemerin.61

During the mediation of a peace agreement, the

basic outline of future securit arranements are

laid; often it is important to create mechanismsthat can evolve during the implementation phase

to take up new issues as the arise.

Peacekeeping and Peace Enforcement

Peacekeepin and peace enforcement are codied

respectivel in Chapters 6 and 7 of the United

Nations Securit Council resolutions.62Peacekeepin

refers, accordin to the UN, to a United Nations

presence in the eld (normall involvin civilian

and militar personnel) that, with the consent of

the conictin parties, implements or monitors

arranements relatin to the control of conictsand their resolution, or ensures the safe deliver

of humanitarian relief.63 Peacekeepers monitor

and observe peace processes that emere in post-

conict situations and assist conictin parties

with implementin the peace areement the

have sined. Such assistance comes in man forms,

includin promotin human securit, condence-

buildin measures, power-sharin arranements,

electoral support, strenthenin the rule of law,

and economic and social development.64 Under

Chapter 7 of the UN Charter, the Securit Council

ma take peace enforcement measures in reactionto a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or

act of aression. It authorizes the interruption



SECURITYCreatin the securit necessar for the emerence of peace requires uarantees that violence will not return.

Frequentl the UN, amon others, has plaed a central role in this with the deploment of peacekeepin and/

or peace-enforcement forces. Disarmament, demobilization and reinteration (DDR) of combatants, as well

as securit sector reform (SSR) are two essential processes in stabilizin a post-peace areement situation.

Both DDR and SSR tpicall require the support, but not imposition, of the international communit to

assist this process and ive the assurances necessar for it to be successful.


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Public Participation and Degree of Inclusiveness

The degree of inclusiveness of a mediation process

is a ke challene. If there are too man people

at the neotiation table, deleates talk to the

audience rather than to each other. The other

problem is the choice of criteria for whom to

include and exclude. Often power (that is armed

force) is a decisive factor. The involvement of greater

sements of societ in a peace process, often run b

an elite that is not democraticall leitimized, is

essential to increase the scope of issues addressed

and thereb make an neotiated areement moreleitimate and supported b societ. The challene

is how to do this when the neotiatin elite is

not in favor of it and clear representatives of civil

societ are difcult to identif. Often the various

conict parties aree to brin their civil societ

on board, but these do not necessaril reect

societ. One wa is to create mechanisms (for

example settin quotas for representatives of civil

societ that are not at the neotiation table) that

enhance reater public participation both durin

the process (for example on topics, public hearins,

consultations, etc.), as well as afterward durin

the implementation phase. Peace agreements arenot democraticall leitimized, thus the need for

elections and institutional reform during the post-

peace agreement phase.

Forced Migration

The International Association for the Stud of Forced

Miration (IASFM) describes forced miration as

a general term that refers to the movements of

refuees and internall-displaced people (those

displaced b conicts) as well as people displaced

b natural or environmental disasters, chemicalor nuclear disasters, famine or development

projects. generall, it is considered that there are

three tpes of forced miration, which, althouh

the can be interrelated, are cateorized b their

causal factors. The causal factors are: conict,

development policies and projects, and disasters.

Forced miration is a complex, wide-ranin and

persistent phenomenon.67 The diasporas pla a ke

role in man conicts, often as important sources

of information and nancin of both conict and

peace efforts. The repatriation of refugees after a

conict is another major issue that inuences post-

peace areement stabilit.

Gender and Women Involvement

Women and men are both actors and victims in

armed conict and peace processes, et the pla

different roles, and these differences need to be

considered to be able to react adequatel to realit.

(See UN Securit Council Resolution 1325 Women

Peace and Securit, 2000.) Women are often amon

the most vulnerable victims of an armed conict.

In man conicts rape is sstematicall used as a

weapon aainst women, irls and to a lesser deree

also aainst men and bos. Besides the direct

phsical and pscholoical trauma, these victimsare often afterwards also sociall marinalized.68

The culture and context-sensitive inclusion of more

women mediators and more women deleates in

mediation and facilitation engagements leads to

increased efcienc and strenthens leitimac

and outreach. For peace processes that ignore

half the population have less hope of popular and

sustainable support. Measures are also needed

to raise awareness on ender stereotpes (for

example cultural attributions of differences to

the masculine and feminine). A gender-sensitiveapproach to peace processes also means that a

pure track one focus (even includin more women)



SOCIETYMediation and neotiation tpicall occurs between a few elite people who represent roups with diverent

interests. However, violent conict impacts ever individual in the broader societ. Enain the public and

broader societ to accept and work with a settlement neotiated b an elite is often a ke challene. If

this does not occur, however, an settlement will lack leitimac and will nd limited acceptance b the

larer populations. Forced miration creates tensions both in the recipient communities and societies, as

well as when those forced to mirate return home. gendered perspectives of mediation and neotiation

processes increase effectiveness in ndin solutions to violent conicts, as women and men pla different

roles and have different needs - be the actors or victims. A violent conicts impact on children can create a

situation that ends in conict resurence ears in the future. Furthermore, conict can become embedded

in the various cultural norms, which are often nelected in an increasin standardization of peace processes.

