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MBF1223 | Financial ManagementPrepared by Dr Khairul Anuar

L5 - Financial Ratios and Firm Performance

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Reference

• Reference for this topic is

Financial Management By Raymond Brooks

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Learning Objectives

1. Create, understand, and interpret common‐size financial statements.

2. Calculate and interpret financial ratios.

3. Compare different company performances using financial ratios,

historical financial ratio trends, and industry ratios.

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1. Financial Statements

• Just like a doctor takes a look at a patient’s x‐rays or cat‐scan when

diagnosing health problems, a manager or analyst can take a look at a

firm’s primary financial statements i. e. the income statement and the

balance sheet, when trying to gauge the status or performance of a firm.

• Income statement: periodic recording of the sources of revenue and

expenses of a firm,

• Balance sheet: provides a point in time snap shot of the firm’s assets,

liabilities and owner’s equity.

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2. Benchmarking

• The financial statements constitute fairly complex documents involving a whole bunch of numbers.

• Absolute values tell us something about the amount of assets, liabilities, equity,

revenues, expenses, and taxes of a firm, difficult to really gauge what’s going on, primarily because of size and

maturity differences among firms. requires “benchmarking” against some standard.

• One common method of benchmarking a is to compare a firm’s current performance against that of its own performance over a 3‐5 year period (trend analysis), by looking at the growth rate in various key items such as sales, costs, and profits.

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2. Benchmarking

Table: Cogswell Cola’s Abbreviated Income Statements ($ in thousands)

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2. Benchmarking

• Another useful way to make some sense out of this mess of numbers, is

to re‐cast the income statement and the balance sheet into common

size statements, by expressing each income statement item as a percent

of sales and each balance sheet item as a percent of total assets.

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2. Benchmarking

Figure – Income Statement

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2. Benchmarking

Figure – Balance Sheet

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2. Benchmarking

• Benchmarking is a good starting point to detect trends (if any) in a firm’s

performance and to make quick comparisons of key financial statement

values with competitors on a relative basis.

• More in‐depth diagnosis requires individual item analyses and

comparisons which are best done by conducting ratio analysis.

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2. Benchmarking

• Financial ratios allow for comparisons

between companies. between industries. between different time periods for one company. between a single company and its industry average.

Thus, the ratios of firms in different industries, which face different risks, capital requirements, and competition are usually hard to compare.

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3. Financial Ratios

• Financial ratios are relationships between different accounts from

financial statements—usually the income statement and the balance

sheet—that serve as performance indicators

• Being relative values, financial ratios allow for meaningful comparisons

across time, between competitors, and with industry averages.

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3. Financial Ratios

5 key areas of a firm’s performance can be analyzed using financial ratios:

1. Liquidity ratios: Can the company meet its obligations over the short term?

2. Solvency ratios: (also known as financial leverage ratios): Can the company

meet its obligations over the long term?

3. Asset management ratios: How efficiently is the company managing its assets

to generate sales?

4. Profitability ratios: How well has the company performed overall?

5. Market value ratios: How does the market (investors) view the company’s

financial prospects?

# Du Pont analysis involves a breakdown of the return on equity into its three

components, i.e. profit margin, turnover, and leverage.

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4. Short‐Term Solvency: Liquidity Ratios

• Measure a company’s ability to cover its short‐term debt obligations in a

timely manner:

• 3 key liquidity ratios include: The current ratio, quick ratio, and cash ratio.

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4. Short‐Term Solvency: Liquidity Ratios

Cogswell has better liquidity and short‐term solvency than Spacely, but,

higher investment in current assets also means that lower yields are

being realized since current assets are typically low yielding.

So, we need to look at the other areas and inter‐related effects of the firm’s

various accounting items.

Table: Liquidity Ratios 2011 for Cogswell Cola and Spacely Spritzers

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5. Long‐Term Solvency: Solvency or Financial Leverage Ratios

• Measure a company’s ability to meet its long‐term debt obligations based

on its overall debt level and earnings capacity.

• Failure to meet its interest obligation could put a firm into bankruptcy.

