maya thesis manuscript new 2011_thesis.pdfof national defense, delivering everything from...

PsychologicalSkillsofCanadianMilitaryPilots

by

MayaDanielleHohmann,M.A.

UniversityofOttawa

ThesissubmittedtotheFacultyofGraduateandPostdoctoralStudies

inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof

MasterofArts(M.A.)inHumanKinetics

SchoolofHumanKinetics,FacultyofHealthSciences

UniversityofOttawa,Canada

May,2011

©MayaDanielleHohmann,Ottawa,Canada,2011

ii

Acknowledgements

IwouldliketotakethisopportunitytoacknowledgetheCanadianAirForcepilotsat15Wing

MooseJawfortheirvaluablecontributionsandenthusiasticparticipationinthisstudy.Itwasarare

pleasuretomeetandworkwithsuchhonest,dedicated,andself‐awareindividuals.Manythanksalsoto

LieutenantColonelGaryHookandtoalloftheDNDpersonnelinOttawaandMooseJawwhosesupport

andorganizationmadethisprojectcometolife.

ThankyoutomysupervisorDr.TerryOrlickforofferingyourwisdom,support,andheart.Your

dedicationtopersonalexcellenceandyourvisionforabetterworldaretrulyinspiring.ThankyouDr.

NatalieDurand‐BushandDr.TanyaFornerisforyourpatience,kindness,andguidance.Theexpertise

thatyoubringandthecontributionsthatyouhavemadetothisthesisaregreatlyappreciated.

Therearenowordstoexpressmygratitudetomyfamily,whosesupportandencouragementis

notonlyendlessbutalsosincere.Tomyparents,JillandJoe,andmyfamily,Carter,Michelle,Erin,

KristenandRory:Thank‐youforyourunwaveringconfidenceinmyabilitiesandforyourreadinessto

supportmeinanywaythatyoucould.ToJosh:ThankyouforlisteningandformakingmelaughwhenI

neededit.Lastly,thankyoutomyfriends,bothnewacquaintancesandold.Iamtrulyfortunatetobein

thecompanyofsuchwonderfulpeople.

iii

Abstract

Fordecades,eliteathleteshaveusedmentalskillstrainingtoenhancetheirperformance.The

effectivenessoftheseskillsandstrategieshavebeenmeasured,documentedandsupportedinresearch

(e.g.,Feltz&Landers,1983;Vealey,1994).Astheremarkablebenefitsofmentalskillscontinuetoreach

anever‐growingcommunityofperformers,itissurprisingthatmanymilitaryorganizations,knownfor

theirhighstandardsforperformanceandlittletoleranceforerror,haveyettotakefulladvantageofthis

typeoftraining.Canada’sAirForce(CAF),hometoaworld‐renownedpilottrainingprogram,nowfinds

itselfseekingadditionaltoolstoempowerpilotstoachieveconsistent,highqualityperformanceunder

demanding,highstressconditions.

ThepurposeofthisresearchwastoexplorethepsychologicalskillsusedbyeliteCanadian

militarypilotstoperformsuccessfullyinthishighlydemandingoccupation.Sixteenin‐depthinterviews

wereconductedwitheliteCanadianpilotsataCAFbaseinSaskatchewan.Resultsindicatedthatpilots

utilizedallsevenelementsofOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellenceoverthreephasesofflight:pre‐flight

preparation,missionexecution,andpost‐flightdebriefs.PilotsalsodrewonelementsoftheWheelof

Excellenceduringdeploymentstocombatzones.Effectivestressmanagementplayedanespecially

importantroleinthiscontext.Recommendationsforfutureresearchincludementalskillsusageand

preparationspecifictodeploymentcontextsaswellastheimplementationofaspecific,relevantmental

skillstrainingprogramwithintheexistingCAFpilottrainingprogram.

iv

TableofContents

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................ii Abstract ...............................................................................................................................................................iii TableofContents................................................................................................................................................iv CHAPTER1 ........................................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 Canada’sAirForce .......................................................................................................................................... 2 TheNatureofFlying ....................................................................................................................................... 3 Canada’sAirForceToday............................................................................................................................... 5 LookingtotheFuture ..................................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER2 ........................................................................................................................................................... 9 ReviewofLiterature ........................................................................................................................................... 9 PerformancePsychology................................................................................................................................ 9

Figure1.TheWheelofExcellence .......................................................................................................... 11 FearandAnxiety ........................................................................................................................................... 13 High‐RiskSportandOccupations ................................................................................................................ 17 PsychologicalResearchintheMilitary........................................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER3 ......................................................................................................................................................... 25 Methodology..................................................................................................................................................... 25 Purpose.......................................................................................................................................................... 25 ResearchParadigm ....................................................................................................................................... 26 ConceptualFramework ................................................................................................................................ 28 ResearchDesign............................................................................................................................................ 30 Participants ................................................................................................................................................... 32

Table1.ParticipantExperiencesandAccomplishments ....................................................................... 33 Instrument..................................................................................................................................................... 34 DataCollection.............................................................................................................................................. 35 DataAnalysis ................................................................................................................................................. 38

Table2.Exampleofdataanalysisanddevelopmentofthemes(MissionExecutionphase) ............. 40 Trustworthiness ............................................................................................................................................ 42

CHAPTER4 ......................................................................................................................................................... 45 Results................................................................................................................................................................ 45 ContextualDescription................................................................................................................................. 45 Commitment ................................................................................................................................................. 49

CommitmenttotheDream ..................................................................................................................... 49 Table3.OrganizationofResults.............................................................................................................. 50 CommitmenttoPreparation ................................................................................................................... 53 CommitmenttoExcellence...................................................................................................................... 55 FunandEnjoyment .................................................................................................................................. 56

Pre‐Flight ....................................................................................................................................................... 59 Focus.............................................................................................................................................................. 59 MentalReadiness ......................................................................................................................................... 61

Reviewingandretainingflightinformation........................................................................................ 61 Buildingcapacity................................................................................................................................... 63 Learningfromothers ........................................................................................................................... 64 Planningforunplannedevents ........................................................................................................... 66

MentalImagery............................................................................................................................................. 67

v

SimulatorsandAlternativeMentalRehearsal ....................................................................................... 67 ChairFlying................................................................................................................................................ 69 Clearandrealisticdetails ..................................................................................................................... 71 Involvingthesenses ............................................................................................................................. 74 Practicingroutineprocedures ............................................................................................................. 76

DistractionControl........................................................................................................................................ 78 EnvironmentalConditions ....................................................................................................................... 80

StressManagement...................................................................................................................................... 82 HeavyWorkload ....................................................................................................................................... 82 FlightTestStress....................................................................................................................................... 84 Recovery.................................................................................................................................................... 87

MissionExecution ......................................................................................................................................... 91 Focus.............................................................................................................................................................. 91

IntheMoment.......................................................................................................................................... 92 SituationalAwareness.......................................................................................................................... 94 Capacity................................................................................................................................................. 96

ConnectedFocus ...................................................................................................................................... 97 PositiveFocus ........................................................................................................................................... 99 FocusingThroughEmergencies............................................................................................................. 100 Automaticactions .............................................................................................................................. 102 Taskorientedfocus ............................................................................................................................ 104 Adaptation .......................................................................................................................................... 105

DistractionControl...................................................................................................................................... 108 VerbalCues ............................................................................................................................................. 108 Refocusing............................................................................................................................................... 109 Compartmentalization ....................................................................................................................... 110 Prioritization ....................................................................................................................................... 112

Confidence .................................................................................................................................................. 114 ConfidenceinAbilities............................................................................................................................ 115 ConfidenceinFellowPilots.................................................................................................................... 119 ConfidenceinSafety .............................................................................................................................. 119

StressManagement.................................................................................................................................... 121 FlightTestStress..................................................................................................................................... 122

OngoingLearning........................................................................................................................................ 126 Post‐Flight.................................................................................................................................................... 127 OngoingLearning........................................................................................................................................ 127

PersonalDebrief ..................................................................................................................................... 130 GroupDebrief ......................................................................................................................................... 131 Less‐than‐bestPerformances ................................................................................................................ 131

StressManagement.................................................................................................................................... 133 DealingwithCriticism ............................................................................................................................ 133 Recovery.................................................................................................................................................. 134

Deployment................................................................................................................................................. 136 CHAPTER5 ....................................................................................................................................................... 145 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................................ 145 Focus............................................................................................................................................................ 146 Commitment ............................................................................................................................................... 149 MentalReadiness ....................................................................................................................................... 151

vi

PositiveImages ........................................................................................................................................... 153 Confidence .................................................................................................................................................. 156 DistractionControl...................................................................................................................................... 157 OngoingLearning........................................................................................................................................ 159 StressManagement.................................................................................................................................... 162 Deployment................................................................................................................................................. 170 Limitations................................................................................................................................................... 174 DirectionsforFutureResearch .................................................................................................................. 175 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 177

References....................................................................................................................................................... 181 AppendixA ...................................................................................................................................................... 191 InformationLetter ...................................................................................................................................... 191

AppendixB ..........................................................................................................Error!Bookmarknotdefined. ConsentForm.............................................................................................................................................. 193

AppendixC ...................................................................................................................................................... 196 PilotInterviewGuide.................................................................................................................................. 196

Canadianmilitarypilots1

CHAPTER1

Introduction

SomeofmypilotsinAfghanistan,somesawthingsthatwere[difficulttoputintowords]…and

thethingyouhavetounderstandit’snotonlyseeing,itis…deathhasasmell.Anyway,Idon’twantto

getintothenittygrittyofit,but...youknow,whensomebodygetsamputated,fromanIED,thereisone

personwhowillpickthispieceofhisleg20feetawayandwillbringitbackinthehelicopterandputiton

thefloor.That’sthereality.Youknow,somepeoplehavealotofdifficultytoleratingit,apersonwho

getsputonyourhelicopterandheisinexcruciatingpain.He’sbleedingprofusely,heisyellinglikeyou

wouldnotbelieve,whileotherpiecesofhisbodyarebeingbroughtonboard.Someguys,wehadtosit

downwiththemandexplainthatthey’vegottoshakeitoff.Butthat’stherealityofbeingverycloseto

it.Fighterpilotswon’tseethatbecausethey’llbeat35,000feetwaitingforacoordinatetodropabomb.

Buttheyhaveotherequallychallengingmomentswherethey’regonnahavetoughdecisionstomake,

anditwillaffectthem.Youknow,lookat9/11[September11,2001].Pictureyourselfasafatherof

three,flyinganF‐18andbeingtoldthatyou’regonnahavetotakeoutthisairlinerbecausewe’renottoo

surewho’sflyingit.That’smilitaryflying.(Participant16)

Thedecisiontoparticipateinhigh‐riskactivitiesisonethatconfoundsmanypeople:Whywould

anindividualwillinglyplacehim/herselfinharm’swaydayafterday?Whatisitthatseparatesthese

individualsfromtherestofus?Howaretheyabletomaintainthefocusnecessarytoperformwellwhen

theconsequencesofasmallerrororfailurearesohigh?Canadianmilitarypilotsrepresentonesuch

groupofindividuals.Amongthemosteliteperformersintheworld,Canadianmilitarypilotsdo

somethingeverymissionthatmostofusspendalifetimetryingtoavoid:theyfacedeath.Howthen,

onemightask,aretheseindividualsabletodefytheoddsandevadetheriskstimeandtimeagain?How

arethesepilotsabletoperformconsistentlyinthefaceofsuchhighdemandsandevenhigher

consequences?Theanswerissimple:theyareexcellent.


ThepresentinvestigationwasundertakenaspartofacollaborativeeffortwithCanada’s

DepartmentofNationalDefense(DND)toexaminethepsychologicalunderpinningsofCanadianmilitary

aviationexcellence.Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexplorethefollowingquestion:Whatpsychological

skillsareusedbyeliteCanadianmilitarypilotsandhowaretheseskillsusedthroughouttheirhighly

demandingaviationcareers?Thefollowingrelatedquestionswerealsoaddressedinthisstudy:(a)what

doestheterm‘focus’meanforpilotswholive,train,andperforminthemilitarycontext?And(b)how

dopilotscontendwiththerisksandstressesimplicitinthisuniqueprofession?

Areviewofrelevantliteratureispresentedinthisthesis,includinganoverviewofOrlick’s(2008)

WheelofExcellenceandcurrentresearchfindingsfrominternationalmilitaryaviationdepartments.

Followingthereviewofliterature,descriptionsoftheresearchmethodsareprovidedaswellasan

exampleofthedataanalysisstrategy.Thethesisconcludeswithapresentationoftheresearchresults,a

discussionofthefindingswithinthecontextofperformancepsychologyandaviationpsychology

literature,andimplicationsforfutureresearch.

Canada’sAirForce

AbriefintroductiontoCanada’sAirForce(CAF)anditstrainingregimewillbeofvalueinthis

discussionofmilitarypilotsandperformanceexcellence.TheCAFassumesmanyroleswithinCanada’s

DepartmentofNationalDefense,deliveringeverythingfromhumanitariananddiplomaticassistance

(e.g.,deliveringaid,transportingindividuals),tocombatandsupportroles,searchandrescueand

domesticsecuritymissions(e.g.,fisheriespatrol)(DND,2003).TheCAF’sfrontlinefighterpilots,the

intrepidcommandersoftheCF‐18Hornet,representsomeofthebesttalentintheCAF.Capableof

speedsuptoMach1.8,theHornetisbuilttoperforminbothair‐to‐airandair‐to‐groundcombat(DND,

2007a).TheCAFalsoreliesonvariousmultiengineaircraft,suchastheAuroraandtheHercules,aswell

asrotary‐wingaircraftincludingtheChinookandtheGriffon(DND,2010).Thediversenatureofthe

rolesandmissionsfulfilledbytheCAFrequiresthatpilotshavetheabilityandtoolstoadapttochanging


demandsandconditions;theymustbereadytoactwithouthesitation,focusedthroughdistractions,

flexibletounforeseenevents,andperpetuallyawareoftheirsurroundings.Tooptimizeperformance

undersuchheavystipulations,theCAFhasdevelopedaworld‐renownedtrainingprogramnow

employedforthetrainingofpilotsofalliedcountriesaroundtheworld(DND,2009).

PriortojoiningaCAFfleetasacombat‐readypilot,Canadianmilitarypilotsmustpassthrougha

stringentselectionprocessandcompletearigoroustrainingprogram.TheAirForceUndergraduatePilot

TrainingSystem(UPTS)providespilottrainingforserviceinoneofthreetypesofaircraft:helicopter

(rotary‐wing),jet,ormulti‐engine(DND,2007b).TheCAFconductsUPTSactivitiesusingfacilitiesat

threebases,locatedinPortagelaPrairie,MB;MooseJaw,SK;andColdLake,AB.Onlygeneraldetailsof

CAFpilottrainingareaccessibletothepublic,howeverprogramoverviewsspecifythattheintensive

trainingbeginswiththesuccessfulcompletionofaseriesofwritten,practical,andmedicaltests.The

CAFnotesthattheUPTSemphasizesefficiencyinskillandknowledgeacquisition,requiringstudentsto

consistentlyperformtoprogressivelyhighertrainingstandardsateachleveloftheprogram.Students

arealsoexpectedtoadapttothe“rigorouslearningcurve”inpreparationforfuturetrainingwith

individualfleets(DND).Afterapproximately19monthsofundergraduatetraining,plusadditionalofficer

andsecondlanguagetraining,pilotsarestreamedintooneofthethreeaircraftfleets(helicopter,jet,or

multi‐engine)tobeginoperationalandtacticaltraining.Studentswhoareselectedtoproceedtofighter

jettrainingarerequiredtocompleteoneadditionallead‐inphase;thisphaseenhancesthestudents’

tacticalskillsandknowledge,therebyreducingthetotaltimenecessarytoproducecombat‐readypilots.

TheNatureofFlying

Contrarytothearchetypesoenthusiasticallypromotedbythemedia,theworkofamilitary

pilotisnotallthrillsandglory.Therisksaremanyinnumberand,unfortunately,veryreal.Aswithmany

high‐riskactivities,perhapsthegreatesthazardisthefallibilityofthehumanspecies.Forexample,

Gillingham(1988)statedthatthegravitationalstress,orGstress,experiencedbymodernfighterpilots


canbedebilitating,possiblyresultinginG‐inducedlossofconsciousness(GLOC).AccordingtoWoods

(2009),himselfaCanadianCF‐18pilot,thesinglegreatestchallengeforafighterpilotismaintaining

situationalawareness(SA).SAcanbedescribedasa“workingknowledgeofallofthedetails”ofthe

engagement,includingradar,weapons,wingmen,fuel,andlocationtonamebutafew(Woods,p.4).

Woodsstated,“fighterpilotsmustcontinuouslystudyandrehearsetheircraftinordertobeeffective”

(p.4).Toaddtothepotentialforincidentscreatedbyhumanerrorandphysiologicallimitations,the

CAFhasreportedseveraldeficiencieswiththeaircraftthemselves:Overthelasttenyears,amarked

increasehasbeendocumentedin“thenumberofoccurrences[incidents]relatedtosurvivalandsafety

equipmentinseveralfleets”(DND,2008,p.37).TheCF‐18Hornethasshownanupwardtrendin

incidentsassociatedwithpneumatics(includingheatandventilation)andweaponssystems(DND,

2008).TheCP‐140Aurorahasexperiencedanelevatednumberofincidentsinvolvinganti‐icing/de‐icing

mechanisms,hydraulics,andsurvivalandsafetyequipment(DND,2008).Manyaircrafthaveseenovera

200%increaseintheseincidenttrends(DND,2008).Suchrisksplaceanaddedsignificanceonapilot’s

abilitytomaintainfocusandreactquicklytounexpectedevents.