The role of reliion can often be a means to allow for the acceptance and understandin of differences, or at

the other extreme be used as a means to instiate conict.


17/22

is not enouh. Public participation from all tracks

and both enders is essential. gender is not alwas

best introduced into a male-dominated neotiation

process explicitl as endered, it ma be more

effective to introduce a topic like victims or land

ownership. Then, one will automaticall have to

deal with the specic role of women and mediators

can then invite women into the process to speak

with their own voice.

Culture and Religion

Culture is one of the main bases of identit.Without the recognition and the respect for the

dinit of all cultural identities, there can be no

lasting peace, no development and no harmonious

cultural chane. If respect for a persons culture

is not iven or a persons identit is attacked, the

person ma retaliate to survive pscholoicall or

phsicall. Lack of respect for cultures can lead to

war. Respect for cultures does not mean inorin

aspects of a certain culture that have been

identied as problematic b representatives of

this culture - it is much more a question of how

to address them. The answer is throuh dialouebased on knowlede and respect. A culturall-

sensitive approach to mediation and facilitation in

peace processes also means using language that

communicates, rather than moralistic language

that condemns (that is some aspects of Western

human rihts terminolo). Art can pla an

important role in a societs expression of the inner

experiences of a conict and can thus pla a ke

role in healing in a post-peace agreement phase.

Furthermore, art can be used to counter violence, in

the words of Alexandr Solzhenitsn:

[...] [V]iolence does not live alone and is notcapable of livin alone: it is necessaril interwoven

with falsehood. [] Falsehood can hold out

aainst much in this world, but not aainst art.

And no sooner will falsehood be dispersed than

the nakedness of violence will be revealed in all its

uliness - and violence, decrepit, will fall.69

There is a cultural dimension to religion in the sense

of shapin a persons value sstem, but there is also

somethin more. One can differentiate between

two was of understandin and livin reliion:

one takes a more lealistic perspective of reliion;the second takes a more mstical perspective

of religion, that unites and focuses on healing

relationships. The rst understandin of reliion

can be manipulated to channel peoples eneries

into violence, creatin enem imaes. At its most

danerous, reliion can ive conict parties a sense

of superiorit and leitimac, of htin with god

on our side. For the vast majorit, however, the

golden Rule (treat other people as ou would

like to be treated) of world reliions tends to foster

peace and not violence. The second, more mstical

and relationship-oriented form of reliion is best

described b gandhi:

Quite selshl, as I wish to live in peace in themidst of a bellowin storm howlin around me,

I have been experimentin with mself and m

friends b introducin reliion into politics. Let me

explain what I mean b reliion. It is not the Hindu

reliion, which I prize above all other reliions,

but the reliion which transcends Hinduism,

which chanes ones ver nature, which binds one

indissolubl to the truth within and which ever

puries.70

Media

The media pla a ke role in ever mediationprocess and often it can often wreck it. At an earl

stae of a process, the parties enerall aree

that nothin will be said to the press without

common agreement of all attending the process

but parties ver rarel stick to this areement.

Leakin information is mostl done deliberatel,

with a specic aim, for example to test an idea

before committin to it or to continue htin the

opponent in the media. Press conferences that are

hosted b the mediation team can be one wa of

keepin the press informed, without jeopardizin

the sensitive nature of a mediation process. Onthe positive side, a non-biased media can enhance

public participation and information, and therefore




18/22


19/22


1. Chairmans 19th Anniversar Messae: to all SPLA, SPLM and CANS Units and to the CivilPopulation of the New Sudan.

2. Mediation is enerall dened as the intervention in a neotiation or a conict of anacceptable third part who has limited or no authoritative decision-makin power, but whoassists the involved parties in voluntaril reachin a mutuall-acceptable settlement ofissues in dispute. In addition to addressin substantive issues, mediation ma also establishor strenthen relationships of trust and respect between parties or terminate relationshipsin a manner that minimizes costs and pscholoical harm. Moore, C. The Mediation Process:Practical Strategies for Resolving Conict.(2nd edition). Josse-Bass Publishers. 2003. p. 15.