• Equations 14.4, 14.5, and 14.6 can be used to calculate 3 key financial

leverage ratios: the debt ratio, times interest earned ratio, and cash

coverage ratio.

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5. Long‐Term Solvency: Long‐Term Solvency: Solvency or Financial Leverage Ratios

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5. Long‐Term Solvency: Long‐Term Solvency: Solvency or Financial Leverage Ratios

• Cogswell Cola has relatively less debt and a significantly greater ability to cover its interest obligations by using either its EBIT (times interest earned ratio) or its net cash flow (cash coverage ratio) than Spacely Spritzers.

• Leverage must be analyzed as a combination of debt level and coverage. If a firm is heavily leveraged but has good interest coverage, it is using the interest deductibility feature of taxes to its benefit. Having a high leverage with low coverage could put the firm into a risk of bankruptcy.

Table: Financial Leverage Ratios 2011 for Cogswell Cola and Spacely Spritzers

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6. Asset Management Ratios

• Measure how efficiently a firm is using its assets to generate revenues or how

much cash is being tied up in other assets such as receivables and inventory.

• Equations 14.7 – 14.11 can be used to calculate 5 key asset management ratios.

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6. Asset Management Ratios

While Cogswell is more efficient at managing its inventory, Spacely seems to be doing

a better job of collecting its receivables and utilizing its total assets in generating

revenues

Table: Asset Management Ratios 2011 for Cogswell Cola and Spacely Spritzers

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7. Profitability Ratios

Profitability ratios such as net profit margin, returns on assets, and return

on equity, measure a firm’s effectiveness in turning sales or assets into

profits.

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7. Profitability Ratios

As far as profitability is concerned, Cogswell is outperforming Spacely by about 3%.

Table: Profitability Ratios 2011 for Cogswell Cola and Spacely Spritzers

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8. Market Value Ratios

Used to gauge how attractive or reasonable a firm’s current price is relative

to its earnings, growth rate, and book value.

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• Potential investors and analysts often use these ratios as part of their valuation

analysis.

• Typically, if a firm has a high price to earnings and a high market to book value ratio, it

is an indication that investors have a good perception about the firm’s performance.

• However, if these ratios are very high it could also mean that a firm is over‐valued.

• With the price/earnings to growth ratio (PEG ratio), the lower it is, the more of a

bargain it seems to be trading at, vis‐à‐vis its growth expectation.

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Ratio Cogswell Cola Spacely Spritzers

P/E 15.41 13.01PEG 1.28 0.86P/B 5.49 4.17

The ratios seem to indicate that investors in both firms seem to have

good expectations about their performance and are therefore paying

fairly high prices relative to their earnings book values.

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9. DuPont analysis

Involves breaking down ROE into three components of the firm:1) operating efficiency, as measured by the profit margin (net income/sales);2) asset management efficiency, as measured by asset turnover (sales/total

assets); and3) financial leverage, as measured by the equity multiplier (total assets/total

equity).

Equation below shows that if we multiply a firm’s net profit margin by its total asset turnover ratio and its equity multiplier, we will get its return on equity.

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10. DuPont analysis

• Cogswell has better operational efficiency, i.e. it is better able to move sales dollars into income, but Spritzer is more efficient at utilizing its assets, and since it uses more debt, it is able to get more of its earnings to its shareholders.

• Although these 14 ratios are not the only ones that can be used to assess a firm’s performance, they are the most popular ones.

• It is important to look at the overall picture of the firm in all 5 areas and accordingly reach conclusions or make recommendations for changes.

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10. External Uses of Financial Statements and Industry Averages

Financial statements of publicly traded companies and industry averages of

key items provide the raw material for analysts and investors to make

investment recommendations and decisions

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11. Cola Wars

Table: Key Financial Ratios and Accounts for PepsiCo and Coca‐Cola (as of December 31, 2010)

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11. Cola Wars

Table: Some Key Ratios for PepsiCo and Coca‐Cola (Five‐Year Period)

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11. Cola Wars

• One of the first things we notice in looking over the five years of data is how similar many of the ratios are from year to year, showing remarkable consistency for these two companies.

• We also can see that the gross margin of Coca‐Cola is consistently higher than that of PepsiCo.