Asisalmostinevitableinanyhigh‐riskactivity,incidentswithintheCAF,bothinairandon

ground,occureveryyear;itisatestamenttotheabilitiesoftoday’sCAFpilotsthatincidentsareas

infrequentastheyare.AccordingtotheDND’s2007AnnualReportofFlightSafety(2008),accidentsin

allaircrafttypesdeclinedatasteadyratebetweentheyearsof1997and2004.Asof2004accident

rateshaveremainedstable,withnofurtherdeclineapparent(DND).Oftheairoccurrencesreportedin

2007,sevenaircraftwerereportedasdestroyedormissing,anothersevenaircraftwereclassifiedas

havingsustainedseriousorveryseriousdamage,andanadditional1587reportsofminordamagewere

recorded(DND).Overthepasttenyears,18aircrafthavebeenwrittenoffasdestroyed,includingtwo

CF‐18s.Asforthepilotsthemselves,the2007yearsawonefatalinjury(theaircraftwasdestroyed),one

veryseriousinjury(bloodclots),andtwoseriousinjuries.Atotalof62minorinjuriesoccurred(DND).


TheCAF’soccurrencehistoryiscertainlycommendable,however,ifanyfutureincidentscanbe

preventedormitigatedbyaninvestigationofpsychologicalskills,thensuchastudyisworthwhile.

TheCAFutilizesaHumanFactorsAnalysisandClassificationSystem(HFACS)toinvestigatethe

humancausesofaviationaccidents(DND,2008).AccordingtotheHFACSreportfor2006and2007,the

totalactivecausefactors(e.g.,decisionmaking,attention)ofairoccurrencesdecreasedby3%(DND,

2008).Whilethisisindeedapromisingfigure,theHFACSanalysisgoesontorevealthattheactual

mentalstateofpersonnelasalatentcausalfactorincreasedby14%(thepercentageforground

occurrenceswasevenhigherata50%increase).Eventhoughactivecausefactorsaresaidtobein

decline,theyarestillcertainlyprevalent:the2007AnnualReportofFlightSafetydeterminedthat

personnelfactorsaccountedfor47.9%ofthecausefactorsinairaccidents,ascomparedtomaterial

(33.7%),environment(12.2%),undetermined(6.1%),operational(0.12%),andforeignobjectdamage

(0.06%)(DND,2008).Personnelfactorsaccountedforanevengreaterpercentageofground

occurrencesat82.4%(DND,2008).WhiletheReportstatedthatnosignificantdifferenceswereevident

inthedistributionofcausefactorsfor2007,itshouldbenotedthatinrecentyearspersonnelfactors

haveincreasednoticeablybothinairoccurrences(from40.0%in1997to47.9%in2007)andground

occurrences(from57.4%in1997to82.4%in2007)(DND,2008).Itisclear,therefore,thatinorderto

reducefutureaccidentrates,effortsmustbefocusednotonlyonequipmentandmachinesbutalsoon

personnelandelementsthatareundertheircontrol.

Canada’sAirForceToday

AdevastatingtrendwithintheCAFoverthepastdecadehasbeenastaggeringdecreaseinthe

amountofflyinghoursformostaircraft(DND,2008).Forexample,theCF‐18fleetlogged21,519flying

hoursin1998,butonly13,142in2007.Helicoptersaccumulated51,004flyinghoursin1998compared

to38,782hoursin2007(DND,2008).Suchamarkeddeclineinpracticalexperienceimmediatelyraises

twoimportantquestions:(a)whatarethemoreexperiencedpilotsdoingtomaintaintheirskills?And


(b)ifthistrendcontinues,whatkindofeffectswillbeseeninstudentpilots?ThePilotProficiencyTrend

Analysis(2007c)isareportproducedbytheDirectorateofFlightSafetyfortheDNDwiththeobjective

ofanalyzingproficiency‐relatedincidenttrendswithintheCAF.Factorssuchasattention,information

processing,andanticipationwereincludedinthedefinitionofproficiency.IncidentratesfortheCF‐18

haveproventobelow,howeverthereportsuggestedthatthedecreaseinflyinghourswastakingitstoll

onpilotperformance,witha“strongrelationship[emerging]betweenthedecreaseinflyinghours…and

theincreaseintherateofproficiencyrelatedcausefactors”(DND,2007c,p.7).Asimilarrelationship

wasnotedinthreeotheraircraftfleets(DND,2007c).Shouldflyinghoursremainbelowoptimallevels,

bothnewandexperiencedpilotswillrequirealternativetrainingmethodsforskillretentionandapplied

learning.Thesealternativesmaybefoundinapsychologicalskillstrainingprogram.

Itcomesasnosurprise,giventherigorousstudentpilottraining,demandingworkingconditions,

andhigh‐risknatureoftheoccupation,thattheCAFhasbeencrippledformanyyearsbyachronically

highattritionrate.WhilethisistobesomewhatexpectedamongnoviceswhojointheCAFonlyto

discoverthatitisnot,infact,whattheyhadimaginedittobe,attritionrateshaverecentlybegunto

increaseatanalarmingrateamongtheCAF’smoreseniorpilots.TheCAFisinthemidstoflaunchinga

massivepersonnelcampaigninanattempttoretainthehighlytrainedandhighlyskilledindividuals

presentlyemployed,astheyaredifficultandexpensivetoreplace.In1998,anewpilotincentive

programwasimplementedinresponsetothehighattritionrate,whichhaddoubledfrom6%to12%

(DND,1998).Kinsman,aformerChiefoftheAirStaff,supportedthisincentiveprogram,stating,"The

bottomlineisthatwecannotaffordtokeeplosingpilotsatthecurrentrate"(DND,1998).Since1998,

theattritionratehasstabilizedtosomeextent,withthe2009yearpredictedtoseearateof8%(Watt,

2008);inanoccupationwithanalreadyminimalnumberofyearlyrecruitshowever,adoubledattrition

ratein1998islikelystillbeingfelt.Watt,alsoaformerChiefoftheAirStaff,reportedthattheCAFis

currentlyoperatingata13%deficitofpreferredpilotpersonnelandhasbeenforalmost10years.In


addition,theCAFislosinganincreasingnumberofpilotswith12‐16yearsofexperience–experience

thatcannotbeeasilyreplaced(2008).

Recoveryfromexcessivelossofpersonnelcanbecostlybothintimeandmoney.Pilottrainingis

expensiveandtheCAFcanonlyofferalimitednumberofspaceseachyearintheUPTS;thus,itwould

notbefeasibletosimplyincreaserecruitmentfollowingaspikeinlosses(aswewillseehowever,even

recruitmentlevelsarecurrentlywellbelowthepreferredmark).Inadditiontothefinancialdrain,pilot

trainingistime‐consumingandcansometimesextendfouryearsafterpilotsstreamintooperational

units(DND,2003).Evenifrecruitmentwereamplified,therefore,itwouldstilltakeseveralyearsbefore

thenewrecruitswereabletofillthevoidascombat‐ready,experiencedpilots.Competingestimatesare

availableastotheactualcostofpilottrainingintheCAF.Ina1998interviewwiththeStanding

CommitteeonNationalDefenseandVeteransAffairs,Marcotteestimatedthatthecostoftrainingone

pilotis“approximately$5million”(StandingCommitteeofNationalDefenseandVeteransAffairs,

1998).CitingareportproducedbytheDND,Ploughman(2004)stated,“itcancostupto27million

dollarstotrainapilottothehighestachievableflyingcategory”(p.3).WhileanofficialCAFreport

disclosingthesetrainingcostsisyettobeuncovered,thefactremainsthatpilottraininginCanadaisan

expensiveproposition;theCAFcannotaffordtotrainpilotsonlytolosethemlater.

ThepressurecreatedbytheattritioncrisisonthemilitarypilotoccupationandtheCAFis

furthercompoundedbytherecentdecreaseinnewapplicants.In2004,thestatedrecruitmentgoalfor

newpilotswas222individuals;afterthethirdoffourpilotselectionboards,however,only72offersof

admissionhadbeenmadeduetoashortageofapplicants(DND).Morerecentnumbersofferlittleto

quelltheunease:approximately80newpilotsaregraduatingeachyear,wellbelowthetargetof105.

TheCAFhopestotrain21CF‐18pilotsperyear,yetthe2008yearsawonly12completetheprogram

(Watt,2008).Whilethegoalof21itselfissmall,thiswouldrepresentanincreaseofalmosttwicethe

currentgraduatingclass–aloftygoalwhenoneconsiderstherecentdropoffinrecruitmentnumbers.


LookingtotheFuture

WiththehostofrolesassumedbytheCAF,militarypilotsengageinnumerousimportant

missionsand(seemingly)endlesshoursoftrainingandpreparation.Whethertransportinggoodsasa

reliefeffortortrainingforcombatsituations,militarypilotsprovideanessentialservicetoournation

andothersinneed.ThemostexperiencedoftheseCAFpilotspossessaninvaluablereserveof

knowledgeandexperience:regrettably,theirnumbersaredwindling.Strenuousworkingconditions,

riskyoperationsandmissions,andthepotentialforinjuryordeathmakethisanoccupationthatmany

findtoodifficulttomanage.Furthermore,therecentdecreaseinflyinghoursmaybeleadingtoan

increaseinpilotproficiencyerrors(DND,2007c).Theelementsdescribedheretogethercreatea

challengingsituationforthefutureprospectsoftheCAF:declinesacrosstheboardinpractical

experience,recruitmentlevels,andexperiencedpilots,combinedwithincreasedcosts,andwhatseems

tobeanincreasingtrendinhumanerror,makeforless‐than‐idealoccupationalresources.This

investigationmaypresentthebeginningsofaplanofattackfortheCAF.Bydiscerninghowtoday’s

experiencedmilitarypilotshavegainedsuccesstheCAFcanensurethatthesesameprecursorsto

successarecultivatedinnovicepilots.DoingsomayallowtheCAFtoretainafewmoreofthese

preciousresourceseachyear.


CHAPTER2

ReviewofLiterature

PerformancePsychology

Researchhasconsistentlydemonstratedtheadvantagesofmentalskillstraining(MST)forthe

enhancementofqualityandconsistencyinsportperformance(e.g.,Feltz&Landers,1983;Fournier,

Calmels,Duran‐Bush,&Salmela,2005;Orlick,2008;Vealey,1994).MSTalsohasimplicationsfor

performanceenhancementindisciplinesoutsideoftherealmofsport.Researchershavedemonstrated

linksbetweentheuseofmentaltrainingandenhancedperformanceinthecorporateworkforce(Neck&

Manz,1996),surgery(McDonald,Orlick,&Letts,1995;Sanders,Sadoski,Bramson,Wiprud,&Van

Walsum,2004),music(Talbot‐Honeck&Orlick,1998),andspaceflight(Manzey&Schiewe,1992;Orlick

&Hadfield,1999).Throughtheuseofsuchtechniquesasfocusenhancement,distractioncontrol,

imagery,andcontrolledbreathing(Orlick,2008),athletesandotherperformershaveacquiredthe

abilitytoeffectivelyenhanceperformance,onaconsistentbasis,inavarietyofcontexts.

ThedomainmostfrequentlyassociatedwithMST,andinwhichitstechniquesseemtobemost

frequentlyemployed,iselitesportperformance.Inanefforttodiscernthepsychologicalskillsmost

importantattheelitelevel,Mahoney,Gabriel,andPerkins(1987)administeredaquestionnaireto713

maleandfemaleathletesfromavarietyofsportsatarangeofskilllevels.Theirdataindicatedthatin

comparisontonon‐eliteathletes,eliteathletesexperiencedgreatermoderationinanxiety,more

efficientdeploymentofconcentration,strongerself‐confidence,moreinternallyfocusedandkinesthetic

imagery,andmoremotivationandpersonalmeaningintheirsport.OrlickandPartington(1988)also

identifiedseveralkeymentalstrategies,orsuccesselements,ofeliteathletesinalandmarkstudy

involving235CanadianOlympicathletes.Theamalgamationofinterviewandquestionnaireresults

yieldedseveralspecificsuccesselementsimportantatthislevel:totalcommitment,qualitytraining

(includinggoalsetting,imageryandcompetitionsimulation),andqualitypre‐competitionmental


preparation(includingacompetitionplan,focusplan,andpost‐performancedebriefs).Suchresearch

spurredthedevelopmentofmanypsychologicalskilltaxonomiesforvariousgroupsofathletes.

Morerecently,Gould,Guinan,Greenleaf,Medbery,andPeterson(1999)interviewedOlympic

athletesandcoachesfromteamswhohadachievedvaryinglevelsofsuccessatthe1996Summer

GamesinAtlanta.Theresearchersaimedtoexaminefactorsunderlyingthesedifferencesin

performance.Resultsfromthediscussionswith10coachesand23athletesverifiedexistingresearchon

peakperformanceinsport,suchasOrlickandPartington(1988).Theresearchersnotedthatsuccessful

Olympicperformancewasassociatedwithwell‐developedroutinesandplans,highlevelsofmotivation

andcommitment,copingordistractioncontrolskills,mentalreadiness,andhighqualitytraining.The

researcherslinkedpoorOlympicperformancetoinabilitytorefocusordealwithdistractions,changesto

effectiveroutines,andlateteamselection.

Orlick(2008)summarizedthekeymentalskillsnecessaryforhigh‐levelperformance(inany

domain)inhisWheelofExcellence:focus,commitment,mentalreadiness,positiveimages,confidence,

distractioncontrol,andongoinglearning(Figure1).Focusissituatedatthecenterofthewheelandis

identifiedasthedrivingforceorthe“coreofexcellence”(Orlick,p.11).Orlickcontendedthatthe

remainingsixelementsofexcellencedevelopoutofaneffectivefocus.Inpreviousstudies,athletesand

otherperformershavecertainlyplacedamarkedemphasisontheroleoffocusintheirsuccessful

performance(e.g.,Mahoneyetal.,1987;Orlick&Partington,1988;Werthner2002).

Thespecificlinkbetweenfocusandexcellenceinperformancehasbeeninvestigatedand

demonstratedinresearch.Werthner(2002)conductedaseriesofinterviewswitheighteliteathletes,all

ofwhomweremedalwinnersinOlympicgamesorworldchampionships,orwereworldrecordholders

intheirsport.Alleightathletesindicatedthattheabilitytofocusonthenowwasessentialtoan

excellentperformance.IntheirstudywithCanadianOlympicathletes,OrlickandPartington(1988)

concludedthatfocuswasoneofthe“mostimportantstatisticallysignificantathleteskillsdirectly


relatedtohighlevelperformance”(p.25).Talbot‐HoneckandOrlick(1998)investigatedmentalfactors

relatedtoexcellenceinelitemusicians.Theresearchersreportedthat“musiciansfeltthatconcentration

wasanecessaryelementofexcellenceand...adeterminingfactorinaqualityperformance”(p.69).

McDonald,OrlickandLetts(1995)conductedin‐depthinterviewswith33surgeonswhowereidentified

ashighlyproficientintheirspecialty.Allsurgeonsdescribedexperiencingafullyfocusedstatewhile

performingattheirbest.

Figure1.TheWheelofExcellence

Figure1.FromInPursuitofExcellence(p.12),byT.Orlick,2008,Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics.Copyright[2008]byTerryOrlick.Reprintedwithpermission.

Asamulti‐facetedandhighlysubjectiveexperience,definitionsoffocuscanvarythroughout

performancepsychologyliterature.Orlick(2008)describedfocusastheabilitytoconcentratefullyon

thetaskathand,totheexclusionofallotherdistractions:Focusistotalconnectionwiththetask.When

theperformerisabletofullyconnectwithwhathe/sheisdoing,excellenceinperformancecanbe


achieved.Werthner(2002)depictedfocusasabalancebetweenconcentrationonafewimportant

aspectsofthetaskandtrustingone’sabilitiesandinstincts.Werthneralsostressedtheactiverolethat

theperformermustplayinenteringthisstateoffocus;theperformermustactivelyshiftfromoutcome‐

orientedthoughtstotask‐orientedthoughts.

AsintheworkofWerthner(2002),theconceptsofattentionandconcentrationareused

throughoutperformancepsychologyliteratureinrelationtofocus.Wilson,PeperandSchmid(2006)

highlightedconcentrationastheprimarymechanismoffocus.Theydefinedconcentrationas“theability

todirectone’sfullattentiontoappropriatecuesinthepresenttaskinsteadofbeingcontrolledby

irrelevantexternalorinternalstimuli”(p.419).NidefferandSagal(2001)suggestedthatattention

requiresthecontroloftwotypesoffocus:widthanddirection.Thewidthofattentioncanbebroad,as

whenaperformerneedstoattendtomanycues,ornarrow,aswhenonlyoneortwocuesrequire

attention.Thedirectionofattentioncanbeinternal,suchasonone’sownthoughtsorfeelings,or

external,suchasonanopponent.TheworkofresearcherssuchasOrlickandPartington(1988),

Werthner,Wilsonetal.,andNidefferandSagalareindicativeofthecontinualgrowthofresearch

supportingnotonlytheuseofmentaltraining,butspecificallythedevelopmentofaneffectivefocusas

akeycontributortoperformanceexcellenceatanelitelevel.

