A History of World Societies Ninth Edition

CHAPTER 9The Islamic World,

600–1400

Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

John P. McKay ● Bennett D. Hill ● John BucklerPatricia Buckley Ebrey ● Roger B. Beck

Clare Haru Crowston ● Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks

Learning Objectives for Chapter 91. From what kind of social and economic environment did Muhammad arise, and what did he teach?2. What made possible the spread of Islam, andwhat forms of government were established to rule Muslim lands? How important was trade to the growth of Islam?3. What new ideas and practices emerged in thearts, sciences, education, and religion?4. What is the difference between Sunni and Shia?5. How did Muslims and Christians come intocontact with each other, and how did they view eachother?

I. The Origins of Islam

A. Arabian Social and Economic Structure• 1. Arabian society consisted of Bedouin tribes whose members were interrelated. A

particular tribe might have both nomadic and sedentary members. Some nomads served as desert guides or caravan guards.

• 2. Many oasis or market towns contained a shrine to the town’s deity. The shrines became neutral places where arguments among warring tribes were settled by the leader of the town’s holy family.

B. Muhammad’s Rise as a Religious Leader• 1. Orphaned at a young age, Muhammad was raised by an uncle. He became

involved in the caravan trade and married Khadija, a wealthy widow. Financially secure, Muhammad was able to devote himself to religious contemplation.

• 2. While praying, Muhammad had a vision of an angel who revealed himself to be a messenger of God. The angel commanded Muhammad to preach the revelations he would receive from God.

• 3. The revelations were later compiled in the Qur’an, which became the sacred book of Islam.

• 4. Muhammad’s example as revealed in the hadith — collections of the sayings of or anecdotes about Muhammad — became the legal basis for the Muslim way of life. Muhammad’s life provides the “normative example,” or Sunna, for Muslim believers.

I. The Origins of IslamC. The Tenets of Islam• 1. Orphaned at a young age, Muhammad was raised by an uncle. He

became involved in the caravan trade and married Khadija, a wealthy widow. Financially secure, Muhammad was able to devote himself to religious contemplation.

• 2. While praying, Muhammad had a vision of an angel who revealed himself to be a messenger of God. The angel commanded Muhammad to preach the revelations he would receive from God.

• 3. The revelations were later compiled in the Qur’an, which became the sacred book of Islam.

• 4. Muhammad’s example as revealed in the hadith — collections of the sayings of or anecdotes about Muhammad — became the legal basis for the Muslim way of life. Muhammad’s life provides the “normative example,” or Sunna, for Muslim believers.

II. Islamic States and Their Expansion

A. Islam’s Spread Beyond Arabia• 1. Muhammad, challenged by the townspeople of Mecca, fled to

Medina. This event is known as the hijra.• 2. Traditionally, people’s interactions were based on tribal ties.

Under Muhammad, the community of people, identified as the umma, were tied together by a shared religious faith.

• 3. The umma could include anyone of the faith. Islam began to focus on spreading the faith into the two most powerful empires: the Greek-Byzantine and the Persian-Sassanid empires.

• 4. The Byzantine and Sassanid empires were invaded by Islamic forces under Umar and Uthman. The Islamic forces brought an end to the old Persian Empire.

• 5. Arab forces spread across North Africa, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, and invaded the kingdom of Spain. Advances into the Frankish kingdom were defeated near Tours by Charles Martel.

II. Islamic States and Their Expansion

B. Reasons for the Spread of Islam1. Jihad2. Economic benefits

C. The Caliphate and the Split Between Shi’a and Sunni Alliances1. Abu Bakr2. Umar, Uthman, and Ali3. Umayyad Dynasty4. Imam or ulama

II. Islamic States and Their Expansion• D. The Abbasid Caliphate• 1. Abu’ al-Abbas overthrew the Umayyad Dynasty. His successor, al-Mansur,

moved the capital city from Damascus to Baghdad, which became a crossroads for trade routes and a cosmopolitan intellectual center.

• 2. The Abbasids turned Turkish slaves into soldiers and capitalized on their horsemanship and military skills. The use of slave soldiers became standard procedure for Muslim armies throughout the Middle East.

• E. Administration of the Islamic Territories• 1. As more territories came under Muslim authority, governors, or emirs,

were appointed to maintain order and collect taxes. Officials from the indigenous population were allowed to remain in power but only in positions below the emir.