• The debt to equity ratio of both firms is mostly falling over the five‐year period.

• We also can see that ROE has been very good for both companies, although slightly better for PepsiCo.

• Finally, PepsiCo has very strong and growing earnings per share over this period, outperforming Coca‐Cola’s EPS, but PepsiCo is also more expensive (higher current price per share).

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12. Industry ratios:

• Industry ratios are often used as benchmarks for financial ratio analysis of individual firms.

• There can be significant differences in various key areas across industries, which is why comparing company ratios with industry averages can be very useful and more informative.

Table: Financial Ratios: Industry Averages

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Additional Problems with AnswersProblem 1

Constructing an Income Statement. Using the income and expense account information for Tri‐Mark Products Inc. listed below, construct an income statement for the year ended 31st December, 2009.

Shares outstanding: 1,575,000Tax rate: 35%Interest expense: $3,540,000Revenue: $950,500,000Depreciation: $50,000,000Selling, general, and administrative expense: $85,000,000Other income: $1,350,000Research and development: $5,200,000Cost of goods sold: $730,000,000

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Additional Problems with AnswersProblem 1 (Answer)

Tri-mark Products Incorporated Income Statement for the year ended 31st Dec. 2009 ('000s)

Revenue $ 950,500 Cost of goods sold $ 730,000

Gross Profit $ 220,500 Operating expenses

Selling, general and administrative expenses $ 85,000 R&D $ 5,200 Depreciation $ 50,000

Operating Income $ 80,300 Other Income $ 1,350

EBIT $ 81,650 Interest Expense $ 3,540

Taxable Income $ 78,110 Taxes $ 27,339

Net Income $ 50,772 Shares Outstanding $ 16,740 EPS $ 3.03

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Constructing a Balance Sheet. Construct Tri‐Mark Incorporated’s 2009 year‐end Balance Sheet using the asset, liability, and equity accounts listed below:

Retained Earnings $60,500,000Accounts Payable $57,000,000Accounts Receivable $43,000,000Common Stock $89,676,000Cash $6,336,000Short Term Debt $1,500,000Inventory $42,000,000Goodwill $30,000,000Long Term Debt $74,000,000Other Non‐Current Liabilities $15,000,000PP&E $225,000,000Other Non‐Current Assets $14,000,000Long‐Term Investments $25,340,000Other Current Assets $12,000,000

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Tri-mark Products Inc. Balance Sheet as at year ended

31st December 2009 (‘000s) Liabilities:

Current Assets Current Liabilities

Cash $6,336 Accounts Payable $57,000

Accts. Rec. $43,000 Short Term Debt $1,500

Inventory $42,000 TOTAL Current Liabilities. $58,500

Other Current $12,000 Long Term Debt $74,000 Total Current $103,336 Other Liabilities $15,000 L- T Inv. $25,340 Total Liabilities $147,500 PP&E $225,000 Owner’s EquityGoodwill $30,000 Common Stock $189,676 Other Assets $14,000

Retained Earnings $60,500

Total OE $250,176Total Assets $397,676

Total Liab. And OE $397,676

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• Common size statements: Re‐state Tri‐Mark Incorporated’s 2009 financial

statements as common‐size statements and comment on them

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Assets:

% of Total Assets Liabilities:

% of Total Assets

Current Assets Current

Liabilities

Cash $6,336 0.02 Accounts Payable $57,000 0.14

Accts. Rec. $43,000 0.11

Short Term Debt $1,500 0.00

Inventory $42,000 0.11 TOTAL Current Liab. $58,500 0.15

Other Current $12,000 0.03

Long Term Debt $74,000 0.19

Total Current $103,336 0.26

Other Liabilities $15,000 0.04

L- T Inv. $25,340 0.06 Total Liabilities $147,500 0.37

PP&E $225,000 0.57 Owner’s Equity

Goodwill $30,000 0.08 Common Stock $189,676 0.48

Other Assets $14,000 0.04

Retained Earnings $60,500 0.15

Total Assets $397,676 1.00 Total OE $250,176 0.63Total Liab. And OE $397,676 1.00

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Compute and analyze financial ratios. Using the 2009 income statement and

balance sheet of Trimark Products Inc., as constructed in problems 1 and 2

above, compute its financial ratios. How is the firm doing relative to its

industry in the areas of liquidity, asset management, leverage, and

profitability?