Asindicatedhere,afoundationofresearchdataexiststoindicatethatMST,andfocusin

particular,holdsimportantimplicationsforexcellentperformanceattheelitelevel(e.g.,Gouldetal.,

1999;McDonaldetal.,1995;Orlick&Partington,1988;Werthner,2002).Inrecentyears,however,the

growingpopularityextremesporthasshedlightonanewfacetoftheMSTpuzzle:facingrisk.Inelite

performanceinvolvingahigh‐degreeofrisk,theassociatedstress,fearsandanxietycanoftencompete

foraperformer’sattention,withthepossibilityofdetrimentalresults.


FearandAnxiety

Fearcanmeanmanythingstomanypeople.GulloneandKing(1997)definedfearasastateof

apprehensioninthepresenceofaperceivedthreat.Fearhasalsobeendefinedasanemotion:Hanin

(1999)countedfearamong47basicemotionsdevelopedfromtheworkof23investigators.Hanin

postulatedthatifcertainemotionscorrespondtocertainsituations,differentsubtypesoffearmight

haveevolvedtodealwithmultipletypesofthreats.Emotiontheorists,however,arestillfarfroma

consensusonsuchfundamentalsasadefinitionofemotion,identificationofbasicemotions,andthe

functionsofemotion,makingitdifficulttoassertanyclaimswithconfidence.Rachman(1990)suggested

thatfearariseswhentheindividualfeelsthatheorshehaslittleornocontroloveraperceivedthreat.

Thisconceptualizationoffearseemstogoonestepfurther,involvingnotonlyanappraisalofthreatbut

alsoanappraisalofcontrollability.Whileitsdefinitionmaystillbecontested,thepresenceoffearand

itspossibledetrimentaleffectsonperformanceinsportarewelldocumented.

Fearisoftenspokenofinconjunction,andeveninterchangeably,withtheelementofanxiety;

however,subtledifferencescanbefoundintheliteraturetodifferentiatethesetwoconcepts.

Blanchard,Blanchard,GriebelandNutt(2008)distinguishedfearandanxietyinthefollowingway:Fear

promptsbehavioursassociatedwiththeexposuretoclearlythreateningstimuli,whereasanxiety

promptsbehavioursassociatedwithpotentialoruncertainthreats.McNaughtonandCorr(2004)refer

tothisdiscriminatingfactorasthe“defensivedirection”:Fearallowstheorganismtoactivelyavoidby

leavingthreateningsituationswhileanxietyallowstheorganismtoassessriskbyenteringthreatening

situationsortopassivelyavoidbywithholdingentrance.

Fearisaconceptoftenidentifiedineliteperformancedomains,appearinginavarietyof

mannersincludingfearofinjury(Chase,Magyar,&Drake,2005);fearoffailure(Martin&Marsh,2003);

fearofcowardice(Rachman,1990);fearoflossofface(Murray,1999);andevenfearofsuccess(Ogilvie,

1968).Whilethecauseorfocusofanindividual’sfearmayvary,thepotentialnegativeeffectson


performanceseemtobeubiquitous(Bandura,1990;Feltz,1982;Heil,1993).Heil’s(1993)

PsychophysiologicalModelofRiskpresentedtheself‐perpetuatingcyclethatcanresultfromthe

perceptionoffear.Heilpostulatedthatfearproducesphysicaleffects,suchastensionandincreased

heartrate,aswellaspsychologicaleffects,suchasdecreasedconcentrationanddecreasedself‐

confidence;thesephysicalandpsychologicalperceptionsdiminishperformancethroughvariousmeans,

includingthedisruptionofskillexecutionanddisregardforperformancerelatedcues.Thesubsequent

decreaseinperformancecanthenacttoexacerbatetheinitialphysicalandpsychologicalprecipitators,

thusperpetuatingthecycle.Thequestionthatremains,then,ishowdoesonestopthecycle?

Withintheelitesportdomain,researchershaveidentifiedsomekeyconceptsandstrategies

thatareeffectiveincombatingthepotentialnegativeeffectsoffear,suchasself‐efficacy(Bandura,

1990).Acommonassumption,however,isthatinordertoensureanexcellentperformanceonemust

overcomeorsuppressafearresponse.Forexample,FenzandJones(1972)conductedanexamination

ofheartrateandrespirationrateamongsportparachutists.Theyreportedthatfearresponsesdidnot

dissipateduringthecourseofthejumpsequence(i.e.,fromthearrivalattheairporttotheconclusion

ofthejump)butthatjumperswereabletoinhibitorcontroltheresponse.Whilethisstrategymaybe

effectiveinsomecircumstances,asBlakeslee(2002)explained,therearemoreefficientwaysof

preventingfear’spotentiallynegativeeffects:

Byregardingfearasapathologytocontrolorcure,weassumethatlifewithoutitspresenceis

possible,normal,orevendesirable.Butonceweacceptfearasahabitualacquaintanceinan

imaginative,meaningfullife,wecanbegintocultivateaconversationwithitratherthanengage

itinafight.(p.xvii)

Blakesleesuggestedthatinsteadofattemptingtoeliminatefear,individualscanlearntouseittotheir

advantage.Itmaybepossibleforindividualstodeliberatelyapproachtheirfearresponses,bothsomatic

andpsychological,asfacilitativeratherthandebilitative.


Morecommonlyaddressedinresearch,anxietyhasbeenduallyidentifiedasapotentialsource

ofsportperformancedecrement(e.g.,Pijpers,Oudejans,Holsheimer,&Bakker,2003;Beilock&Gray,

2007)andenhancement(e.g.,Hanin&Syrjä,1995;Mahoney&Avener,1977).Pijpers,Oudejans,

Holsheimer,andBakker(2003)investigatedthesubjective,physiological,behaviouralmanifestationsof

anxietyusingaclimbingwalltask.Allparticipantswerenoviceclimbersandcompletedaclimbingtaskin

onethreateningcondition(highonthewall)andonenon‐threateningcondition(lowonthewall).Inthe

firstoftwoexperiments,theresearchersreportedincreasedanxietyinparticipantsonthehigh

conditionasopposedtothelowcondition,asindicatedinself‐reportscores.Theparticipantsalso

displayedincreasedheartratesonthehighcondition,whichresearcherslinkedtoincreasedmuscle

fatigueandahigherbloodlactateconcentration(indicatingmoremuscletension).Inthesecond

experiment,theresearchersmeasuredthefluencyofparticipants’climbingmovementstodetermine

whetherthesubjectiveandphysiologicalchangespromptedaregresstolowerskilllevels(i.e.,rigidand

jerkymovements).Measurementsrevealedahigherentropyofclimbingtrajectoryinthehighcondition,

indicating“alesssmoothdisplacementofthebody’scentreofgravitythatisalsocharacteristicofless

skilledclimbingbehaviour”(p.299).Inanadditionalfollow‐upstudy,preliminaryresultsshowedmore

exploratoryhandandfootmovementsandslowermovementsbetweenholdsinthehighcondition.

Conversely,FenzandJones(1972)providedevidenceofabeneficialrelationshipbetween

autonomicarousalandperformanceinsportparachutists.Theresearchersrecordedheartand

respirationratesfromtwogroupsofparachutists:noviceandexperienced.Measurementsweretaken

atvarioussignificanttimesinthejumpsequence.Resultsindicatedthatnovicejumpersexperienceda

continuousincreaseinbothheartrateandrespirationrateduringthepre‐jumpsequence.In

comparison,experiencedjumpersdisplayedanelevatedheartrateandrespirationrateuntil

approximatelythetimethatthepilotstartedtheengine.Atthispoint,bothheartrateandrespiration

ratedeclined.Ofspecialinterestisthefindingthatqualityofperformanceinparticipantswasrelatedto


autonomicarousalduringthejumpsequence.Whencomparingthemeasurementsfromthegood

performersandthepoorperformerswithineachgroup,theresearchersnotedthatthegoodperformers

ineachgroupdisplayedthesameinvertedv‐shapedresponsepattern,forbothheartrateand

respirationrate,aswasseenintheoverallmeasurementsofexperiencedjumpers.Theresearchers

concludedthatthemostadaptiveresponsepatternisonewherebyautonomicarousalincreasesearlyin

thejumpsequenceandthensharplydecreases,returningtoanearlynormalleveljustpriortothejump.

Asanxietycanseeminglyaffectperformanceinvariouswaysandatvariouslevelsofproficiency,

itmaybemoreusefultoturnthediscussiontowardsthemechanismsbywhichanxietycanbeutilizedin

abeneficialway.FletcherandHanton(2001)conductedastudywith114non‐elitecompetitive

swimmerstoinvestigatethelinkbetweenpsychologicalskillsandfacilitativeanxiety.Theyfoundthat

athleteswhomadeuseofrelaxationstrategiesreportedmorefacilitativeinterpretationsofboth

cognitiveandsomaticanxietysymptoms.Neil,Mellalieu,andHanton(2006)investigatedcompetitive

anxietyresponses(worryandsomatic)andpsychologicalskillusagesin115rugbyplayersofdiffering

skilllevels(i.e.,eliteandnon‐eliterugby).Resultsshowednodifferencesintheintensityofanxiety

responsesacrossskilllevels;however,theeliteathletesviewedtheseresponsesasmorefacilitativeto

performancethandidthenon‐eliteathletes.Theresearcherssuggestedthatthisdiscrepancymaystem

fromthegreaterself‐confidencereportedbytheeliteathletes.Analysisofthedataalsoindicated

significantdifferencesinimagery,self‐talk,andrelaxationuse.Specifically,theeliteathletesreported

greateruseofimageryandself‐talkincompetitionwhereasthenon‐eliteathletesreportedgreateruse

ofrelaxationstrategies.Theresearchersstated,“noneliteperformersprimarilyuserelaxationstrategies

toreduceanxietyintensitywhileeliteathletesappeartomaintainintensitylevelsandadopta

combinationofpsychologicalskillstointerpretsymptomsasfacilitative”(Neiletal.,p.421).Withthis

workinmindthen,itisnotunreasonabletosuggestthatparticipantsinotherhigh‐riskactivitiescan

acquiretheabilitytochannelanxietyandfearintoafocusedconnectionwiththetaskathand.


Thestudyofthepsychologyofsportiscontinuingtoyieldanincreasinglycomprehensivebody

ofliteraturerelatedtotheattainmentofexcellenceinperformance.Todate,oneofthemorewidely

recognizedmodelsofexcellenceisOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellence.Drawingonmanyyearsof

experienceinresearchandapplication,Orlick’smodelsummarizesthemaincomponentsofsuccessful

performanceasfollows:focus,commitment,mentalreadiness,positiveimages,confidence,distraction

control,andongoinglearning.Suchconceptshaveprovenapplicableandbeneficialinmany

performancerealmsbeyondsport(e.g.,Neck&Manz,1996;McDonaldetal.,1995;Talbot‐Honeck&

Orlick,1998;Manzey&Schiewe,1992).Asresearchershavegainedagreaterunderstandingofthese

conceptstheyhavealsolearnednewtechniquesandmethodsthroughwhichtheycanbe(andalready

arebeing)applied.Onesuchuseisinanxietyprovokingenvironmentsorsituations.Byutilizingthese

techniquesasmediationdevices,moreandmoreperformersareacquiringtheabilitytosuccessfully

effectchangeinthequalityoftheirperformance.

High‐RiskSportandOccupations

Thenotionofinvestigatingpsychologicalskillsspecifictohigh‐riskenvironmentsandactivitiesis

now,morethanever,attractingtheattentionofresearchers.Inanearlydiscussionofstressandthe

workplace,SloanandCooper(1986)reportedthatthestressinducedbythepossibilityofoccupational

physicaldangerisoftenlessenedwhentheemployeefeelsadequatelypreparedtodealwiththe

emergencysituation.Morerecently,BurkeandOrlick(2003)exploredthementalstrategiesemployed

bysuccessfulMountEverestclimbers.Frominterviewswithtenclimbers,theresearchersreportedthat

thementalstrategiesusedinaMt.Everestclimboccurredinthreedistinctphases:inthepreparation

phase,climbersreliedondetailedplanning,imagery,anddevelopingmentalstrength;duringtheascent,

climbersreportedusingmentaltoughness,focusing,short‐termgoals,lessonsfrompastexperiences,

beliefintheircapacity,andteamsupport;andfinally,duringthedescent,climbersemployedfocusing


andshort‐termgoalsettingastheirmentalstrategies.Theresearchersconcludedthatafrequentlycited

andimportantcomponentofsuccessinthishigh‐riskactivitywasapositivemindsetandeffectivefocus.

ColemanandOrlick(2006)examinedsuccesselementsinthehigh‐risksportofbigmountain

freeskiing.ThisstudyinvolvedinterviewswithnineNorthAmericanelitefreeskiers.Similartothe

strategyusedbyBurkeandOrlick(2003),ColemanandOrlickalsocategorizedsuccesselementsinto

threedistincttemporalgroups.Thepre‐performancepreparationphasewascharacterizedbydrawing

uponpastexperience,physicalreadiness,carefullineselection/inspection,andclearvisualization.

Duringperformanceexecution,athletesreliedonconfidence,executionfocus(i.e.,taskathand),

refocusing,doingwithoutthinking(i.e.,subconsciousthought),andconsciousthought(i.e.,unforeseen

decisionmaking).Finally,duringthepost‐performancereflectionandlearningphase,athletesdescribed

theapplicationofreflectionsandlessons.Themajorsuccesselementscommontoallnineathleteswere

afocusedconnectionwiththetask,loveforthesport,andtheabilitytoremaincalm.

Theuseofpsychologicalskillshasalsobeeninvestigatedandsupportedinhigh‐riskmedical

environments,specificallywithsurgeons(e.g.,McDonaldetal.,1995;Yule,Flin,Paterson‐Brown,&

Maran,2006).Intheirin‐depthinterviewstudy,McDonaldetal.(1995)askedsurgeonstoratethe

relativeimportanceofmental,technical,andphysicalpreparationforexcellentperformanceinsurgery.

Themeanresponsewasasfollows:mentalreadiness,49%;technicalreadiness,41%;andphysical

readiness,10%.TheresearchersconcludedthatallsevenelementsofOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellence

wereevidentinallsurgeonswhoperformedhigh‐mortality‐risksurgery.Yule,Flin,Paterson‐Brownand

Maran(2006)conductedareviewofliterature(psychologicalandsurgical)pertainingtonon‐technical

skillsofsurgeons.Synthesizingtheresultscompiledfromthereview,Yuleetal.proposedadraft

taxonomyofthesenon‐technicalskills.Thetaxonomycontainedtwocategories:interpersonalskillsand

cognitiveskills.Interpersonalskillsincludedcommunication,leadership,teamwork,resource

management,briefing/planning/preparation,seekingadviceandfeedback,andcopingwith


pressure/stress/fatigue.Cognitiveskillsincludedsituationawareness,mentalreadiness,assessingrisks,

anticipatingproblems,decision‐making,adaptivestrategies/flexibility,andworkloaddistribution.

PsychologicalResearchintheMilitary

Theabilitytomaintainperformancequalityunderconditionsofstressisanespeciallyrelevant

issueforindividualsinmilitaryoccupations.Formanyofthesemenandwomen,aless‐than‐best

performanceisnotanoption.Militaryfighterpilots,inparticular,facemanyriskseverytimetheyclimb

intothecockpit:incidentssuchasGLOC(Gillingham,1988)andlossofsituationalawareness(Woods,

2009)aswellasthosecausedbyfaultyequipment(DND,2008)aredifficultorimpossibletorecover

fromandcanhavedeadlyconsequences.Addtothisthepossibilityofbeingthrustintoawartorn

country,farremovedfromanythingtheyhaveeverexperienced,andthepotentialoutlookforthese

pilotsiscertainlynotrosy.Fortheseandotherreasons,militarypilotsmusttakeadvantageofany

relevanttrainingthatmayenhancethequality,consistency,andsafetyoftheirperformance.

Principlesofperformancepsychologyhaveproveninvaluableinsportandotherperformance

domains(e.g.,Feltz&Landers,1983;McDonaldetal.,1995;Talbot‐Honeck&Orlick,1998;Manzey&

Schiewe,1992),yettheyhavereceivedverylittleattentionwithinthecontextofmilitaryorganizations.

ThompsonandMcCreary(2006)explainedthepotentialconsequencesofthisoversight:

Whilemany[militarypersonnel]learntheseimplicityetvitalmentallessonsovertime,the

remainingpeoplewillhavevaryingdegreesofdifficultyacquiringthesepsychologicalskills.At

best,thiscandelaytheirskillacquisition,andatworstthiswillleavethemandtheircolleagues

consistentlyatrisk,andpotentiallylimittheirabilitytoremaininthemilitary.(p.2)

Pilotsmaylearntheseimportantmentalskillsaftermanyyearsofexperience,howeverwhywastean

opportunitytoenhancetheirabilitiesandchancesofsuccessrightnow?Giventhemanypotentialrisks

associatedwithmilitaryaviationandthecriticalroletheseindividualscouldplayintheprotectionofour

nation,aremarkablysmallamountofresearchisavailableinthisarea.