3. International crisis is a chane in tpe and/or an increase in intensit of disruptive (i.e.hostile verbal or phsical) interactions between two or more states, with a heihtenedprobabilit of militar hostilities that, in turn, destabilize their relationship and challenesthe structure of the international sstem lobal, dominant or subsstem. Brecher, Michael/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan. A Stud of Crisis. 2nd ed. (with CD rom). Ann Arbor: Universit of MichianPress, 2000. Zitiert in: Beardsle, Kle C./Quinn, David M./Biswas, Bidisha/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan.

Mediation Stle and Crisis Outcomes, inJournal of Conict Resolution,50 (2006), Nr. 1, S. 58-86.4. Beardsle, Kle C./Quinn, David M./Biswas, Bidisha/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan. Mediation Stle andCrisis Outcomes, inJournal of Conict Resolution, 50 (2006), Nr. 1, S. 58-86.

5. glasl, Friedrich, Koniktmanaement. Ein Handbuch fr Fhrunskrfte, Beraterinnen undBerater (7. Auae) Stuttart: Verla Freies geistesleben, 2002. [For summaries on escalationclick here.]

6. Bitter, Jean-Nicolas, Les Dieux Embusqus, geneve, Paris: Librairie DROZ, 2003.7. Fisher, R, Ur W. Patton B. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In.Penuin: New

york, London, Victoria, Ontario. 1991.8. Burton, John. Conict: Human Needs Theor, New york: St. Martins Press, 1990. See also

Rosenber, Marshall B. Nonviolent communication a lanuae of compassion - 5th print.Encinitas, CA: PuddleDancer Press, 2001.

9. Bitter, Les Dieux Embusqus. and: Lederach, John Paul. The Moral Imaination, the art and soulof buildin peace, Oxford: Oxford Universit Press, 2005.

10. Montville, Josef V. The Arrow and the Olive Branch, the Case for Track Two Diplomac. In:McDonald, John W. & Bendahmane, Diana B. (eds.) Conict Resolution: Track Two Diplomac.

Washinton DC: Forein Service Institute, US Department of State, S. 5-20. 1987.11. Diana Chias. Track II (Citizen) Diplomac. Auust 2003.12. Hottiner, Julian Thomas. Auf das achten, was nicht esat wird. In: Schweiz global 4 (2005),

S.32-33.13. Beardsle, Kle C./Quinn, David M./Biswas, Bidisha/Wilkenfeld, Jonathan. Mediation Stle and

Crisis Outcomes. In: Journal of Conict Resolution, 50(2006), Nr. 1, S. 58-86.14. Vl. Picard, Cherl. In Practice: Common Lanuae, Different Meanin: What Mediators Mean

When The Talk About Their Work. In: Neotiation Journal 18 (2002), Nr. 3, S. 251-269.15. Wehr, Paul/Lederach, John Paul. Mediatin Conict in Central America. In: Bercovitch, Jacob

(ed.). Resolvin International Conicts: The Theor and Practice of Mediation, Boulder, CO: LnneRienner Publishers, 1996.

16. Collier, P., V.L. Elliott, H. Here, A. Hoefer, M. Renal-Querol and N. Sambanis, Breakin theConict Trap - Civil War and Development Polic, Washinton DC: World Bank/Oxford UniversitPress, 2003.

17. The Human Securit Report 2005 - War and Peace in the 21 Centur. Human Securit Center,Universit of British Columbia. New york, Oxford: Oxford Universit Press, 2005.

18. Beardsle, K, Quinn D, Biswas B, Wilkenfeld J,. Mediation Stle and Crisis Outcomes Journal ofConict Resolution 50(2006):1.

19. Bercovitch, Jacob; Karl DeRouen Jr. Mediation in Internationalized Ethnic Conicts: Assessinthe Determinants of a Successful Process. Armed Forces and Societ, Vol. 30, No. 2 Winter 2004,pp. 147-170.

20. A More Secure World, Our Shared Responsibilit: Report of the Hih-level Panel on Threats,Challenes and Chane. UN eneral assembl, A/59/563, pararaph 100.