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Additional Problems with Answers Problem 4 (continued)

Ratio Industry Average

Current Ratio 2.200 Quick Ratio (or Acid Test Ratio) 1.500 Cash Ratio 0.135 Debt Ratio 0.430 Cash Coverage 10.600 Day’s Sales in Receivables 29.000 Total Asset Turnover 2.800 Inventory Turnover 20.100 Day’s Sales in Inventory 11.500 Receivables Turnover 32.000 Profit Margin 0.045 Return on Assets 0.126 Return on Equity 0.221

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Additional Problems with Answers Problem 4 (Answer)

Trimark Industry Average

Current Ratio 1.766 2.200Quick Ratio (or Acid Ratio Test) 1.048 1.500 Cash Ratio 0.108 0.135Debt Ratio 0.371 0.430Cash Coverage 37.189 10.600Day’s Sales in Receivables 16.512 12.000 Total Asset Turnover 2.390 2.800 Inventory Turnover 28.808 30.100 Day’s Sales in Inventory 12.670 11.500 Receivables Turnover 22.105 30.000 Profit Margin 0.053 0.045Return on Assets 0.128 0.126Return on Equity 0.203 0.221

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Additional Problems with Answers Problem 4 (Answer) (continued)

Analysis:

Liquidity: Trimark’s liquidity ratios are below the industry average indicating that they

might need to look into their management of current assets and liabilities.

Leverage: Trimark’s debt ratio is much lower than the industry average and its cash

coverage is more than 3 time the average, indicating that if it needs to borrow long‐

term debt it should not have much of a problem.

Asset management: Trimark’s asset turnover ratios are all below the average. It needs

to tighten up collections, and manage its inventory more efficiently.

Profitability: Trimark has a good control on cost of goods sold. Its net profit margin is

better than the industry and so is its ROA. The industry, however, is returning a higher

rate to the shareholders on average, primarily due to the higher debt levels.

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DuPont Analysis. Based on the ratios calculated in problem 4 above, and

in conjunction with the industry averages given, conduct a DuPont analysis

on Trimark’s key profitability ratios.

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According to the Du Pont breakdown, we haveROE = Net Profit Margin * Total Asset Turnover * Equity Multiplier

ROE = NI/S * S/TA * TA/Equity

Note: since we don’t have the accounting information for the average, we have to figure out the industry’s equity multiplier by some algebraic manipulation.

Equity Multiplier = Total Assets/Equity

Now, debt ratio = Total Debt/Total Assets

Total Assets = Total Debt + Equity

(Total Debt/Total Assets) +( Equity/Total assets) = 1

Equity/Total Assets = 1 – (Total Debt/Total Assets)

TA/E = 1/(1‐TD/TA)

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Additional Problems with AnswersProblem 5 (Answer) (continued)

Trimark Industry

Debt Ratio 0.371 0.430 Total Asset Turnover 2.390 2.800 Profit Margin 0.053 0.045 Return on Assets 0.128 0.126 Return on Equity 0.203 0.221

Equity multiplier = 1/(1-debt ratio) 1.59 1.75

Despite a lower Total Asset Turnover ratio, Trimark’s ROA (12.8%) is better than that of the industry (12.6%), primarily due to its higher net profit margin. The industry, however, has a higher ROE (22.1%) due to its higher debt ratio and correspondingly higher equity multiplier.

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Figure 14.1 Cogswell Cola Balance Sheet

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Figure 14.2 Cogswell Cola Income Statement

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Potential problems and limitations of financial ratio analysis

• Comparison with industry averages is difficult for a conglomerate firm that operates in many different divisions.

• “Average” performance is not necessarily good, perhaps the firm should aim higher.

• Seasonal factors can distort ratios.• “Window dressing” techniques can make statements and

ratios look better.

More issues regarding ratios

• Different operating and accounting practices can distort comparisons.