Boyd’sADiscourseonWinningandLosingwasanearlyattempttoconductpsychological

researchwithmilitarypilots;itwasinthisworkthathefirstintroducedhisOODALoopconcept(ascited

inBrehmer,2005).ThenameOODAisanacronym,whichreferstoobserve,orient,decide,act.Now

recognizedasavalidconstructwithinthefieldofIndustrial‐OrganizationalPsychology,theOODALoop

wasoriginallydevelopedasamechanismtoexplainthesuccessofAmericanfighterpilotsovertheir

enemiesintheKoreanWar.Accordingtotheloop,therearefourcognitivestagesinfighterjetcombat:

observe,orient,decideandact.TheObservestageinvolvesthepilot’sdetectionofanenemyaircraft.

DuringtheOrientstage,thepilotmaneuverstheaircrafttopointattheadversary,togainan

advantageouspositionforthenextstage.TheDecidestageinvolvesformulatingaplanoracourseof

action,whichisthencarriedoutduringtheActstage.

Boydtheorizedthat,asaresultofsuperiortrainingandsuperioraircraft,theAmericanfighter

pilotsweremoreproficientateachstageoftheloopandwerethereforeabletoenterinto,ordisrupt,

theOODALoopsoftheirenemies(ascitedinBrehmer).TheAmericanfighterpilotswereableto

observe,orient,anddecidefaster,therebyactingatafasterpacethantheirenemies.Becausethe

Americanpilotscompletedthecyclefirst,theenemypilotswouldbeforcedtore‐orienttotheaction

takenbytheAmericanpilots,inessencereturningtothebeginningoftheirOODALoop.

WhileBoyd’stheoryisseldomusedwithintoday’smilitaryresearch,itneverthelessholds

importantimplicationsforfutureresearchinthefield.Forexample,sometheoristsholdthatanxietycan

resultinincreasedlikelihoodofdistractibilityorattentionalnarrowing(e.g.,Beilock&Gray,2007;

Eysenck,Santos,Derakshan,&Calvo,2007).Ifthisisthecase,pilotswhoareunabletocontroltheir

fearsandanxietymayexperiencedifficultyenteringintotheirowndecision‐makingcycle,orOODA

Loop,astheirobservationalabilitiesmaybeimpaired.Whatcanthesepilotsdotoensurethattheyare

mentallycapableofenteringtheloop?Unfortunately,littleresearchexiststoaddresssuchadilemma,

asthegeneralfocusofmilitaryresearchhasbeendirectedelsewhereforquitesometime.


Muchoftheresearchrelatedtothepsychologicalabilitiesofmilitarypilotshasbeenconducted

atthepilotselectionphase,focusingonthreemaintenetsbelievedtopredictfutureperformance:

psychomotor/skillquickness,intelligence/aptitude,andpersonality/character(Hilton&Dolgin,1991).

Questionsofreliability,however,havecreateduncertaintyintheresearchcommunityregardingthe

meritsofsuchamethod(e.g.,Roscoe&North,1980).Theissueappearstoberootednotintheactual

indicatorsthemselves,butinthemeasurementofthevalidityofthesepredictors.Insufficienciesinearly

researchcoupledwiththechallengeofdifferentiatingbetweentruecorrelationsandmoderated

correlationsresultinadifficulttaskofadequatelyestimatingthevalidityofthesepredictors

(Martinussen,1996).Whatseemstobelackinginthefieldatthistimeisaninvestigationoftheeffects

oflearnedskills,andlearnedmentalskillsonpilotperformanceafterthepilotselectionphase.

Onemustassumethatbothstudentsandexperiencedpilotscontinuetolearnanddevelopskills

relatedtobothpreparationandflyingoncetheyhavebeenacceptedintothepilottrainingprogram;as

such,thissubsequentlearningmayhaveanimpactonperformance.Ifpilotsdonotstoplearningonce

theyhavepassedtheselectionphase,thenthepsychologicalabilitiesthataredevelopedduringtraining

warrantaninvestigationequaltothatofpsychologicalabilitiesattheselectionphase.Inonestudy

involvingNavypersonnel,researchersdidincorporatethisideaoflearnedskillsbyexaminingtheeffects

ofpreparatoryinformationonperceivedanxietyandperformanceinastressfulsituation(Inzana,

Driskell,Salas,&Johnston,1996).Itwasdeterminedthatpreparatoryinformationrelatingtothenature

ofthestressors,possibleeffects,andsuggestedcopingmechanisms,resultedindecreasedanxietyand

enhancedperformanceinbothhighstressandnormalstressconditions.Similartofindingsinhigh‐risk

sport,preparationmayalsobeakeyfactorforsuccessinhigh‐riskmilitaryactivities.

Asresearchhasprimarilyconcentratedonthepilotselectionphase,littledataisavailable

concerningtheexperiencesofmilitarypilotswithfearoranxietyandmentalskillstraining.Inhis1947

study,FlanaganexaminedfactorsrelatedtoreducedfearinAmericanmilitarypilotsafterWorldWarII.


Sevenmajorfactorswereidentifiedascontributingtothepilots’moderatedfeelingsoffear:confidence

inequipment,confidenceincrew,confidenceinleaders,continuedactivity,observationofacalmmodel

(e.g.,acalmcommandingofficer),andacircumscribedtourofduty(ascitedinEnglish,1996).While

theseareundoubtedlyimportantandrelevantelements,attentionmustbedrawntothefactthatnot

oneoftheseelementsiscompletely,orevenmoderately,controlledbythepilot.Onecannotassume

thatpilotshavenocontrolovertheirfearsandanxiety,asresearchshowsthistobeotherwiseinsport

(e.g.,Chase,Magyar,&Drake,2005;Neil,Mellalieu,&Hanton,2006);ifathletescansuccessfullylearn

tocontroltheirfeelingsofanxietyandfear,militarypilotslikelyalsocanpossessthisability.Itis

imperative,therefore,toinvestigatethoseelementsofstressandanxietymanagementthatareundera

pilot’scontrol,andthroughwhichheorshecanachieveperformanceexcellence.

InhisbookFearandCourage,StanleyRachman(1990)identifiedseveralelementsthathe

believedplayedaroleinthereductionoffearinmilitarypilots.Theseelementsincludedfeelingsof

controlovertheaircraft,ideologicalfactors(i.e.beliefinthewaraims),anger(asadistractionfrom

fear),andbeinginagroup.Theseelementsseemslightlymoreyieldingtoapilot’scommandthanthose

describedbyFlanagan(ascitedinEnglish,1996),butmaybedifficulttopracticeorexerciseina

completelycontrolledmanner.Moreover,thequestionmustberaisedastowhetheritiseven

advantageoustoreducefearoranxietyinamilitarycontext;Symonds(1943)suggestedthatthe

physiologicalresponsestofear(e.g.,heightenedawareness,enhancedeffort)mightbecriticalinthe

successfulresponsetoanemergency.Symondsfurthercontendedthatfearonlybecomesdangerous

whenitdominatesthoughts,distractingaperformerfrompotentialbenefitsofotheremotionssuchas

anger.Whatisneeded,then,maybeatoolboxofmentalskillsandstrategiesthatcanbeimpartedtoall

CAFpilots;asetofrelevantskillstochannelarousalandenhanceperformance,thatcanbe

implementedwhenevernecessaryandthatdependsolelyontheindividualforsuccess.


ToongandKoh(2005)investigatedtheeffectsofamentalskillsinterventiononthe

performanceofnovicemilitaryparachutists.Participantswere127conscriptswhowereattendinga

mandatorythree‐weekAirbornecourseaspartoftheirtraining.Theywererandomlyassignedtoeither

aMentalSkillsgrouporaControlgroup.TraineesintheMentalSkillsgroupreceivedathree‐hour

instructionalprograminvolvingclassroom‐basedlecturesfollowedbyguidedpracticalapplication

sessions.Thementalskillsprogramconsistedofthreecomponents:relaxationtraining(usingself‐

monitoringandbreathingtechniques);visualization/imagery(understandingtheconceptandgeneral

principles);andmentalfocus(usingpositive/instructionalself‐talkandmaintaininganappropriatetask

focus).Usingself‐reportmeasures(confidenceandanxietylevels)incombinationwithobjective

measures(instructorassessmentandratesofattritionduetoinjury),theresearchersreportedthat

significantlymoretraineesintheMentalSkillsgroupsuccessfullyperformedthetowerexittask(ajump

fromathreestoreytower)whencomparedwithtraineesintheControlgroup.Theresearchers

concludedthat“mentalskillstrainingcanpotentiallyhaveapositiveimpactonmilitaryperformance,

especiallyontasksthatareperformedunderstressfulconditions”(p.6).Theresearcherssuggestedthat

ataxonomyofspecificmentalskillsappropriateforspecificmilitarytaskswouldaddvaluetothecurrent

technicalfocusoftrainingmethodology.

Thefirstapparentadvancementtowardsanindividual‐focused,psychologicalskillstraining

strategyformilitaryaviationcamefromRothandAndre(2004).Usinganexperimentaldesign,the

researchersattemptedtoascertainthevalueofchairflyingasapilottrainingactivity.Chairflyingwas

definedasapreparationtechniquebywhichapilot,seatedinachair,mentallyrehearseseachsequence

oftheimpendingmission.Therehearsalinvolvesallnecessarymovements(e.g.,movingthethrottle

withhis/herhands)andmaysometimesinvolveprops(e.g.,abottletosimulatethethrottle).Using60

participantswithnopreviousflyingexperience,RothandAndrecomparedtheperformancesofa

Memorizationgroup,Simulatorgroup,andChairFlyinggroupinasimulatedflyingtask.Eachofthe


threegroupswasassignedadifferentpreparationtechnique:theMemorizationgroupstudiedan

OperatingHandbook,theSimulatorgrouppracticedthemissionwithacomputerizedsimulator,andthe

ChairFlyinggroupreceivedinstructionsandpracticedwiththechairflyingmethod.Resultsshowedno

statisticaldifferencesbetweentheperformancesoftheChairFlyinggroupandtheSimulatorgroup,but

amarkeddifference(decline)inperformancebytheMemorizationgroup.Itwasconcludedthatchair

flyingcanbeequallyaseffectiveascomputerbasedsimulatortraininginpreparationforasimulator

mission,butfurtherresearchisrequiredtodeterminewhetherchairflyingcanbeeffectiveinpreparing

forarealmission.

High‐riskactivitiesandthosewhoparticipateinthemhavelongseemedtooccupyaspace

somewhatremovedfrommainstreamsociety.Labeledas‘adrenalinejunkies’,‘sensationseekers’,or

‘risktakers’,somehaveassumedthattheseindividualsconquertheirgoalsridingawakeofsurging

hormones,propelledbyablindingaffinityforself‐destructivebehavior.Aswebegintodelvedeeper

intothepsycheofsuchadrenalinejunkieshowever,itquicklybecomesapparentthatmanyofthese

individualsencountertheverysameexperiencesastherestofus.Thechallengesandsuccesses,the

distractionsandfocus,theelationandanxieties:weareallperformers,simplyseparatedbythevehicle

throughwhichwechosetoperform.Inhigh‐risksportandoccupations,empoweringnoviceperformers

todevelopeffectivepsychologicalskillswouldallowthemtoperformclosertotheircapacity,safelyand

moreconsistently.Byinvestigatingtheuseofstrategiesidentifiedbyexperiencedandsuccessful

militarypilots,essentialmentalskillsandappropriatelearningmethodsmaybecomeclearer.Wecan

thendrawuponandexpandthisknowledgetodevelopandrefinemuch‐neededMSTprogramsfor

studentpilots,ultimatelysavingtime,moneyandpossiblylives.


CHAPTER3

Methodology

Purpose

ThisinvestigationofthepsychologicalskillsofCanadianmilitarypilotswasundertakenusinga

qualitativecasestudymethodology.Toelicitdeep,rich,anddetailedinterviewresponses,Rubinand

Rubin(2005)suggestedusingamixofmainquestions,follow‐upquestions,andprobes.Atourquestion

isamainquestionthatallowstheresearchertomaintainabroadscopeandencouragesthe

conversationalpartnertospeakfreelyabouttheissue(Rubin&Rubin).Thefollowingtourquestion

providedthemajorstructuralanddirectionalguidanceforthisstudy:Whatpsychologicalskillsareused

byCanadianmilitarypilotsandhowaretheseskillsusedthroughouttheirhighlydemandingaviation

careers?Toconductacomprehensiveexaminationofthisissue,severalminitourandcomparison

questions(Rubin&Rubin)werealsoexploredindepth.Theminitourandcomparisonquestions

includedthefollowing:(a)whatdoestheterm‘focus’meanforpilotswholive,train,andperforminthe

militarycontext?And(b)howdopilotscontendwiththerisksandstressesimplicitinthisunique

profession?

Theshort‐termresearchobjectivesofthisstudywerethree‐fold:(1)tocontributetotheexisting

researchandtheoreticalfoundationsofhigh‐riskactivityandperformancepsychology;(2)togaininsight

intothisuniquepopulationofperformersandthepsychologicalskillstheydrawupon;and(3)to

disseminatethisknowledgetootherswhomaybenefitfromtheexperienceandexpertiseoftheseelite

performers.Itishopedthatinthelong‐term,thisresearchwillprovidethefoundationforthecreation

ofamentalskillstraining(MST)programtobeimplementedwithintheCAF’sstudentpilottrainingand

possiblyleadtotheintroductionofMSTprogramsforotherperformanceteamswithinDND.Inthisway,

theseresearchfindingsmightcontributetoasafer,moreefficient,andmoresuccessfulCAFprogram.


ResearchParadigm

ThisstudyexaminedthepsychologicalskillsofCanadianmilitarypilotsusingaconstructivist

paradigm.Constructivismstemsfromthefundamentalbeliefthatthereexistsnoonesetofrulesthat

governshumanbehaviour:variousfactors,suchasintentions,beliefs,andsocialnormsmustbe

consideredintheinvestigationofthephenomenaofhumanbehaviour(Plack,2005).Theemic

perspectiveadoptedbyconstructivistsacceptsthatasingleunifyingexplanationforthephenomena

understudymaynotbefound;assuch,constructivistresearchersstrivetopresentallsubstantial

viewpointsindividually,recognizingthattheirownviewpointsmaydifferfromthoseoftheindividual

participants(Appleton&King,1997).Theconstructivistepistemology“suggeststhateachone’swayof

makingsenseoftheworldisasvalidandworthyofrespectasanyother”(Crotty,2003,p.58).While

emphasisisplacedontheimportanceofindividualmeaningandexperience,socialinteractionisalso

recognizedasessentialtothemeaningmakingprocess.

Amajoracknowledgementoftheconstructivistparadigmistheprevalenceofsocialinfluencein

themeaningmakingprocess;thus,constructivismemphasizestheintegralroleplayedbytheresearcher

throughouttheparticipant‐researcherinteraction.Constructivismacknowledgestwodistinct

instrumentsatworkinthecreationofmeaning,positingthatrealityiscreatedbothatanindividualand

sociallevel,withinagivencontext:Individualscreatetheirownrealities,buttheserealitiesaresocially

influencedbythesocialworldinwhichtheyliveandinteract(Plack,2005).Itfollowsthatasknowledge

issociallyinfluenced,theknowledgeanddatacollectedduringtheresearchprocesswillitselfbecreated

andinfluencedbytheinteractionbetweentheparticipantandtheresearcher–theresearcherservesto

sociallyvalidatetheindividualmeaningscreatedbytheparticipant(Plack,2005;Appleton&King,1997;

Candy,1991).Candyreferstothisintersubjectivecreationofmeaningasreactivity.

Thejointroleintheconstructionofmeaninghastwoimportantimplicationsfortheresearcher

andresearchdesign.Thefirstimplicationisthesignificanceoftheroleoftheresearcher.Appletonand


King(1997)suggestedthattheresearcherplaysakeyroleasaresearchinstrument;heorshemusthave

theabilitytoperceiveandrespondtocontextualcuessoastoeffectivelyguidethestudyandfosterthe

developmentofagenuinerelationshipbasedonmutualrespect.Withoutasoundresearchrelationship,

truerichnessanddepthofdataisdifficulttoachieve.Thisissuewasaddressedthroughtheresearcher’s

respectfulandgenuineinteractionswithparticipants,aswellascompletetransparencywithregardsto

theresearchprocessandobjectives.Theresearcherattemptedatalltimestoapproachinteractions

withanopenmind,withoutbias,andwithsensitivitytotheparticipants’differingcircumstancesand

experiences.Thesecondimplicationofreactivityistheflexibilityrequiredthroughouttheresearch

process.AppletonandKingacknowledgedthatbecausedataiscreatedduringthecourseofthestudy,

theresearchdesignmustbeatentativeone.Ongoingreflectionandanalysisareimperativeasdesign

adjustmentsmaybenecessarytoensurethemostpertinentandessentialdataarecollected.Withthis

ismind,theresearcherengagedinreflectionanddiscussionwiththeresearchsupervisorbeforeand

aftereachinterviewandattheconclusionofeachinterviewday.Thesemeetingsinvolveddiscussionof

possiblenewinterviewquestionsaswellasspecificlanguageconcernsandoverallimpressions.

