mb0034 research methodology
TRANSCRIPT
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Q.1. Explain the different types of research.
Answer:
Research may be classified crudely according to its major instant or the methods. According to
the intent, research may be classified as:
1. Pure Research:
It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice, e.g.
Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions, Galileo’s contribution, etc. It is also know
as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness.
It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays foundation for applied
research. It offers solutions to many practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a
practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the
best solution.
2. Applied Research
It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is
thus problem-oriented and action directed. It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g.,
marketing research carried on for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase
experience of customers. Through the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find
solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of
theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or
conceptual clarity. It may integrate previously existing theories.
3. Exploratory Research
It is also know as formularize research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about
which the research has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-
determined objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research
may be to generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem or to
make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to
determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of
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exploratory studies. “At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the
situations; at the second, the discovery of relationship between variables.
4. Descriptive Study
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest types of
research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various
characteristics of a community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a
classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to
the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical
observation. It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and
interpretation. The information obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life
outside the boundaries of the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for
planning social action program.
5. Diagnostic Study
It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering
what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the
causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering
and testing whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior
knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given
population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of
variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.
6. Evaluation Studies
It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic
programmers implemented or for assessing the impact of development projects on the
development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and
quantity of an activity and its performance, and to specify its success. It is concerned with
causal relationship and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change
over time.
7. Active Research
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It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programmed
lunched for solving a problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps:
diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programmed,
initiation of organizational change, implementation of participation and communication
process, and post experimental evaluation.
2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.
Answer:
Horton and hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research
1. Verifiable evidence:
That is factual observation with other observers can see and check.
2. Accuracy:
That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or
describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions
either by exaggeration or fantasizing.
3. Precision:
That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids
colorful literature and vague meanings.
4. Systematization:
That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and
organized way so that the conclusions drawn the reliable. Data based on casual
recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliable judgment and conclusions.
5. Objectivity:
That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means observation is unaffected by
the observer’s values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see
and accept facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be.
6. Recording:
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That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is fallible,
all data collected are recorded.
7. Controlling conditions:
That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what that
happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific
experimentation – allowing one variable to vary while holding all other variables constant.
8. Training investigators:
That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators to make them understand what to
look for, how to interpret in and avoid inaccurate data collection.
Q.3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis.
Answer:
To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has collected) whether or
not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is; whether the
null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to
all those steps that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection
and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated
below:
1. Making a formal Statement:
The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho ). This means that
hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For
instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing
capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 toms, in that case he can state his
hypothesis as under:
Null hypothesis Ho : u= 10 tons
Alternative hypothesis Ha : u > 10 tons
The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must ne accomplished with due
care in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It also
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indicates whether we should use a tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater
than, we use along tailed test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or smaller” then
we use a two-tailed test.
2. Selecting a significant level:
The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should
have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose.
The factors that affect the level of significance are:
The magnitude of the differences between sample:
The size of the sample
The variability of measurements within sample
Whether the hypothesis is directional or non – directional (A directional hypothesis is
one which predicts the direction of the difference between , say, means). In brief, the
level of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of
enquiry.
3. Deciding the Distribution to use:
After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to
determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The chaise generally remains between
distributions are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context to
estimation.
4. Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value:
Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from
the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other
words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.
5. Calculation of the Probability:
One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely
as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
6. Comparing the probability:
Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified
value for α , the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to smaller then α
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value in case of one tailed test ( and α/2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject null
hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then
accept then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject Ho we run a risk of (at most
level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho , then we run
some risk of committing error type II.
Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis
Committing type II
Error
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Q.4. Write a note on experimental design.
Answer:
Experimental Design:
1. The principle of replication:
The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experimental units
instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experimental is increased. For
example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we
may divide the filed into two parts and grows one variety in one part and the other variety in
the other part. We can compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis.
But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the
filed into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the
remaining parts. We can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by
comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire
experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Consequently replication
dose not present any difficulty, but computationally it dose. However, it should be remembered
that replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to
increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be estimated.
2. The principle of randomization:
It provides protection, which we conduct, an experiment, against the effect of extraneous
factors by randomization. In order words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan
the ‘experiment in the way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be
combined under the general heading of “chance”’. For instance if we grow one verity of rice say
in the first half of the parts of a filed and the other verity is grown in the other half, then it is
just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other
half. If this is so, our result would not be realistic. I such a situation, we may assign the variety
of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling
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technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects
of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.
3. Principle of local control:
It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factors, the
known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and
this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence
eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a
manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance in which the total variability of the
data is divided into three components attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and
experimental error. In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide
the filed into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided
into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to
these parts of block. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factors
fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a two-
way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the
variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental error.
Q.5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.
Answer:
John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows.
I. The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is the case drawn
out from its total context for the purpose do study must be considered a member of the
particular cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must
be done with a view to identify thee community values, standards and their shared way
of life.
II. The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is , the action of the
individual cases must be viewed as a series of actions to social stimuli or situation. In
other, words the social meaning of behavior must be taken into consideration.
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III. The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized.
That is, in case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in
shaping his behavior must never be overlooked.
IV. The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be
clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological
organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.
V. The continuous related charter of experience for childhood through adulthood must be
stressed. In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-
relationships between three person’s various experiences.
VI. Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the
important criteria for the life history is that a person’s life must be shown as unfolding
itself in the context of and party owing to specific social sitatutions.
VII. The life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual
framework; this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.
Q.6.What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.
Answer:
Probability sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also known as random sampling.
it provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each population element. It is used when
generalization is the objective of study , and a greater degree of accuracy of estimation of
population parameters is required. The cost and time required is high hence the benefit derived
from it should justify the costs.
The following are the types of probability sampling:
i. Simple Random sampling: This sampling technique gives each element an equal and
independent chance of being selected. An equal chance means equal probability of
selection. An independent chance means that the draw of one element will not
affect the chances of other elements being selected. The procedure of drawing a
simple random sample consists of enumeration of all elements in the population.
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1. Preparation of List of all elements, giving them numbers in serial order 1.2, B, and so
on, and
2. Drawing sample numbers by using (a) lottery method, (b) a table of random
numbers or (c)a computer.
Suitability: This type of sampling is suited for a small homogeneous population.
Advantages: The advantage of this is that is one of the easiest methods, all the
elements in the population have an equal chance of being selected, simple to
understand, does not require prior knowledge of the true composition of the
population.
Disadvantages: It is often impractical because of non- availability of population, does
not ensure proportionate representation and it may be expensive in time and
money. The amount of sampling error associated with any sample drawn can easily
be computed. But it is greater than that in other probability samples of the same
size, because it is less precise than other methods.
ii. Stratified Random Sampling: This is an improved type of random or probability
sampling. In this method, the population is sub- divided into homogenous groups or
strata, and from each stratum, random sample is drawn. E.g university students may
be divided on the basis of displine, and each displine group may again be divided
into juniors and seniors. Stratification is necessary for increasing a sample’s
statistical efficiency, providing different methods to different strata. The stratified
random sampling is appropriate for a large heterogeneous population. Stratification
process involves three major decisions. They are stratification base or bases, number
of strata and strata sample sizes.
-End of Assignment-
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