• Sometimes it is hard to tell if a ratio is “good” or “bad”.• Difficult to tell whether a company is, on balance, in strong

or weak position.

Qualitative factors to be considered when evaluating a company’s future financial performance

• Are the firm’s revenues tied to one key customer, product, or supplier?

• What percentage of the firm’s business is generated overseas?

• Competition• Future prospects• Legal and regulatory environment

Industry Specific Ratios

• Industry‐specific ratios are ratios that are useful only in a specific industry and hence calculated for analysing entities in that industry only.

• These ratios are meaningless for entities in other industries.

Occupancy Ratio for Hotel Industry

• The occupancy rate of hotels is the share of an establishment's available rooms that are occupied at a given time.

• The occupancy rate is usually used alongside two other statistical units, the average daily rate (ADR) and revenue per available room (RevPAR), to measure a hotel's performance.

Average Daily Rate

Average Daily Rate commonly referred to as ADR is a statistical unit that is often used in the lodging industry. The number represents the average rental income per paid occupied room in a given time period. ADR along with the property's occupancy are the foundations for the property's financial performance.

Calculation:ADR = Room Revenue / Rooms SoldHouse use and complimentary rooms are excluded from the denominators. 'House Use' rooms or those occupied by hotel employees or management are excluded as they are not available for sale and not generating income.


Revenue per available room (RevPAR)

RevPAR it is a performance metric in the hotel industry that is calculated by dividing a hotel's total guestroom revenue by the room count and the number of days in the period being measured.

Calculation:RevPAR = Rooms Revenue/Rooms Available• RevPAR is rooms revenue per available room (Total rooms

inventory),• Rooms Revenue is the revenue generated by room sales• Rooms Available as used in calculating


Capital adequacy ratio

• It is also known as Capital to Risk (Weighted) Assets Ratio (CRAR).

• It is the ratio of a bank's capital to its risk.• It is a measure of a bank's capital. It is expressed as a

percentage of a bank's risk weighted credit exposures.• This ratio is used to protect depositors and promote

stability and efficiency of financial systems around the world.

• Capital adequacy ratio is the ratio which determines the bank's capacity to meet the time liabilities and other risks such as credit risk, operational risk etc.

Ratio for Banking Industry

Two types of capital are measured in CAR:Tier one capital : which can absorb losses without a bank being

required to cease trading.Tier two capital: which can absorb losses in the event of a winding‐up and so provides a lesser degree of protection to depositors.

Capital adequacy ratio is defined as:

TIER 1 CAPITAL = (paid up capital + statutory reserves + disclosed free reserves) ‐(equity investments in subsidiary + intangible assets + current & b/f losses)TIER 2 CAPITAL = A) Undisclosed Reserves + B) General Loss reserves + C) hybrid debt capital instruments and subordinated debts

Capital adequacy Ratio for banking Industry


Loan to Deposit Ratio in BanksThe loan‐to‐deposit ratio (LTD) is a commonly used statistic for assessing a bank's liquidity by dividing the bank's total loans by its total deposits. This number is expressed as a percentage. If the ratio is too high, it means that the bank may not have enough liquidity to cover any unforeseen fund requirements, and conversely, if the ratio is too low, the bank may not be earning as much as it could be.

Formula:


Construction Industry Ratios

Modified traditional ratios such as Liquidity, Leverage, Activity and Profitability ratios are adapted from Construction Financial Management Association (CFMA) to support different purposes of analysis.

When evaluating ratios, the results are compared with other firms in the same sector of industry.

Two types of comparisons can be made when using ratio analysis: 1. A company can track improvements over time by comparing its current

performance with prior years’ performance. 2. A company can compare itself to the industry as a way of measuring

whether or not it is performing as efficiently and effectively as its peers.