Whileconstructivistresearchisnotuncommonincontemporaryacademia,itsrelativist

ontologystillprovestobeintimidatingformanyresearchers(Appleton&King,1997).Asaresult,the

constructivistparadigmisvictimtoseveralunwarrantedcriticisms.Onesuchcriticismdescribedby

AppletonandKing(1997)istheaccusationthatconstructivismisakintosolipsism,theschoolofthought

whichrefutestheexistenceofatruereality.AppletonandKingdiscreditedthisclaim,statingthat

constructivismis,infact,amorecentristperspectivethatsettlesmidwaybetweenrealismandradical

relativism.Constructivismdoesnotdenytheexistenceofanoutsidereality,butrathersuggeststhatwe

areonlynowbeginningtounderstandit(Candy,1991).Anothercommonconcernassociatedwiththe

constructivistparadigmcomesfromaseeminglypervasivepreoccupationwiththegeneralizationof

researchfindings;thiscreatesdifficultyforsomeinseeingthevalueofadatasetthatisspecifictosmall


groupsanduniquecontexts.AppletonandKingalsoaddressedthisconcern,statingthattheaimof

constructivistresearchisnottofittheinterpretationofthefindingstootherpopulationsbygross

generalizationsusinglargesamplepopulations.Instead,transferabilityissought,wherebyindividuals

candeterminewhethertheresearchfindingsfitwiththeirownexperiencesandcanbeappliedintheir

owncontexts.Theresearchersimplypresentsthefindings,invitingreaderstotakewhattheyfeelis

relevantforthemandleavetherest.

ConceptualFramework

MilesandHuberman(1994)describedaconceptualframeworkasa(preferably)graphicor

narrativeaccountofthemainconceptstobestudiedandthepresumedrelationshipsamongthem.

Orlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellencewasselectedasanappropriateconceptualframeworkforthisstudy.

TheWheelofExcellenceistheproductofthousandsofinterviewsconductedbyDr.TerryOrlickwith

performersacrossdomainsaswellashisdecadesofappliedexperienceinthefieldofsportandhigh

performancepsychology.Withsuchanexpanseofknowledgeandexperiencesasitsfoundation,Orlick’s

modelprovidedastrongguideforpotentiallyrichavenuesofinquiry.Theconceptualframeworkalso

ensuredthattheinterviewexplorationexperiencewassomewhatconsistentforeachparticipant.

Orlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellenceiscomprisedofsevenconceptsor“successelements”that

weredevelopedusingthepersonalexperiencesofhighlevelperformers:focus,commitment,mental

readiness,positiveimages,confidence,distractioncontrol,andongoinglearning.Orlicktheorizedthat

thesesevensuccesselementsformthebasisforconsistent,high‐levelperformance.Aboveallelse,an

effectivefocusisintegraltotheachievementofconsistentexcellenceinhigh‐levelperformance

domains.FocusisplacedatthecenteroftheWheelofExcellenceanddrivesthedevelopmentofthe

remainingsixelements.Thismodelofexcellencehasbeenvalidatedbynumerousinvestigationsin

recentyears(e.g.,Burke&Orlick,2003;Coleman&Orlick,2006;Talbot‐Honeck&Orlick,1998).Itis

worthnotingthattwoofthesemorerecentstudies(Burke&Orlick,2003;Coleman&Orlick,2006)


involvedparticipantsinahigh‐riskpursuits(MountEverestclimbersandbigmountainfreeskiers).These

studiesprovidedsupportfortheuseoftheWheelofExcellenceasaframeworkinthehigh‐riskand

highlydemandingcontextofmilitaryaviation.

Gilbert(2001)conductedareviewof25casestudiesofeliteperformerstoanalyzetwomodels

of“talentdevelopmentelements”,oneofwhichwasOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellence.Gilbert

concludedthatneithermodelprovided“acompleteportraitofthefullrangeofelementsrequiredfor

talentdevelopmentacrossdomains”(p.13),citingalackofdiscussionregardingtheimportanceof

genetics,opportunity,andarobustsocialsupportsystem.Whiletheseelementsmaycertainly

contributetothedevelopmentoftalentandhigh‐levelperformance,onemustbearinmindthatOrlick’s

modelwasnotintendedasaholisticmodel(i.e.,onethataddressesphysical,psychologicaland

environmentalconcepts).Rather,theWheelofExcellenceconcernsitselfonlywiththosepsychological

factorsoverwhichtheperformercanexercisepersonalcontrol.Onecouldarguethattheoverwhelming

valueoftheWheelofExcellenceispreciselythatitprovidesperformerswiththeguidelinestoeffect

positivechangeontheirown;itismeanttobeapplied,toguideperformerswithavaluablecollectionof

performanceenhancementtoolsthatcanbenurturedandrefined.Elementssuchasgenetics,external

opportunities,andsupportsystemsareoftendeterminedbycircumstancesbeyondaperformer’sdirect

influence.ThesuccesselementsfoundinOrlick’smodelofexcellencecanhelpperformerstofocuson

appropriategoalsorpursuitsandtocopewithavarietyofvariablesthatmightotherwiseinterferewith

theirperformance.Thepersonalperformancegoalistoachievethehighestlevelofexcellencepossible

withintheparametersoftheperformer’sphysicalabilitiesandenvironmentalcircumstances.

AsGilbert(2001)highlighted,onedangerofemployingOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellencein

thisresearchwasthepotentialfornewandpotentiallycrucialelementsofperformancepsychologyto

beoverlooked.Tomitigatethispossibility,theresearcherensuredthattheinterviewquestionswere

structuredinanopen‐endedmanner.SomeinterviewquestionsdidexploreconceptsfromtheWheelof


Excellencesuchastherolesoffocusandconfidence.However,duringtheinterviewstheresearcher

tookcaretoaskparticipantstoidentifyanddiscusstheconceptsandexperiencesthatweremost

meaningfulforthem,regardlessofwhethertheyappearedinthemodel.Theresearcheralsomadenote

ofanyuniquelanguageortermsintroducedbytheparticipantsandattemptedtoexploretheseideasin

thecontextoftheinterviews.Sometermsintroducedbythepilotsweresynonymouswithtermsinthe

WheelofExcellence,suchaschairflying(positiveimagery).Inthesecases,theresearcherattemptedto

usethenewtermwheneverpossiblewithinthatinterviewandanysubsequentinterviews.

ResearchDesign

Thepresentstudywasguidedbyaqualitativeresearchdesign.AppletonandKing(1997)

encouragedtheuseofqualitativemethodsforresearchwithinaconstructivistparadigm.Duetotheir

flexibilityandemicperspective,qualitativemethodsarewellsuitedtodatacollectioninanatural

setting.Qualitativemethodshavebecomeincreasinglypopularinperformancepsychologyresearchas

theyallowtheresearcherto“examinethewaypeopleperceive,create,andinterprettheirworld”

(Munroe‐Chandler,2005,p.68).Creswell(1998)outlinedseveralgenerallyacceptedcharacteristicsof

qualitativeresearch,allofwhicharecompatiblewithaconstructivistparadigmandacasestudy

methodology:(a)occurrenceinanaturalsetting,(b)researcher/instrumentduality,(c)inductive

analysisofdata,and(d)afocusontheparticipants’meanings.Throughthesemeans,qualitative

researchallowsforagreaterunderstandingofsubjectiveexperiences,whichwasthegoalofthepresent

research(Munroe‐Chandler,2005).

Aqualitativeapproachallowsforflexibilityindesignandemphasizesdescriptionandmeaningin

data(Creswell1998;Appleton&King,1997).Adescriptiveresearchdesignwasrequiredforthis

investigation,whichdrawsitsdataandknowledgefromindividualexperiences.Theflexibilityenabled

bythequalitativedesignwasimperativeforanexplorationinvolvingelitemilitarypilotsasverylittleis

knownaboutthisgroupandthepreviousresearchwithpilotsonwhichpredictionscanbebasedis


limited.Thequalitativedesignallowedtheresearchertomodifytheprojectasneeded(e.g.,the

interviewguide)inanefforttopursuethemostpertinentsubjectsandrichestsourcesofdata.

Acasestudymethodologywasemployedinthisinvestigation.Yin(2003)statedthatwhenusing

casestudies,investigatorscanespouseasimultaneouslynarrowandbroadapproachtotheinquiry:Itis

possibleto“understandcomplexsocialphenomena,”whileatthesametimeretainingasenseof“the

holisticandmeaningfulcharacteristicsofreal‐lifeevents”(p.2).Acasestudymethodologyissuitedto

questionsofa“how”or“why”nature,andallowstheresearchertoexaminecontemporaryevents

withintheircontextwithoutrelyingonthemanipulationofrelevantbehaviours(Yin).Thisresearch

utilizedamultiplecasedesign,withindividualmilitarypilotsassinglecases.Yinstatedthat,“the

evidencefrommultiplecasesisoftenconsideredmorecompelling,andtheoverallstudyistherefore

regardedasbeingmorerobust”(p.46).Themultiplecasedesignallowedforthecomparisonofcasesto

identifyimportantsimilaritiesanddifferencesinexperiences.

Amultiplecasestudyapproachwaswellsuitedtotheresearchobjectivesandthephenomenon

ofinterestinthisstudy.Whileperhapsgenerallyunderrepresentedwithintheperformancepsychology

domain,casestudiesinthefieldhavebeensuccessfullyundertakeninthepast(e.g.Krane,Greenleaf&

Snow,1997;Savoy,1993;Striegel,1993;andHeyman,1990).Thepresentresearchinvestigateda

phenomenonoccurringinauniquepopulationwithinauniquecontext;thisemphasisonboththe

atypicalcaseandtheinfluentialcontextisakeyrequisiteforahigh‐qualitycasestudy.LincolnandGuba

(1985)recognizedthat“itisnotpossibletounderstandanyphenomenonwithoutreferencetothe

contextwithinwhichitisembedded”(p.302);wheninvestigatingaphenomenonthatoccursinsuchan

exceptionalenvironmentasthemilitary,thiscautionmustnotbeoverlooked.Withthisinmind,the

researcherattemptedtoelicittheparticipants’thoughtsandopinionsregardingtheircontextandthe

militaryenvironment.Thesecommentsarebestpresentedinabriefcontextualdescriptionpriortothe

disseminationoftheresults.AsYin(2003)noted,amultiplecasestudymethodologyalsoallowsfor


comparisonofthecases.Casecomparisonswereextremelybeneficialforthisresearch,asindividual

differencesaswellasgroupcommonalitiessurfacedduringanalysis.Theresearcherexercisedcautionto

ensurethatallrelevantsimilaritiesanddiscrepancieswereidentified.Theresultsarepresentedsoasto

highlightbothsidesofthedata,asimportantdiscussionsmayarisefromthesenuances.

Participants

Thepresentstudyemployedpurposivesampling(Appleton&King,1997)intheselectionof

participants;thisisinkeepingwiththenormofsamplingincasestudyresearch(Jones,Torres,&

Armino,2006).Purposivesamplingisatechniquebywhichcasesaregatheredbasedontheirpotential

toprovidetherichestdata,resultinginanin‐depthinvestigation(Appleton&King,1997).Thismethodis

especiallyeffectiveforstudies,suchasthecurrentone,thatarelimitedbyverysmallsamplesizes.

Stake(2005)notedthateveninlargercasestudies,samplesizesarefrequentlytoosmalltoallowfor

randomsampling;instead,purposivesamplingshouldbeusedtoallowresearcherstocapitalizeon

opportunitiesforvarietyandrichnessofdata.Becausesamplesizesaresolimited,eachparticipant

musthavethepotentialtobringsomevaluableinformationtothestudy.

TheresearcherreliedonseniorpersonnelwithinDNDtorecommendsuitableparticipantsfor

thisstudy.TheDNDcontactswereprovidedwithadetailedbriefoutliningtheobjectivesoftheresearch

andsomepreferredparticipantcriteria(e.g.,highlevelperformers,somecombatordeployment

experienceifpossible).EverypilotwhosuccessfullycompletestherigorousCAFpilottrainingprogram

andwhoisawardedwings(apinsignifyingproficiencyandgraduationfromtraining)isconsideredan

eliteperformer.ThestringentselectionprocessusedbytheCAFcoupledwiththerigoroustrainingand

evaluationsystemresultsinagroupofhighlyskilled,outstandinggraduates.Everystudentwho

completesthetrainingandearnshis/herwingsisanexceptionalpilot.Giventhisreality,theresearcher

andresearchsupervisor,togetherwithDND,chosetointerviewpilotswithdifferinglevelsofexperience

soasto:(a)facilitateanunderstandingthechallengesfacedatdifferenttimesduringthepilots’careers,


Table1.ParticipantExperiencesandAccomplishments

Participant AircraftFlown SpecialCategories/Achievements CombatExperience

1 Helicopter,jet(Tutor,Hawk)

Partofspecial‐opsteam 3deployments(Somalia)

2 Jet(Tutor,Harvard,Hawk),helicopter

SecurityforG8SummitinKananaskis

4deployments(Bosnia,Afghanistan)

3 Jet(typeunknown)

4 Jet(Hawk,T‐33,Hornet)

A1instructor(highestcategory)

5 Jet(Hawk,Hornet) Completedfighterweaponsschool(“PhDofflying”)

6 Jet(Tutor,Harvard,Hawk)

A1instructor

7 Jet(typeunknown)

8 Jet(Harvard,Hawk)

9 Jet(Tutor,Dash8),multiengine(Hercules,Airbus)

10 Jet(Harvard,Hawk) 1deployment(Iraq)

11 Jet(Harvard),helicopter(SeaKing)

12 Jet(Harvard,Hawk) Elementlead(qualifiedtoleadformations)

13 Jet(Harvard),helicopter

14 Jet(Harvard),helicopter(SeaKing)

2deployments(Iraq,Pakistan)

15 Jet(Tutor,Harvard),multiengine(Aurora)

A2instructor

16 Helicopter(typeunknown)

Ledeliteemergencyresponseteam,securityforThreeAmigossummitinMontebello

Multipledeployments(Bosnia,CommandingOfficerinAfghanistan)


and(b)allowtheresearchertoexplorehowmentalskillsareincorporatedatvarioustimesthroughout

thepilots’careers.Table1providesabriefoverviewoftheparticipants’notableexperiences;this

informationwasgatheredduringtheinterviewprocess.

Theinterviewsampleconsistedof22elitemilitarypilots.Fifteenoftheseinterviewswere

selectedforfullanalysis.AllpilotshadcompletedtheUPTSsuccessfully.Ofthe15participantsselected

foranalysis,someweretrainingtobecomeinstructorpilots,otherswerehighrankinginstructorpilots,

andtwooccupiedtopsupervisorypositions.Therewere14maleparticipantsandonefemale

participant.Fourparticipantshadbeendeployedtocombatzonesandtwoparticipantshadbeen

deployedmultipletimes.Thisworkalsoincludesrelevantquotesrelatingtoexcellenceinmilitaryflying

froma16thinterviewparticipantwhowasinacommandposition.Hiscomments,however,werenot

includedinthefulldataanalysis.Allparticipantsexpressedsincereenthusiasmforthestudyand

participatedintheinterviewswithanhonestandopenattitude.Manyfeltthataninvestigationofthis

naturewasoverdueattheCAFandthatthepotentialimplicationscouldbeofgreatvalue.Severalpilots

notedtheirvestedinterestinthepossibilityofarelevant,highqualityMSTprogram,astheprospective

studentswhowouldbenefitfromthetrainingcouldonedayflyalongsidethemincombat.

Instrument

Semi‐structuredinterviewsprovidedthedatacollectionmethodforthisinvestigation.Priorto

conductingtheinterviews,theresearcherconstructedaninterviewguide(seeAppendixC).The

interviewguidewasbasedonOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellence,theconceptualframeworkforthis

study,aswellaspreviousinterviewstudieswithhigh‐levelperformers(e.g.,Coleman&Orlick,2006).

Themajorityofthequestionsintheinterviewguidewereopen‐ended,allowingtheparticipanttofreely

discusstheexperiences,ideasandconceptsrelatedtotheuseofpsychologicalskillsthatweremost

importanttohim/her.Theresearchsupervisor,keyCAFpersonnel,andtheDNDSocialScienceResearch

ReviewBoardevaluatedtheinterviewguideindependentlyforclarityofquestionsandrelevancetothe


participants.DNDpersonnelsuggestedminorchangestothelanguageofsomeinterviewquestions.The

researcherdiscussedtheserequestswiththeresearchsupervisorandimplementedthechangesthat

weredeemedappropriate.

Therolesoftheresearcherandresearchsupervisorinthisstudywerealsoinstrumentaltothe

datacollection(interviewswereconductedbyboththeresearcherandresearchsupervisor).Appleton

andKing(1997)recommendedthatresearchersactastoolsthroughwhichtheknowledgeand

experienceofparticipantscanbetranslatedandpresentedinavaluablemannertoawideraudience.

Throughthecollectionanddisseminationoftheseresearchresults,theresearcheractsasaconduit,

connectingthereaderwithnewinformationthatmayberelevantandmeaningfulinhis/herownunique

context.Duringtheinterviewprocess,theresearcheralsoprovidedanopenandrespectfulsocialvenue

fortheparticipantstoclarifyandexploretheirexperiencesand,asaresult,constructandsharetheir

knowledge.Byaskingquestionsandsolicitingandclarifyingopinions,theinterviewersguidedthe

participantsthroughaprocessofexploration,realization,clarificationandconfirmationofknowledge.