21. Whiteld, Teresa: Friends Indeed: the United Nations, groups of Friends and the Resolution ofConict, (Forthcomin).

22. International Council on Human Rihts Polic. Neotiatin Justice? Human Rihts and PeaceAreements, 2006.

23. William ONeill, Mediation and Human Rihts, HD Backround paper 4e.24. Perner, Conradin. The Human Rihts of Cultures, Lessons from Experiences with Traditional

South Sudanese Cultures. Nairobi: Conference on Emerent Human Rihts Themes in EastAfrica, Callenes for Human Rihts NgOs, October 2004.

25. grifths, Martin. Talkin Peace in a Time of Terror: United Nations Mediation and CollectiveSecurit. HD Center, Opinion Paper, March 2005.

26. Mason, Simon A. Lehren aus den Schweizerischen Mediations- und Fazilitationsdiensten

ENDNOTES


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21. Whiteld, Teresa: Friends Indeed: the United Nations, groups of Friends and the Resolution ofConict, (Forthcomin).

22. International Council on Human Rihts Polic. Neotiatin Justice? Human Rihts and Peace

Areements, 2006.23. William ONeill, Mediation and Human Rihts, HD Backround paper 4e.24. Perner, Conradin. The Human Rihts of Cultures, Lessons from Experiences with Traditional


25. grifths, Martin. Talkin Peace in a Time of Terror: United Nations Mediation and CollectiveSecurit. HD Center, Opinion Paper, March 2005.

26. Mason, Simon A. Lehren aus den Schweizerischen Mediations- und Fazilitationsdienstenim Sudan. In Andreas Wener, Victor Mauer (Hrs.): Bulletin 2006 zur schweizerischenSicherheitspolitik, 2006. p 43-96. Center for Securit Studies (ETH-CSS), Zurich.

27. BBC News, Monda, 25 Februar, 2002, Obituar: Jonas Savimbi, Unitas local bo.See also Jonas Savimbi, From Wikipedia, the free encclopedia.28. Mitchell, C.R. and Webb, K. New Approaches to International Mediation, greenwood Press.

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31. Bleeker, Mo. Dealin with the Past. swisspeace workin paper, Koff Series, 2004.32. Bercovitch J and Houston A. Understandin Success and Failure of International Mediation,

Journal of Peace Research, 199; and The Stud of International Mediation: Theoretical Issuesand Empirical Evidence, b Jacob Bercovitch and Allison Houston.

33. Bercovitch J and Houston A. Understandin Success and Failure of International Mediation,Journal of Peace Research,1996; and The Stud of International Mediation: Theoretical Issuesand Empirical Evidence, b Jacob Bercovitch and Allison Houston. Bercovitch J. and DeBrouenK. 2004 Mediation in Internationalized Ethnic Conicts: Assessin the Determinants of aSuccessful Process. Armed Forces & Societ, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2004 pp. 147-170 - Bercovitch J. 2004.International Mediation and Intractable Conict, Beond Intractabilit, Eds. gu Buress, HeidiBuress, Conict Research Consortium, Universit of Colorado, Boulder. Posted 2004.

34. Crocker, C, Hampson F.O, Aall, P.R. Read for Prime Time: The When, Who, and Wh ofInternational Mediation, Neotiation Journal, April 2003.

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Empirical Evidence, b Jacob Bercovitch and Allison Houston.41. Daniel Bowlin DavidHoffman Brinin Peace into the Room: The Personal Qualities of theMediator and Their Impact on the Mediation. Neotiation Journal. Issue: Volume 16, Number 1Januar 2000 Paes:5 28. See also: Harriet Martin. Kins of Peace, Pawns of War. ContinuumInternational. 2006.

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and Hni, H., Securit governance and Post-conict Peacebuildin, geneva Centre for theDemocratic Control of Armed Forces, DCAF (Berlin: Lit Verla, 2005).

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London: Continuum 2006.56. Perner, Conradin. The Human Rihts of Cultures, Lessons from Experiences with Traditional


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Simon A. Mason, Dr sc,

environmental scientist,

Swiss Federal Institute of

Technolo, ETH Zurich,

PhD on water conicts

and cooperation in

the Nile Basin. From

2003 onwards his work

focused on Dialogue

Workshops for transformin water conicts.

Presentl he is senior proram ofcer at the

Center for Securit Studies (CSS), ETH Zurich, in

the Mediation Support Project (joint project withswisspeace, funded b the Swiss Forein Ministr),

focusing on the role and determinants of mediation

and facilitation in peace processes. Besides doing

research on mediation in the international context,

he occasionall also mediates interpersonal

conicts.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

mediation and facilitation

Documents