Ratio for Construction Industry

The Liquidity Ratios Banks and sureties rely on working capital calculations to determine credit. These ratios demonstrate the ability to finance new contracts and meet current obligations. Sureties rely heavily on these calculations to determine the amount of construction activity a contractor can handle.1. Current Ratio , 2. Quick Ratio, 3. Days of Cash, 4. Working Capital Turnover

Profitability RatiosThe construction industry is capital intensive industry. It relies heavily on equipment and assets to build projects. Profitability ratios are a measure of management’s effectiveness in utilizing both the assets and the equity of the company. These ratios are a valuable tool in determining the most opportune allocation of an owner’s capital based on his risk assessment 1. Return on Assets, 2. Return on Equity, 3. Times Interest Earned.


Leverage RatiosDebt is often the silent killer of construction companies. These ratios indicate total debt, including debt to purchased equipment, accounts payable and accrued expenses. They reveal the relationship between the stockholders and creditors and whether or not there is a proper investment in fixed assets. 1. Debt‐To‐Equity, 2. Revenue To Equity, 3. Asset Turnover, 4. Fixed Asset Ratio, 5. Equity to General and Administrative Expenses, 6. Under Billings To Equity, 7. Backlog to Equity.

Efficiency Ratios Efficiency ratios are a measure of certain selected metrics that indicate management’s effectiveness in operating the company. Stockholders can glean important details about the company from these Measurements 1. Backlog to Working Capital, 2. Months in Backlog, 3. Days in Accounts Receivable, 4. Days in Inventory, 5. Days in Accounts Payable, 6. Operating Cycle.


Key Financial Ratios to Analyse the Hospitality Industry

• The hospitality industry is a large field within the service industry that includes smaller fields such as hotels and lodging, event planning, theme parks, transportation, cruise lines and other fields within the tourism industry.

• The hospitality industry is heavy in fixed and tangible assets, and therefore requires a very specific set of financial ratios to accurately analyse the industry and come to conclusions based on performance of individual companies.

Ratio for Hospitality Industry

1. Liquidity RatiosCurrent ratio = (current assets / current liabilities)For the hospitality industry, companies have a lot of current liabilities in the form of salaries and wages, short‐term equipment leasing and other short‐term liabilities. Additionally, it is a cyclical industry, making it imperative that companies have enough current assets to cover current liabilities, even in an economic downturn.

2. Financial Leverage RatiosDebt ratio = (total debt / total assets)The debt ratio measures a company's ability to meet its long‐term debt obligations. For companies within the hospitality industry, it is important to have low debt ratios, meaning long‐term assets greatly outweigh the debt used to purchase them.

3. Profitability RatiosGross profit margin = (sales ‐ cost of goods sold) / (sales)The net profit margin is similar to the gross profit margin except it measures the amount of net profit earned on the revenue a company generates. For the companies in the hospitality industry, profits are actually not very high, as there are high associated operating costs to run a company in this industry.

Ratio for Hospitality Industry

Sales per Square foot for companies in Retail Business

• Sales per square foot is a popular sales metric used in the retailing industry. Sales per square foot is simply the average revenue a retail business creates for every square foot of sales space.

• Sales per square foot is used by businesses and analysts alike to measure the efficiency of a store's management in creating revenues with the amount of sales space available to them. The higher the sales per square foot, the better job management is doing of marketing and displaying the store's products.

Ratio for Retail Business

The formula for it is:Sales Per Square Foot = Sales / Square Feet of Selling SpaceFor example, let's say Company XYZ sold $15 million worth of clothes last year in its 10 stores. Each store is about 3,000 square feet, for a total of 30,000 square feet.

Using this data and the formula above, we can calculate Company XYZ's sales per square foot:

$15,000,000 / 30,000 = $500

WHY IT MATTERS:

Sales per square foot is an indicator of how efficiently a company uses its assets to make sales. For this reason, the higher the sales per square foot, the better.

Revenue per Employee Ratio

• Revenue per employee is a ratio that is calculated as company's revenue divided by the current number of employees. This ratio is most useful when comparing it against other companies in the same industry. Ideally, a company wants the highest revenue per employee possible, because it indicates higher productivity and effective use of the firm’s resources.

• To evaluate revenue per employee, a business compares its results to other companies in the same industry. Some industries, such as banking, require a large number of employees to staff physical locations and answer customer questions. The banker should compare his company's results to competitors in the same industry.