DataCollection

Yin(2003)describedtheinterviewas“oneofthemostimportantsourcesofcasestudy

information”(p.89).Retrospectivedescriptionsprovidedthemostviableoptionfordatacollection

becauseitwasnotfeasibleorsafetointerviewtheseindividualsastheywereexperiencingthe

phenomenon(i.e.,whileflying)ortodeterminepertinentpsychologicalskillssimplythrough

observation.Additionally,forsomeparticipantstheprocessofopen,honest,anddetaileddiscussion

broughttolightnewideasorconnectionsthathadnotpreviouslybeenthoroughlyconsideredor

shared.Retrospectivedescriptionsthereforeelicitedvaluableinformation,bothfortheresearcherand

fortheparticipants.

Priortothecommencementofthedatacollection,allparticipantsweresent,viaemail,abrief

informationletterdescribingtheresearchaimsandprotocols(seeAppendixA).Beforebeginningthe


interviewprocess,theresearcherandtheresearchsupervisorreviewedtheinterviewquestionsand

discussedthemindetailtoensurethattherewasacommonunderstandingofwhatwasbeingasked,

bothintermsofthespecificinterviewquestionsandthelarger,overallresearchaims.Inaddition,atthe

beginningofeachinterview,theresearcherandresearchsupervisorreviewedthepurposeofthe

investigationandofferedtoaddressanyquestionstheparticipantmayhavehad.Allparticipants

expressedakeeninterestinandadesiretocontributeinanywaypossibletowhattheyfeltwasan

extremelyworthwhileinvestigation.Interviewstookplaceoveraperiodoffourfulldaysat15Wing

MooseJaw.Eachparticipantengagedinaface‐to‐face,in‐depthinterviewthatlastedfrom45minutes

to90minutes.

Theresearcherandresearchsupervisorbegantheinvestigationbyconductingthefirsttwoin‐

depthinterviewstogether.Thisallowedtheresearchertocloselyobserve,listentoandlearnfromthe

researchsupervisor’svastexperience.Theresearchsupervisorledthefirstinterview,whilethe

researcherobserved.Theresearchersupervisorledthesecondinterviewaswell,withtheresearcher

playingamuchmoreactiveroleinthediscussion.Followingeachofthefirsttwointerviews,the

researcherandresearchsupervisordiscussedindetailtheirthoughtsandfeelingsregardingthefluidity

oftheinterview,thesuitabilityofthequestions,therelevancyoftheresponses,andthecharacteristics

andqualitiesoftheparticipants.Theresearcherandresearchsupervisorcontinuedtoengageindebriefs

followingeachinterviewandanextensivedebriefwasdoneattheendofeachday.Theresearcherand

researchsupervisorfeltthataftertheinitialtwointerviews,bothhadagoodunderstandingofthe

contextandnaturalflowoftheinterviewsaswellassomeofthemoreuniquelanguageandthebest

waytoapproachmoresensitivetopicssuchasemergencyordeploymentexperiences.Followingthis,

theresearcherandresearchsupervisorconductedinterviewsseparately.Thefinaltwointerviewswere

alsoconductedtogether.Intotal,theresearcherandresearchsupervisoreachconductednine

interviewsseparatelyandfourinterviewstogether.


Semi‐structuredinterviewshaveproveninvaluableinpastexplorationsofhumanexperience

andperformancepsychology.IntheirinfluentialstudywithCanadianOlympicathletes,Orlickand

Partington(1988)adoptedamixedmethodsdesign.Whileseveraldatacollectionmethodswere

employedthroughoutthestudy,individualinterviewswereusedasoneofthemajorsourcesofdata.

OrlickandPartingtonjustifiedthisapproachwiththeassertionthatinterviewsfacilitateopenprobing,

necessaryforthein‐depthexplorationofnewtopics.Furthermore,interviewsenhancethe

understandingofcontext‐specificlanguageandpersonalexperiences.Semi‐structuredinterviews

continuetoprovidethefoundationforin‐depthdatacollectionformuchoftheresearchconductedin

theperformancepsychologydomain;suchresearchincludesCohn’s(1991)explorationofpeak

performanceingolf,KabushandOrlick’s(2001)investigationoffocusinelitemountainbikeracers,and

BurkeandOrlick’s(2003)examinationofmentalskillsemployedbyeliteMountEverestclimbers.

KvaleandBrinkmann(2008)statedthattheinterviewmethodis“anactiveprocesswhere

interviewerandintervieweethroughtheirrelationshipproduceknowledge”orgenerateadeeper

understandingofthetopicbeingexplored(p.17).Thesemi‐structuredinterviewmethodallowedthe

researchertopursuerichandimportantavenuesofinquirythatwereindividuallyrelevantforthe

participants.Byconstructingresearchquestionsofanopen‐endednaturetheresearchersupportedthis

activeprocessandcreatedopportunitiesfornewanddifferentknowledgetosurface.Semi‐structured

interviewsthusprovidedaviablemethodforthecollectionofrich,relevantdata,whileadheringtothe

basicassumptionsoftheconstructivistparadigm.

ThisstudyincorporatedRubinandRubin’s(2005)“responsiveinterviewing”approach.The

responsiveinterviewingstrategyentailsthreecentralassumptions:(1)theinterviewerandinterviewee

aretwohumanbeingswhoformarelationship;(2)themaingoaloftheinterviewisnottogainbreadth,

butdepthofunderstanding;and(3)theprojectdesignmustremainflexible.RubinandRubinalso

emphasizeself‐reflectionthroughouttheresearchprocess,callingattentiontotheimportanceof


ongoingexaminationofone’sownbiases,reactions,behaviours,andunderstandings.Theresearcher

engagedinself‐reflectionthroughoutthecourseoftheinvestigationthroughdiscussionwiththe

researchsupervisor,DNDpersonnel,andpeers.Theresearcheralsoidentifiedpotentialsourcesof

personalbias,suchasfamiliaritywithOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellenceandapersonalfearofheights,

asapreventativemeasure;thisreflectionensuredthattheresearcherwascontinuallyawareofthese

predispositionsandmonitoringherownactionsandreactionsforanysignsofbias.

DataAnalysis

Theanalysisofdatawasongoingthroughoutthecourseoftheinvestigation,commencing

immediatelyafterthefirstinterview.Followingeachinterviewandattheconclusionofeachdaythe

researcherandresearchsupervisordiscussedandmadenotesofemergingthemesandimportantareas.

Thestrategyofconcurrentdatacollectionandanalysisallowedtheresearchertorefineandmodify

interviewquestionsaswellasdevelopnewavenuesofinquirywithintheprojectasneeded(Pope,

Ziebland,&Mays,2000).Forexample,earlyintheinterviewprocesstheresearcherandresearch

supervisordecidedthatthethemeofcopingwithfearwasnotemergingasacentralcomponentofthe

interviews.Participantsgavethegeneralimpressionthatfearwasnotacommonissueforthem,

althoughmanydescribedexperiencesinvolvingarousalandanxiety.Theresearcherandresearch

supervisorthusdecidedtoactivelypursuethethemeofanxietyandstressmanagementratherthan

copingwithfear.Itwasalsodecidedthatthetransitionintoafullfocuspriortoflightwasanideathat

mayprovevaluableandwasthereforeaddedtotheinterviewquestions.

Allparticipantswereinterviewedoverthecourseoffourdays.Duetothebusyscheduleand

needtotravel,theresearcherwasunabletobegintranscriptionuntilallinterviewshadconcluded.Once

thetranscriptionwascompleted,copiesoftheinterviewtranscriptsweresentbacktoeachrespective

participantviaemailforverificationand/ormodification.Anyfollow‐upquestionsthataroseduringthe

transcriptionwereincludedintheseemails.Participantsreturnedtheverifiedtranscriptsandfollow‐up


answersviaemail.Oneparticipantrequestedaminorchangetooneoftheinterviewcomments;this

commentwasmodifiedimmediatelytothesatisfactionofboththeresearcherandparticipant.

Theverifiedtranscriptswereanalyzedbothinductivelyanddeductively.Throughtheuseof

inductiveanalysis,acommonpracticewithinthequalitativeresearchrealm,theresearcherwasina

positiontoidentifynewanduniquethemesinthedata.Severaluniqueideasdidsurface,suchasthe

useofongoinglearningstrategiesduringperformance.Theinductiveanalysiswascarriedoutfirst,to

allowforconsiderationofthefullrangeofconceptsinthedata.Followingtheinductiveanalysis,the

researcherconductedadeductiveanalysisbyexaminingthedatainthecontextofOrlick’s(2008)Wheel

ofExcellence.Previousresearchinthedomainofperformanceexcellencehasshownthatmental

trainingstrategiesarerelativelystabledespitechangingcontexts(e.g.,Mahoneyetal.,1987;McDonald

etal.,1997;Orlick&Partington,1988);thus,adeductiveanalysisallowedtheresearchertoincorporate

theseestablishedthemesintothecategorizationofdata.

RubinandRubin(2005)discussedtheanalysisofqualitativeinterviewdataintermsoftwo

phases:(a)preparationoftranscripts,identificationandrefinementofthemesandconcepts,andcoding

oftranscriptstoretrieveparticipants’perspectivesregardingthethemesandconcepts;and(b)

comparisonofthemesandconceptsacrossinterviewsorthecombinationofaccountstoformdetailed

descriptionsofthesetting.Bothofthesephasesofanalysiswereconductedmanually,withouttheuse

ofcomputercodingprogramssuchasQSRNVivo.Creswell(1998)statedthatsuchprogramssimply

provideaneasilyaccessiblestoragesolutionfordataandcodes–theresearcherremainsasthecoder

andcategorizer.Iftheresearcherisnotfamiliarwiththeprogram,theprocessoffamiliarizing

him/herselfwiththeoperationsandcapabilitiesmaybetime‐consuming,eventuallyoutweighingany

benefitsofsuchaprogram.

Duringtheinitialphaseofanalysistheresearcherbrokeeachinterviewtranscriptintosections

ofmeaningfuldata,or‘meaningunits’,bylabelingportionsofthetextinelectronicdocuments(i.e.,


usingMicrosoftWord).Thesemeaningunitswerethenorganizedintoahierarchicalsystemofsub‐

categories,categoriesandthemes.Severalsub‐categoriesandcategoriestogetherproducedatheme.

Thethemes,categoriesandmeaningunitsweretransferredintoaMicrosoftExcelspreadsheetto

facilitatethecomparisonofcasedata.Thisfirstphaseofanalysiswasmainlyinductiveinthatthe

researcherattemptedtocategorizemeaningfulunitsoftextusingtheparticipant’sownwords,rather

thansearchingforthemesidentifiedfromtheliterature.

Duringthesecondphaseofanalysistheresearchergroupedrelevantmeaningunits,sub‐

categoriesandcategoriestogetherfromvariousparticipants.Bothcomplementaryandcontradictory

meaningunitsweregroupedtogetheraccordingtotheirrespectivecategories.Thisphasewasmainly

deductiveinthatthedatawasorganizedaccordingtotheelementsoftheWheelofExcellence(Orlick,

2008),wherepossible.ThisstrategyallowedforverificationoftherelevancyoftheWheelofExcellence

(Orlick)modeltothispopulationaswellasthecreationofasimplifiedhierarchyofthemesand

categories.AsampleofthecodingstrategyusedisprovidedinTable2.

Throughoutthecourseoftheinterviewsandanalysisitbecameapparentthattheuseof

psychologicalskillscoincidedwiththreedistincttemporalphases.Suchsegmentationindatahasbeen

notedinpreviousstudiesinvestigatinghigh‐levelperformancepsychology(e.g.,Burke&Orlick,2003;

Table2.Exampleofdataanalysisanddevelopmentofthemes(MissionExecutionphase)

Rawdatameaningunits Sub‐categories Categories Themes

ToldmyselfIknewwhatIwasdoing Positiveself‐talk Inabilities ConfidenceTellyourselfyou’velearnedthis Itshowedmemyresilience Frompastexperiences NoreasontobelieveIwouldn’tsucceed

Anothercoininthepurse AllthethingsIhadaccomplished Trustheisdoingwhatheshouldbe Trust Infellowpilots Trustmustbemaintained Takeeveryadvantageontheradio Nounnecessaryrisks Insafety Ratherbeonthegroundthannothaveoptions


Doublecheckeverything Won’tflyaloneanymore Don’tpushit Respectpersonallimits Staywithincomfortzone Ignorepressurefromothers Havetounderstandyourlimitations Therestdoesn’texist Shuteverythingelseout Inthemoment FocusOtherthingsbeingignored Inyourzoneanddon’tletanythingdistractyou

100%ofyourbrain Finishonethingandmoveontothenext

Anticipationandflowoftasks

Notreallysearchingforthatnextthing

Knowwhat’snextbeforeithappens Canneverfocusononething Capacity Abletosubconsciouslymonitor Corefocusisautomatic Drawnintotheenvironment Situationalawareness Keepyourscangoing

AllIhavetodoislettheairplaneflyDoingwithoutthinkingvs.overthinking

Connected

Getintoagrooveanddoit Can’tthinkfastenough Hesitationistheendofit Successwastheonlyoutcome Positive Neverthinkabouttherisks Feelmorealive


Coleman&Orlick,2006).Theresearcherelectedtocategorizethedatawithinthefollowingtemporal

groupsinwhichtheyoccurred:pre‐flight,missionexecution,andpost‐flight.Thepre‐flightphaserefers

toalltimeleadinguptoandin‐betweenflights;thisincludesthepre‐flightbrief.Themissionexecution

phasebeginswhenthepilotstepsontotheflightlineandendswhenthepilotexitstheaircraft.The

post‐flightphasereferstoalltimefollowingtheflight,beforethepilotbeginstoprepareforthenext

flight;thisincludesthepost‐flightdebrief.Theelementofcommitmentappearedtoexistbeyondthe

confinesofanyonephaseofflight,andinmostcaseswasevidentpriortoemploymentinthemilitary.

Asaresult,thiselementwasanalyzedandpresentedasauniquecomponentofperformance

excellence.Inaddition,theresearchercreatedadistinctphasefor‘deployment’,owingtotheextreme

challengesfacedandtheatypicalnatureofthisenvironment.

Trustworthiness

Priortocommencingthisstudytheresearchermadeaconcertedefforttobecomefamiliarwith

theworldofmilitaryaviation.Havingnopersonalexperienceinaviationorthemilitary,theresearcher

educatedherselfthroughtheuseofDNDpublications,peer‐reviewedjournalarticles,books(including

personalmemoirs)andtelevisiondocumentaries.TheresearcheralsoconsultedwithDNDpersonnel

beforeandduringtheinvestigationonmattersrangingfromNFTCprograminformationtotechnicaland

unfamiliarlanguage.Finally,theresearcherandtheresearchsupervisortogetherinterviewedahigh

rankingpilotinatopcommandposition;thisinterviewprovidedanadditionalopportunityforthe

researchertolearnabouttherolethatthesepilotsplayinnationalandinternationalcontexts,outside

ofthedailytrainingroutinesinMooseJaw.Thispilotalsosharedsomepersonalexperiences(e.g.,

combat,diplomaticsecuritymissions)andexplained,fromtheperspectiveoftheCAF,whyan

investigationofthisnatureissuchavaluableendeavour.

Patton(2002)identifiedthefollowingelementsassufficientcriteriatojudgethequalityof

constructivistqualitativeinquiry:subjectivityacknowledged(e.g.,biasesaccountedfor),


trustworthiness,triangulation,particularity(justlyexamininguniquecases),enhancedanddeepened

understanding,authenticity,andcontributionstodialogue.Thisinvestigationembracedthesecriteriato

enhancethequalityandcredibilityoftheresearchdesignanddata.Theresearcherprimarilyreliedon

memberchecks,researcherreflexivity,andanalysttriangulationtoenhancethequalityand

trustworthinessoftheresearchprocessandresults.

Membercheckingisastrategybywhichtheinterpretationsandconclusionsreached

independentlybytheresearcheraresharedwiththeparticipant;thisallowstheparticipanttoclarify

ideas,addnewandimportantinformation,orremoveinaccurateinterpretations(Baxter&Jack,2008).

Eachparticipantreceivedhis/herinterviewtranscriptviaemailandwasaskedtoreviewthedocument

forconfirmationand/oralteration.Oneparticipantrequestedachangetotheinterviewtranscript.By

engaginginmemberchecks,allparticipantsweregiventheopportunitytoverifythattheircomments

hadbeenaccuratelyrecordedandtomodifyanycommentstoensurethattheirmeaningwouldbe

correctlyinterpreted.TheresearcherhassubmittedafullcopyofthisworktoDNDforreviewandwill

addressanyconcernsorsuggestionsthatmayarise.Theresearcherandresearchsupervisoralsoplanto

presenttheseresultstothestudentpilotsandinstructorpilotsat15WingMooseJawinthenearfuture.

Researcherreflexivityhasbeendefinedas“criticalself‐reflection”onpre‐existingbiases,

ideologies,orperspectivesthatmayinfluencetheinvestigation(MerriamandAssociates,2002,p.31).

Theresearcherengagedinreflectionandself‐analysispriortoandduringtheresearchprocess.Any

potentialsourcesofpersonalbiasthatmayhaveaffectedtheintervieworanalysisprocesswere

identified.Theresearcherthentookcaretomaintainanongoingawarenessoftheseelements.Through

thisprocessofdisseminationtheresearcherwillalsoshareanypossiblesourcesofbiaswiththereader,

allowingforanadditionallevelofanalysis.Reflectionandanalysisareonlyoflimitedvalue,however,if

onedoesnotactontheconclusionsoftheintrospection.Theresearcherevaluatedherperformance

followingeachinterviewandidentifiedareasofimprovementforthesubsequentdiscussion.Areasof


improvementincludedrefrainingfromlookingforexperienceswithfear,aswellasmoretechnical

elementssuchasallowingforsilencebeforebeginninganewquestionandchoiceoflanguage.