• 2. In practice the ulama, not the caliph, interpreted the sacred law as revealed in the Qur’an and the Sunna. The ulama’s interpretations constituted the shari’a.

• 3. The qadis were judges who were experts in sacred law. These individuals maintained the judicial activities of the community.

• 4. The position of vizier was adopted from the Persians. The vizier was the adviser of and chief assistant to the caliph.

III. Fragmentation and Military Challenges,900–1400

A. Breakaway Territories and Shi’a Gains• 1. Fleeing the conquests of the Abbasids, a Umayyad prince

went to Spain and established an independent government at Córdoba.

• 2. Iranian forces took the city of Baghdad and forced the caliph and his Abbasid population to submit to their leader.

• 3. The Fatimids, a clan that claimed heritage from Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, gained control of North Africa and Egypt.

III. Fragmentation and Military Challenges,900–1400

B. The Ascendancy of the Turks• 1. Turks had been constantly placed into slavery by Muslim

invaders. Once they realized that Muslims could not own slaves of the same faith, the Turks began to convert to Islam. The Seljuk Turks pushed eastward into Iraq and Persia. The Turks were a much-needed boost to Muslim military forces.

• 2. The Turks were able to regain control of territories lost to Christian Crusaders, including the holy city of Jerusalem. At the battle of Manzikert, Byzantine forces were defeated, and Turks began to move into Byzantine lands.

III. Fragmentation and Military Challenges,900–1400

C. The Mongol Invasions• 1. Chinggis Khan united the various tribes living on the

steppes of Mongolia. The confederated Mongol, Tatar, and Turkish peoples created a threat that neighboring societies feared.

• 2. Mongol forces under Chinggis Khan’s grandson, Hülegü, attacked and conquered the Abbasids in Baghdad and then moved on to Damascus. Hülegü was unable to conquer Egypt, leaving North Africa under Islamic control.

• 3. Hülegü’s descendant Ghazan finally submitted to Islam. With Mongolian forces now serving under Muslim power, the Islamic world was rejuvenated.

IV. Muslim Society: The Life of the People• A. The Social Hierarchy• 1. Converts to the Islamic faith made up the second level of Muslim society.

Converts brought in commercial abilities and included educated professionals. Their second-class status made some converts accept Shi’ism.

• 2. Those who lived in a Muslim land but had not converted to the faith were identified as dhimmis. They were allowed to practice their religions as long as they recognized Muslim political supremacy and paid a small tax.

• B. Slavery• 1. Many slaves were captured during war. Nearly every soldier kept slaves

taken from captured prisoners.• 2. Women slaves served in homes as domestic help. Other female slaves

performed as dancers, singers, musicians, and reciters of poetry, and many served as concubines.

• 3. Women were secluded in harems to protect their virtue, and those men who had the means purchased eunuch slaves to guard their harem.

• 4. Children of slave women by Muslim masters were considered free.

IV. Muslim Society: The Life of the PeopleC. Women in Classical Islamic Society• C. Women in Classical Islamic Society• 1. The hadith, records of Muhammad’s sayings and actions,

vary in their portrayal of the Prophet’s wives. Some hadith report that the women were frail and jealous, but most describe the wives as models of righteousness.

• 2. The Qur’an did not discuss the social environment for women. Only spiritual and moral aspects were addressed.

• 3. In some Muslim societies women were allowed greater liberties. In the Umayyad period, women maintained roles in religious, economic, and political environments.

• 4. Urban women wore veils, possibly to distinguish them from female slaves. The custom of a woman veiling her head gradually extended to the woman covering her entire body.

• 5. The practice of purdah, or the harem system, derives in part from Arabic contacts with Persians and other Eastern peoples. The harem became a symbol of male prestige and prosperity.

Questions for “Separating Men and Women in a Mosque”• 1. How does this picture demonstrate what later Muslims considered proper roles for men and women?