• Revenue per employee is affected by a company’s employee turnover rate, and turnover is defined as the percentage of the total workforce that leaves voluntarily each year and must be replaced.

Revenue per Employee Ratio

Formula

Manufacturing Industry RatioTo gauge the appropriateness of operations and to determine how well the manufacturing process is going, a company uses the following financial ratios to evaluate its business. These financial ratios are equally useful to an investor wishing to gain a deeper understanding of a manufacturing company.

Inventory TurnoverThe inventory turnover ratio measures the effectiveness of a company’s manufacturing process. It is measured by dividing the cost of goods sold by the average balance in inventory.

Ratio for Manufacturing Industry

Maintenance Costs to Total ExpensesA manufacturing company may utilize equipment or machinery during the production process of its goods. A critical measurement of the sustainability of long‐term operations is comparing repair and maintenance costs in relation to total expenses.

Total Manufacturing Costs Per Unit Minus Materialsthis financial metric divides the total manufacturing costs, not including direct materials, by the number of units produced. An investor can utilize this figure by determining how much overhead is required to produce a good and how efficient a company’s process is compared to other entities.


Manufacturing Costs to Total ExpensesA manufacturing company incurs expenses while producing a product as well as indirect costs needed to operate the business. From an investor’s standpoint, it is more desirable to see a majority of costs directly tied to the product being made as opposed to other expenses, including supervisor salaries or building rent.

Unit Contribution MarginThe ratio measures what percentage of revenue is attributed to covering fixed costs. An investor can use this ratio to determine the security of a manufacturing company. A manufacturing company with a high contribution margin ratio has an easier time covering fixed costs and is a less risky company in which to invest.


Logistics Industry RatiosThe logistics industry or Trucking Industry, frequently operates on relatively thin margins. Given the high cost of equipment and fuel coupled with the competitive nature of the industry, many of the financial ratios for Logistics companies are relatively tight. Cost controls both on the micro level, such as cost per mile, as well as on the macro level can help a Logistics provider maintain profitability.

Fixed Mileage Cost RatiosAt the level of an individual vehicle, companies in the trucking industry essentially trade miles for money. Revenue per mile comes from dividing the amount of money that a truck makes on a trip by the number of miles driven.Cost per mile is calculated by adding up all of a truck's operating costs and dividing it by the number of miles that it drives during that period of time.

Ratio for Logistics Industry

Variable Profit RatioOn the most basic level, a trucker makes his money based on the difference between costs and revenues.

Dead Head CostsDead head miles happen when a trucker has to drive to get paying cargo. For instance, if a trucker drives a load from Los Angeles to San Francisco, but has to drive unloaded to Reno to pick up his next load, that second leg would be a dead head. Subtracting the cost of a dead head from a trip, which is based on dead head miles multiplied by a truck's cost per mile, gives the true profitability.


Big Picture Financial RatiosTrucking companies also can be judged using the same basic financial analysis ratios as any other company. According to business credit rating firm DBRS, a strong trucking company maintains a debt‐to‐capital ratio of 20 percent or less, while a weak one has 60 percent or more. Strong companies still have 60 percent or more of their cashflow left after paying debt, while weak truckers have less than 10 percent. While a weak trucker returns 5 percent or less on its equity, a strong one provides a return of at least 14 percent.


• There are a number of specific airline industry performance metrics that investors may examine. These points of performance analysis include

• available seat miles, • cost per available seat mile, • break‐even load factor and• revenue per available seat mile.

• Available Seat Miles ‐ ASM• A measure of an airplane's carrying capacity available to generate revenue.

Available seat miles refers to how many seat miles are actually available for purchase on an airline. Seat miles are calculated by multiplying the available seats for a given plane by the number of miles that plane will be flying for a given flight.

• ASM is simply a measure of a flight's revenue‐generating abilities based upon traffic. For investors analyzing airlines, ASM is a very important metric in deciding which airlines are best at generating revenue from the availability of seats to customers. If all of the seats on the plane are not sold, then the ASM of the airline is operating at below capacity. Long instances of unavailable seats on an airline can cost an airline millions of dollars.

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Ratio for Airlines Industry

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Ratio for Airlines Industry

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