Triangulationcanbedefinedastheuseofmultipleviewpointstoverifydatainterpretationsand

meanings;thisallowsfortheidentificationofalternatewaysofviewingthecase(Stake,2005).

Triangulationfunctionsonthebasicprinciplesofamalgamationofideasandconfirmationof

interpretations(Baxter&Jack,2008).Byincorporatingvariousviewpointsintheinterpretationofthe

data,triangulationultimatelyenhancesthecredibilityofthestudy(Stake,2005)whilesimultaneously

maintainingtheconstructivistemphasisonthevalueofindividualperspectives(Crotty,2003).Thisstudy

employedanalysttriangulation:Theresearchsupervisorreviewedthecategorizations,interpretations,

andconclusionstoensureconsistency.Overthecourseofthedataanalysisperiod,dialoguebetween

theresearcherandpeersalsoreducedanypotentialbiasintroducedbyasingleresearcher.

Onefinalsourceoftrustworthinesscanbefoundinthecharacteroftheparticipants

themselves.Fromtheimmediateonsetoftheinterviews,itwasapparentthatthiswasagroupof

confident,reflective,andextremelyintelligentindividualswhostronglybelievedinthevalueofthis

research.Participantswerecarefulintheirchoiceofwordsduringinterviews,beingsuretoselect

languagethattrulyreflectedtheirthoughtsandfeelings.Participantswerealsoveryawareofhowtheir

commentswerebeingreceivedandwerequicktocorrectanymisconceptionsormisunderstandings.

OrlickandPartington(1988)describedasimilarexperienceintheirresearchwithOlympicathletes.They

concludedthattheathleteswere“highlyself‐directed,autonomous,andsometimesassertivein

presentingtheirresponsesandclarifyingtheirviews”(p.4)andthat“itwouldbeextremelydifficult,if

notimpossible,tomanipulatetheresponsesofthesehighlevelOlympicachievers”(p.4).The

researcherisconfidentthatthestrategiesemployedthroughoutthisresearchprocess(member

checking,reflexivity,triangulation),coupledwiththestrongcharacteristicsoftheparticipantsandthe

opennessoftheinterviewers,haveresultedinatruthfulandtrustworthyinvestigation.


CHAPTER4

Results

ContextualDescription

Keytounderstandingandinterpretingtheresultsofthisinvestigationisaninformedperception

ofthemilitarycontextwithinwhichthesepilotsliveandperform.Stake(2005)stated,“Thecasetobe

studiedisacomplexentitylocatedinamilieuorsituationembeddedinanumberofcontextsor

backgrounds”.Whileitwasnotpossibletocompileanexhaustivenarrativeofthecontextgiventhe

shortdurationoftheresearcher’svisitto15WingMooseJaw,theinformationthatwasgatheredwillbe

presentedhere.Thecontextualdescriptionwillprovideabackdroptotheresearchresults,allowingfor

greaterdepthofunderstanding.EarlierinthisthesisabriefoverviewoftheCAForganizationwas

presentedtoclarifythetrainingprocessandgeneraloperations.Thefollowingaccountwillfocusmore

ontheday‐to‐dayproceduresandexperiencesofpilotsat15WingMooseJaw.Theinformation

presentedinthisdescriptionwasgatheredfromtheinductiveanalysisofinterviewdataaswellas

observationsmadeduringtheresearcher’svisittothebase.

Thepilotsstationedat15WingMooseJawarenotsimplypilots:Theyareinstructors,

supervisors,standardsofficers,flightsafetyofficers,coursedirectors,examiners,flightcommanders,

andmuchmore.Withmanyrolestofillandalimitedpoolofcandidatestodrawfrom,15WingMoose

Jawisacommunityconstantlyonthego.Whilethebasicroutinesofflightmayremainstableforthese

pilots,theirlivescertainlydonot.Themilitaryworldisasysteminconstantflux;jobduties,schedules,

andplacesofresidencecan(anddo)changewithlittleornowarning.Manyparticipantsdescribedlong

daysonthebase,littlefreetime,andafeelingofalwayshavingsomething‘onthehorizon’(e.g.,

upcomingtests,upgradingcertifications).Whilesomeparticipantsfeltthattheirjobdutieswere

reasonableindurationandintensity,manyexpressedfeelingsoffatigueandaninabilitytorecover


sufficiently.Oneparticipantdescribedhiscurrentenergylevelasworsethanwhenhewasontour

[deployment],stating:

TheproblemisIwork10to12hoursadayhere,soattheendoftheday,hereI’mactuallytired.

UnlikeAfghanistan,Itendtobevery,verytiredhereeveryday.Iwanttobe[exercising]alot

more,butIjusttruthfullyhaven’tbeeninthelastwhile.It’ssomethingIgottagetmyselfbackto

thatfocusagain.It’sterriblewhenyou’reonacourse,likeagainI’monthisFlyingInstructor

coursenowfortheHawk,andnowI’vegottobeastudentagain,moreorless.(Participant2)

Anotherparticipantdescribedtheeffectofthisexhaustiononhismentalperformance,commenting,

“Withthisjob,InevergettothatlevelthatIwannabeat,‘causeyou’reneverrefreshed.Soittakes

moreformetoabsorbtheinformationthen“(Participant1).

Notallaspectsoflifeat15WingMooseJawaresochangeable,however;infact,manythings

endure.Withinaveryshorttime,forexample,itisunmistakablyapparentthattheCAFisstillverymuch

amaledominatedcommunity.DNDpersonnelreadilydiscussthediscrepancy,notingthestepstakenin

recentyearstoimprovefemalerecruitmentlevelsandthepositivecontributionsandexperiencesof

femalepilots;however,thegendercompositionofthepilotcommunityappearsrelativelyunchanged.

ThevaluesespousedbyDNDandtheCAFalsoseemtoremain,stalwartandunwaveringthroughoutthe

years.Amongthemoreobviousofvaluesinstilledinrecruitsarediscipline,respect,andaccountability.

Lookingalittledeeper,onefindsthattheCAFalsoencouragesself‐directedlearningandinnovative

problemsolving.Whethertheywereawareofitornot,everypilotinterviewedspokeofatleastoneof

thesevaluesanddemonstratedothersintheiractions.Manyfoundutilityforthesevaluesinchallenging

situations,which,onecanonlyassume,ispreciselywhattheCAFintends.

Theflightsequenceitselfiscomprisedofthreemajorevents:thebrief,themission,andthe

debrief.Typicallyapilotisexpectedtoprepareforflightsonhis/herowntime.Thispreparationcan

includereviewingmanuals,procedures,maneuvers,andchecks(thestandardizedchecklistallpilots


mustrunthroughbeforetakingoff),aswellasanticipatingpotentialincidentsandemergencies.The

timespentonpreparationvarieswithapilot’slevelofexperienceandthetypeofmissiontobeflown.

Shortlybeforethescheduledtake‐off,thepilotwillattendabrief.Thepurposeofthebriefistoreview

theaimofthemission,addressoutstandingconcernsorquestions,andgenerallyreiterateimportant

information.Theproceduresoftheflightitselfcanvarywidelyandarecompletelydependantonthe

missiontype.Priortotake‐off,thepilotwillstrap‐inandquicklygothroughthechecksfrommemory.

Onceintheair,thepilotisincommunicationwithAirTrafficControl(ATC)forinformationregarding

otherairtrafficandlandingpermission.Ifflyingformation,thepilotwillalsobeincommunicationwith

otheraircraft,coordinatingmaneuvers.Whenflyingwithstudents,thepilotwilldemonstrate

maneuversortakecontrolinemergencieshowever,forthemajorityoftheflighthe/sheobservesand

analyzesthestudent’sactions.Immediatelyfollowingtheflight,thepilotwillattendadebriefwherein

everypossibledetailoftheflightwillbereviewed,generallywithmostoftheemphasisonmistakes

madeandhowtocorrectthosemistakesforfutureflights.Pilotsareexpectedtoimplementany

changesorcorrectionsresultingfromthisdebriefimmediately,toavoidfuturemistakesorrisks.

Participantsdescribedmanyrisksandsourcesofstressthattheyencounteredonanongoing

basis,bothinflightandontheground.Risksinflightincludedflyingwithothersatnight,contactwith

anotheraircraftduetodriftingorlimitedvision,pullingG’sandflyingwithstudents.Oneparticipant

noted,“Beingabletohandlethestressisobviouslyvery,veryimportant:thereisalotofstress,whether

oncourseorday‐to‐dayflying”(Participant13).Asidefromtherisksinvolvedinflying,oneofthemore

prevalentsourcesofstressseemedtobethebalancingofademandingworkenvironmentwithfamilyor

personallife.Participant4articulatedthischallenge:

Guysshowupherewiththeirfamily,somostofthoseguysnowhavetwostressors:theyhave

thecourseandthentheyhavetheirkidsortheirwifeorwhateverishappeningintheirlife.Soit


ismorechallenginginsomeaspects.Theyhavewings,they’repilots,butsometimesthey’re

workinghardandthey’rereallytired.

Intheircontinuedtraining,pilotsalsonotedstressorssuchasafeelingofconstantassessment

(specificallyflyingtheF‐18orwhentheywerestudents)andreceivingcriticism.Participant2

experiencedthestressofcriticisminatry‐outfortheSnowbirds:

That[Snowbirdstry‐out]wasprobablyoneoftheharderthingsI’vehadtodoasanaviator.I’m

usedtotellingmyselfthatIsuckatcertaintimes,buttohave20peopleinaroomandsome

otherguytellingyouhowbadlyyousuckinfrontofeverybodyisjust,wow.Sothatwas

probablyoneoftheharderonesinmycareersofar.

Asalways,however,theCAFhasareasonbehinditsways.Theymakenoattempttohidetheblatant

tacticsthroughwhichtheypushtheirpilotstothelimits.Infact,itisquitetheopposite.

Allpilotswereawarethatmanyofthestressorsandchallengestheyfacedwerepresentedin

theinterestsofservingahigherpurpose:tocreateathinkingpilot.Oneparticipantnoted,“memorizing

everythingisonlygoodforthosethingsconfrontingtheobjective,theexpectations,whereasinaviation

it’ssoencompassingthatwehavetobeabletorespond–identify,respond,andthinkthatway”

(Participant6).Thus,theCAFmaybeanenvironmentthatisfraughtmanydifferentkindsofstressors,

butallpilotsunderstandthatthiswillmakethembetteraviatorsintheend.

Butyousee,inourtraininghere,wecannotduplicateallthesethings[deploymentstressors].

Whatwecandoistryourbesttosimulatetheeffectthatallthoseincidentalpressuresaregonnahave

onthebodyandonthemind,andthroughdifferentmechanisms,andsimulatethatinsidethecockpit.So

wewillpushthem.Wewill.Andnottothebreakpoint,becausewehavetobuildtheirconfidenceas

well,sothey’vegottobeabletocomeoutoftheaircraftsaying‘todayyouthrewafewthingsatmeand

Isucceeded’.Butwewillnotsatisfyourselveswiththatsuccess.Wewantthemtoexperiencetheirlimits

andwe’lltakethemtotheirlimits.Andwewilldebriefthemandwewillsay‘hey,you’vegotsomepretty


stronglimits’andit’snotabout,youknow,whenwetookyoutoStage4or5,thistripisnotaboutthe

factthatyoufailedatstage5,it’saboutthefactthatyouwentverysmoothlytoStage4ofthis

emergency.Soitneedstobeexplainedtothemthattheyneedtobuildonallthesuccessesthatthey

havetoacertainpoint.AndtheyneedtounderstandthathadtheysuccessfullycompletedStage5,we

wouldhavepushedittothebreakingpoint.Sowehaveajob.Wehavetotellthemthatwe’regonna

pushthemandwehavetotellthemthatwe’regoingtoexpectthatatsomepointintime,thingsare

gonnasnap.That’sokay.Howdiditfeel?(Participant16)

Commitment

Theelementofcommitmentispresentedindependentlyofthethreetemporalphases(pre‐

flight,missionexecution,post‐flight)becausethiselementseemedtoextendbeyondanysinglephaseof

flight.Commitmentwasalsoclearlypresentpriortotheparticipants’employmentinthemilitary.All15

pilotsspokeoftheimportanceofdetermination,perseverance,dedication,andfocustowardspursuing

certainobjectives.Pilotsdirectedtheircommitmentbymaintainingafocusontheirgoalofbecomingan

excellentmilitarypilot.Participantsalsoactedontheircommitmentinspecificandpositiveways,by

makingdecisionsandselectingroutesorroutinesthatcouldpossiblyleadtotheirobjective.Participants

describedcommitmentintermsofthreeobjectives:commitmenttotheirdream,commitmentto

preparation,andcommitmenttoexcellence.

CommitmenttotheDream

Severalparticipantsindicatedthatfromaveryyoungagetheyhaddreamedofflyingairplanes.

Theyreadferventlyandworkedhardatschooltobolstertheirchancesofattainingthatdream.

Participant14describedhiscommitmentasfollows:

WhereIstartedwasoneofthoseairshows...Iwaswithmyfather,hetookmethere,andItold

himthat’swhatIwantedtodo,lookingupintheair...IthinkIwassevenoreight.Andthenit

neverstoppedfromthatpointon,that’sexactlywhatIwantedtodothewholetime.Sogoing


Table3.OrganizationofResultsPhase Theme Category Sub‐category

Commitment Commitmenttothedream

Commitmenttopreparation

Commitmenttoexcellence Funandenjoyment Pre‐flight Focus

MentalReadinessReviewingandretainingflightinformation

Buildingcapacity Learningfromothers

Planningforunplannedevents

MentalImagerySimulatorsandalternativementalrehearsal

Chairflying Clearandrealisticdetails Involvingthesenses

Practicingroutineprocedures DistractionControl Environmentalconditions Stressmanagement Heavyworkload Flightteststress Recovery Missionexecution Focus Inthemoment Situationalawareness Capacity Connectedfocus Positivefocus Focusingthroughemergencies Automaticactions Taskorientedfocus Adaptation Distractioncontrol Verbalcues Refocusing Compartmentalization Prioritization Confidence Confidenceinabilities Confidenceinfellowpilots Confidenceinsafety Stressmanagement Flightteststress Ongoinglearning Post‐flight Ongoinglearning Personaldebrief Groupdebrief Less‐than‐bestperformance Stressmanagement Dealingwithcriticism Recovery Deployment


toschoolIhadthatideainmymind,thereforeIknewIhadtohavegoodmarks...bedynamic

andsoon;becausethosewereallthethingstheForceswerelookingforinofficers.

Othersfoundtheirinterestinandpassionforflightlaterinlife,butstilldisplayedsimilarlevelsof

commitmentintheirtrainingtothosewhohadsetthisgoalatayoungerage.Someparticipants

describedobstaclesintheirjourney,forexample,ingainingadmissiontotheUPTSorreceivingtheir

desiredpostingwithintheCAF.Participant4discovered,uponcompletingpilotcollege,thatnojobs

wereavailableineitherthecivilianormilitarysectors.Hethenchosetoattendpoliceacademy,butwas

forcedtotakeajobasatruckdriverwhileinschooltopayhistuition.Severalyearslaterhefinally

receivedthecallhehadbeenwaitingforfromthemilitary.Referringtohischallengingcareerjourney,

hestated,“Thatwashard.ButInevergaveup.Evenmyfriendsbackhome,theycan’tbelievehow

muchIhadtostruggletomakeit[to]whereIamnow.ButInevergaveup”.

Participantsalsodescribedanattitudeofnotwantingtofail,whichseemedtoelevatetheir

levelsofcommitment.Participant1wasexpelledfromapilotcollegeafterfailingtoachievearequired

testscore,eventhoughthescorehereceivedwastechnicallyapassinggrade.Herecalled:

SothenIjoinedthemilitary.AndIrememberwhenIgothere[UPTS],havingreallyagoodkick

inthearsefromthat[pilotcollege]thinking‘manIworkedhardtooandIstillfailed,yetpassed’.

...IknewwhenIgothere,Iwasnotgoingtofail.SoIspentmoretimestudyingthanmost

peopleonthiscoursebecauseIneededtosomehowgrowuporfigureouthowtopass.And

that’swhenIstartedtotrytovisualize,gettingupearlyinthemorningtostudyandallofthat.

(Participant1)

Oncetheseparticipantshadidentifiedtheirdreamofbecomingapilot,theyremainedcommittedto

thatdreamregardlessofthetimeittookandthesacrificesrequired.Twoparticipantsdidpointoutthat

flyingwasnottheirdreamcareer,however,theirlevelofcommitmenttothetrainingprocesswasequal

tothatofotherparticipants.


Inthesamewaythatparticipantscommittedtotheirdreamofflyingwiththemilitary,theyalso

expressedastrongcommitmenttoother,moregeneralgoalsinmilitaryandpersonallife.Forexample,

participantsdescribedcommittingtothegoalofamissionandsimplygoingforit,notholdinganything

back.Participantsalsodescribedcommittingtolaboriousortime‐consumingtasksoutsideofflying.