What activity or activities do the postures and head positions of the men suggest? What about the women?• (Answer: The men all sitting upright with their attention focused on a leader, probably an imam, who seems

to be preaching. They are listening to and absorbing religious instruction, an activity integral to their roles as heads of household and religious instructors for their women and children. The women face one another in various postures; some are dealing with children, others even appear to be talking to one another. For them the religious instruction is not as important. Their most important role in this picture is as mothers. )

• • 2. What do you suppose is the significance of the positioning of the women in the illustration under the

men?• (Answer: This clearly suggests the supposed superiority of men to women that was part of Islamic cultures

by this time. )• • 3. What was the rationale for separating men and women (at least in elite households) so strictly in later

Islamic societies?• (Answer: According to the textbook and to the historical sources excerpted there were several different

rationales for the separation of the sexes and the seclusion and veiling of women. After the early period of Islam, the view became widespread that women did not have the capacity to participate in any public affairs and that their place was in the home. The veiling and seclusion of women probably also showed that a family was respectable and high status. The excerpt from Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali in the text suggests also a concern with controlling women’s sexuality and protecting men from the “temptation” of women. Al-Ghazali quotes Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah to the effect that a woman should “see no man and … no man should see her.” )

V. Trade and Commerce• 1. The Qur’an did not prohibit trade with non-Muslim

populations. The main commercial routes were waterways through the various seas.

• 2. Economic innovations were focused on banking methods. Some of these included written orders, bills of exchange, and the sakk, the forerunner of the modern check.

• 3. Technological improvements were made to enhance commerce. Larger ships improved long-distance travel. The Chinese compass improved navigation.

• 4. The exchange of products helped to improve diets throughout the world. Plants that were traded throughout Muslim lands included cotton, sugar cane, and rice. Citrus fruits from Southeast Asia and India were introduced to the Islamic population.

VI. Cultural DevelopmentsA. The Cultural Centers of Baghdad and Córdoba•1. The most recognized form of folklore and literary works was the Arabian Nights, also known as The Thousand and One Nights. This collection included stories of Aladdin, Sinbad, and Ali Baba.•2. Córdoba in southern Spain was as culturally advanced as Baghdad. The city had a population of around one million people and featured paved and well-lit streets and thousands of mosques and public baths.B. Education and Intellectual Life•1. Religious schools called madrasas taught specific lessons on Muslim law and faith. •2. Higher education revolved around the close relationship between teacher and students. For students, the selection of the teacher was more important than the choice of schools. Higher education prepared men to make wise choices in accordance with God’s law.•3. Due to the growth of the Muslim world, the study of language became vital. Arabic became the official state language in former Sassanid and Byzantine territories.•4. Advancements in medical practices allowed Muslim doctors to surpass other cultures. Wounds were cauterized, and bladder stones were crushed.•5. Muslim philosophers, inspired by classical Greek works, wrote political discussions of moral rulers.

VI. Cultural Developments

C. The Mystical Tradition of Sufism• 1. The Islamic faith had various groups that interpreted

religious dedication in different ways. The Sufis sought a personal relationship with God. They dedicated themselves to meditation on the Qur’an, fasting, and prayer.

• 2. Groups of Sufis gathered around prominent leaders who held the title of shaykh. Members of the groups were called dervishes. Dervishes entered trances through the repetition of prayers or through whirling or dancing.

• 3. Sufi philosophical writings included The Meccan Revelation and The Interpreter of Desires, both by Ibn al’Arabi. The first work was a personal encyclopedia of 560 chapters, and the second was a collection of love poems.

VII. Muslim-Christian Encounters• 1. Both Christianity and Islam are based on the cultural

heritage of the Judeo-Christian past. • 2. Business and trade allowed the two worlds to exchange art,

architecture, and a variety of talents and skills.• 3. Christians who adopted Muslim customs but did not

convert were identified as Mozarabs. The leaders of each religion worried that the other religion would become a contamination and a threat. A Muslim who converted to Christianity was sentenced to death.

• 4. Christian literature did not portray the Islamic faith as one deserving of respect. In the classic Inferno, Dante placed Muhammad in the ninth circle of Hell, near Satan himself.

Questions for “The Mozarabic Bible”• 1. Do you see any elements in this illustration that could be influenced by

Arab/Islamic art?• (Answer: The abstract representation of the sea as a pattern of swirling

stripes seems to resemble some abstract patterns in Islamic art. The same could be said of the parallel stripes used to represent some of the clothes. )

• • 2. Why might the illustration of this particular Old Testament story be

particularly appropriate for a section on the Mozarabs?• (Answer: Christians, Jews, and Muslims lived side-by-side in Andalusia in

the period between the 700s and 1100s – often in relative harmony. The Mozarabs themselves were Christians who accepted into their lives many elements of Islamic Arab culture. The story of the parting of the Red Sea was important for all three religions, because all accepted the stories Hebrew Bible (or in Christian terminology the Old Testament) as sacred. )