It’saculture.ThecultureisyouwillnotfailbecausethePrimeMinisteristheonewhoactually

comestoyouandsays‘you’rethelastresort–youneedtofixthisorweloseasanation’.Well

tomethat’sprettyclear.I’mnotgoingtolose,nomatterwhat.Failureisnotanoption?Alright.

SoIhavetobereadynomatterwhat.Andthatishoweveryguyatthatunitthinks,soyoujust

evolvetothatortheyfireyou–it’soneofthosetwo.(Participant1)

Ithink[doingtheIronMan]helpsme,becauseI’vegonethroughthatwholeprocess.Youknow,

whenyou’reoutthereontheroadthatlongduringtheday,youhaveyourhighsandyourlows

andyoujustkeepmoving,right?Andyouseethatit’sallgonnabegoodintheend,aslongas

youkeepfocusedandkeepdrivingtowardsthegoals.Sothatseemstohelp.(Participant8)

It’salsoinnateIguessbecauseIusedtodohugeprojectsbymyselfallthetime.Ialwayshave

groundawayatonething.LikeIasked[myparents]whenIwas10yearsoldifIcouldmakea

pondonthesideoftheiryard,andtheydidn’tthinkIwould,sotheysaid‘sure,digapondhere’

andtheyputmeinthebushes.AndIsatoutthereforliketwomonthsandduga15‐foot

around,3‐footdeeppondwhenIwasonlylike11yearsold.AndIsetlightsupsoIcoulddoitat

night.Sothey’vealwaysjustsortoflinedmeupwithsomethingandthenIjustchipawayatit

untilit’sdone.SoIguessit’skindofapersonalitything,too.(Participant3)

Withagoalinmind,whetheritwasthefinishlineofarace,amissionobjective,orthedateofan

importantupgrade,participantswereabletomaintainthatfocusandfollowthroughtocompletion.

Formany,asourceofexternalsupport,primarilyfamily,seemedtobeessentialtothislevelof

commitment.Participant12simplystated,“Myfamilyhasbeenwithmethewholetime.Itwouldhave


suckedwithoutsupport”.Fortheseparticipants,familiesprovidedencouragement,ahome

environmentwheretheycouldwork(sometimes)withoutdistraction,andasourceofstressrelief.Many

spoke(withobviousappreciation)ofaspouseorafamilywhohadmovedsothattheycouldpursue

theirmilitaryflyingcareer.Havingasupportivefamilyseemedtofreetheparticipantstofullycommitto

theirgoals,withoutholdingback.

CommitmenttoPreparation

Throughouttheirtrainingandflyingcareers,participantsdescribedastrongcommitmentto

learningaboutandpreparingthemselvesforflight.Participant1describedhisattitudetowardsstudying

(whenhewasastudent)asanobsession.Hestated,“Youlived,ateandbreathedflyingandstudying”.

Participantsalsoexpressedakeendesiretolearnandmadeahabitofseekingoutopportunitiestodo

so.Participant9stated,“WhenIwentthroughhere[UPTS]Iwasn’tagreatstudent,Iwasn’tlikethat

Mr.Superiorguythatcamethroughhereandhadaneasytime;Iworkedhard”.Participantshad

differingviewsoftheirownacademicabilities:somerecalledhavingtoexertaconsiderableamountof

energyintheirstudies,whileothersfoundaspectslikememorizationcamefairlyeasily.Regardlessof

theiracademicprowess,however,manyindicatedthattheytrulywantedtolearn.

Iwasgettingthesecrappygradesand–he[instructor]wasthefirstguyIflewformationwithon

theHawk–andthatwasthefirstformationexperienceI’dhadsincetheHarvard,whereIdidn’t

doverywell.SoIwasgettingallthese‘achievedstandard’,‘achievedstandard’,‘achieved

standard’grades,andthenIflewwithsomebodyelseandIgota‘standardexceeded’.SoIwent

frommiddleoftheroadgrade,likeaC,tothebestgrade,likeanA.AndI’mlike‘huh.MaybeI

amdoingallright’.BecauseIdidn’tflythatmuchbetterforthe[second]guy,soitkindofclued

meinthatokay,yeah,[nameremoved]isjustbeingahardass.Butyouknow,sobeit,becauseI

gotbetter....ItpissedmeoffbecauseIwantedtogetgoodgrades,buthewasagoodguytofly


with.Hewasn’tascreamer;hehadgoodtipstogiveme.Hewasteachingmealot.SoIenjoy

flyingwiththosekindsofguysevenifmygradesaren’tthatgreat.(Participant10)

IndescribingtheirexperiencesintheUPTS,participantsrecalledthattheywereconstantlystudying.

Mosttookoneorbothdaysoftheweekendtorecover,butduringtheweektherewasnoescaping.

Welleveryhourintheairplaneisabout12hoursofpreparation,asastudent,becausethereis

somuchtolearn.Justtogiveyouanexample,theTDC[ThrottleDesignatorControl]ontheF‐

18,whichisasmallswitchonthethrottle,thatincombinationwithanotheroneonthethrottle,

there’s105functions,soitgetsalittleoverwhelming.Soyouhavetostudyalotforeverysmall

one‐hourtripyoudointhatairplane.Andeverybody’sthesame.Wejuststudiedourassoff.

Workedhard.(Participant4)

Asstudents,theirliveswereconsumedbythedesiretolearnandprepareforthenextflight.Many

describedreviewingmaneuversandprotocolsuntiltheyweredrilledintotheirminds.Participant5

recalledthathewould“chairflythemaneuveruntilIcoulddoitinmysleep”.Thecommitmenttothis

processenabledthesepilotstospendexceptionalamountsoftimepreparing.

Aspilotsandpilotinstructors,manyparticipantsstilldemonstratedthisincrediblecommitment

topreparationintheirongoingquesttolearn,improveandre‐learn.Participant15foundopportunities

tocontinuetolearnthroughtheregulardutiesofbeingapilotinstructor:“Imarkeverybody’sexams,so

I’mlearningwhileIdothatorreviewingmyselfwhileIdothat.Soyou’repickingupthosepiecesalong

theway”.Participant9sharedhisphilosophyonlearning,stating“Oncethey[students]gettheirwings–

Icallitalicensetolearn,nowyouhavealicensetore‐learnandyouwon’tbefloggedsomuch–ittakes

thepressureoffanditbecomesabetter,oraneasierlearningenvironment”.Aspilotsbecomemore

experiencedandgainfamiliaritywiththeaircraftandmaneuvers,thepreparationrequiredbeforeeach

flightdiminishes.Allparticipants,however,retainedthatcommitmentandstillengagedinsomelevelof

meaningfulpreparation.


Idon’treallypreparethatmuchanymore,asmuchasIusedto.ForacheckrideorsomethingI

will.Ifthere’ssomethingneworsomethingthatIhaven’tdoneinalongtime,maybe,on

coursesandstuffI’llprepare,butnotasmuchanymore.I’llthinkaboutitalittlebitandjust

comeupwithaflow,sothenIkindofknowwhat’scomingup.ButotherthanthatIdon’tdo

muchanymorebecauseI’velookedatitallathousandtimes.(Participant12)

Allparticipantsdemonstratedacommitmenttoalearningandpreparationroutinethat,while

significantlymorepronouncedduringtheirtrainingasstudents,hasremainedwiththemovertime.

CommitmenttoExcellence

Inthesamewaythatparticipantscommittedtoachievingtheirflyingdreamandtolearningand

preparingateveryopportunity,theyalsocommittedtoachievingthehighestlevelofpersonal

excellencepossible.Manyparticipantsfeltthattheyhadmadeadeliberatechoicetoachievetheirown

personalbestasapilot.

Ithinkyoucanchoosetoperformwell....Ithinkyoucanchoosetoatleastsetyourselfupfor

success.Youcan’tcontroleverything,butyoucanatleastputyourselfinthebeststateofmind

oremotionally,physicallyreadytoperform.(Participant8)

I’llgiveyouanotherexamplethatyoumightbeawareof:theairplanethatcrashednearBuffalo

liketwoyearsago.Thosetwoyoungpilots...WhatIcan’tbelieveisthattheythoughtthatthey

hadalltheknowledgewhentheydidn’t.Becausetheycalledfortheice,theylookedattheice,

andyettheydidtheexactoppositethattheyneededtodotokeepthatairplaneflying.Andfor

me,that’sscarybecauseIknowwhattodo.Icouldhavetakenthatairplanewithnotraining

[specifictothataircraft]andbroughtitontherunway.AndIcanguaranteethatIwouldhave

doneit.Buttheydidtheexactoppositethatwasrequired.Sotheyhadamajorlackoftraining

tobewheretheywere....Theyjustgottheirjob,theywerehappywheretheywere,andthey

knewtheywouldslowlygoupbecausethat’showitisinthecivilian[airlines],it’sjustby


numberorseniority.Youdon’tneedtobegood.Youjustneedtobein.Andonceyou’rein,you

moveup.AirForce?Noway.Theydon’tcarewhoyouare,theydon’tcarewhenyougotin;it’s

allaboutskillsandhowmuchyou’rewillingtogivetomakeitupthere.Becauseattheendof

theday,we’reallpaidthesame.SoeventhoughI’matthetopofmygamerightnow,theguys

thatarejuststarting,thatareCaptains,aremakingroughlythesameasme...Us,it’snotabout

money.It’saboutpride;it’saboutdoingagoodjob.(Participant4)

Participantsdescribedwantingtoknowthatiftheyfailed,itwouldnotbeforlackofpreparationor

effortontheirpart.Manydescribedadesiretoachievethehighestcategorypossible,andallwere

constantlystrivingtobecomebetterpilots.Theseparticipantsdidnotwanttobegoodpilots;they

wantedtobethebestpilotspossible.

FunandEnjoyment

Funandenjoymentseemedtostrengthenthelevelofcommitmentfeltbyparticipants.Most

participantsspecificallyidentifiedaspectsofflyingfromwhichtheydrewpositivefeelings.Forallpilots,

evidenceofthisenjoymentcouldbeseenandheardinthewaytheyspokewhenrecallingcertainevents

ordiscussingvariousaspectsoftheirjobs.

Itdefinitelyis[stressful].Butthepeoplethatdo[this]jobabsolutelyloveit.Soitdoesn’tfeel

likework,youknowwhatImean?I’msurethisstuffisfascinatingforyou,whatyou’redoingfor

your[degree]andallthatstuff,butmaybeitdoesn’tfeellikeworktoyouwhenyou’redoingit.

It’sthesamethingformewhenIdothefighterflying.(Participant5)

Ijustlovedthemilitaryaspectofdisciplineandstufflikethat.AndthelocalCadetunitjust

happenedtobeanAirCadetunit...Andthenbasicallytheseedwassown.(Participant11)

Attimes,participantsfeltthattheycouldmakeachoicetofeelpositivelyaboutflying.Thiswas

especiallyimportantduringchallengingsituations,suchaswhenexperiencingdifficultywithacourseor

whenfeelingstressedbywork‐relatedpressures.


TheolderIget[themoreI]understandthatlifeisshortandifyoufocusonthethingsthatdon’t

reallymakeanydifferencetoyourlife,thenyou’llhaveaprettyshittylife.SonowIjustfocuson

comingtoworkwithasmileonmyface,goinghome,seeingmykidslaughingandgiggling.

(Participant5)

Youknow[failingtheF‐18coursebecauseofvisionproblems]actuallymadeiteasier,because

it’salmostlikethat’sjustthewayitis.Itmadeiteasierformetoacceptthathey,I’mjust

supposedtobehere.I’msupposedtobehereattheBig2teaching...Andthatgoesbacktome

makingthedecisiontofocusonthepositive.AndIdecidedthatIwassupposedtobehere

whichmadeiteasierformetofocusonthegoodtimeIgothereasopposedto‘Ishouldbe

flyingfighters’,grumble,grumble.(Participant10)

Manypilotsstatedthatiftheyeverstoppedhavingfun,theywouldknowthattheirtimeinthemilitary

wasup.

Forsomeparticipants,positiveexperienceswhentheywereyoungerwereresponsiblefor

engagingtheirheartsandmindsinthepursuitofmilitaryaviation.Pilotsdescribedmemoriesofspecial

outingswithparentstoseeairshowsorflyingwithafamilymemberwhohadaprivatelicense.

OneofmycousinshadasmallairplaneandhewasspottingfiresinNewBrunswicksohewas

flyingforthegovernmentofNewBrunswick,spottingfiresinthesummertime.Iwentupwith

himacoupletimes,soIthoughtitwascool.(Participant7)

Someofthesepilotsalsoseemedtocomefromstrong,supportivefamilyunitswheretheaviation

dreamsinvokedbythesefirstexperienceswereencouraged.Participantscontinuedtoexperiencethese

positiveflighteventsthroughouttheircareers.

Youdefinitelygetmomentswhereyou’reelatedandyoujustkindofgoalongandyou’relike

‘thisisawesome’.LikeIgottoleadasix‐ship[formationflightwithsixaircraft]theotherdayfor


agraduation,sosixairplanes,fiveflyingoffyouandyou’redoingfly‐bys.Imean,you’repretty

happyaboutthat.(Participant8)

It’sjustbeingupintheair.Ithinkit’sjustajobthatisentirelydifferentfromeverybodyelseand

everydayIgoupandI’mlike‘thisisawesome,Igetpaidtodothis’.Andalotofpeopleactually

payjusttogoupandhavefunjustforafewhours,we’regettingpaidtodothateveryday,and

it’sjustamazing.(Participant7)

Theseparticipantsfoundjoyintheiropportunitiestoengageinuniqueformationflightsorindividual

missions,orsimplyfromfeelingfree,travelingthroughtheair,abovetheearth.

Otherparticipantsdescribedpositivefeelingstowardscertainspecificaspectsoftheirjobs,such

asworkinginacrewenvironment.

Ilovedit[flyingmultiengine];itwasgood...IreallyenjoyedmytimeontheAurora,Igottodoa

lotoftraveling,Ilikedthecrewenvironmentbecauseagainitwasasupervisoryand

managementposition.(Participant15)

Ibelieve,fromwhatI’veseenandfromwhatI’vebeenexperiencing,thatthisisthebestjob.

EverythingthatIwasexpectingandmore,bothontheofficerside,leadershipwise,becauseyou

gettohaveabunchofextremelymotivated,youngindividuals,andolder,workingforyou,

whethertheyareexperiencedinstructorsorstudents.Thereisalwayssomethingdifferent,

alwayssomechallenges.(Participant14)

Theexperienceofconstantlybeingchallengedwasalsoverysatisfyingformanyparticipants.Challenges

cameinmanyforms,suchasinstructingorcompletingdifficultmissionsorflights.

Irememberwehadablast.[Thetrainingexercise]wasverysuccessful,exceptforoneguythat

didn’tfollowtheinstructionsandheendeduprunningoutofgas.Sohehadtogoback,sowe

endedupfinishingthefightwithonlythreeguys.Andwejustmadefunofhim,andheendedup


withanewcallsign.Sothere’salwayssomethinglikethat.Butitwasveryexhilarating,knowing

thatyoumadeitwork,andit’sfun.It’sverychallenging.Westilltalkaboutit.(Participant4)

Theteachingisreallyfun,especiallywhenyouget–andhere’sthewhole‘Ilikeachallenge’

thing–astudentthat’shavingdifficultiesandyougettohelpfixthemandhelpthemovercome

thatproblemandseetheirconfidenceimprovebecauseofit.It’ssatisfying.(Participant15)

IwouldsaythatIdefinitelypreferredtoberunningatfullspeedwiththecrazyspecial‐opsguys.

..Becauseitismymentality.Idon’tlikebadguystowin.(Participant1)

Inwhatevertheyweredoing,theseparticipantsenjoyedachallengeandtheCAFpresentedthemwith

plentyofopportunitiestopushthemselves.Thesechallengeskeptthemfocused,energized,and

engaged,enhancingtheirdrivetodowhateverwasrequiredtosucceed.

Pre‐Flight

Focus

Animportantpartofthepre‐flightpreparationforallpilotswasbringinganeffectivefocusinto

thepreparationroutine.Fivepilotsreferredtotheterm“focus”asaskillthatwasimportantduring

theirpreparation,howeveritwasevidentfromtheirdescriptionsofstudytechniquesandchairflying

thatafocusedconnectionwasanintegralcomponentforeachparticipant.Akeycharacteristicofan

effectivefocuswasbeinginthemoment.Duringtheirpre‐flightpreparationparticipantswerenot

thinkingaboutirrelevanteventsofthepastorthefuture,butweretotallyabsorbedinwhattheywere

doingatthattime.

ItuneouttheentireworldandI’mflyingmymissionasI’mwalkingaroundmybasement.My

kidswillcomedownstairs,theymightaskmesomethingandI’llanswerthem,butI’mstilldoing

mychecksandI’llbewalking,literally,walkingaroundmybasement.(Participant1)

Iflusheverythingelse[whenpreparingforatest].Igetridofeverythingelseinmylife,it

becomesnotasimportantduringthattime....everythingelsekindofoutsideofworkor


associatedwithworkgetspushedtotheside.SoI’llcanceleverything,justwon’tgotoanything,

andmywife’sprettystellarthatway.I’llgolockmyselfinaroomfrom6:30to10:30,‘nobody

bugme’.Andwehavetripsplannedorthingsplanned–itallgetscancelled.Justuntilit’sdone.

Andthenonceit’sdone,it’sdone.SoIjustkindofdelverightintothatandthenleave

everythingelsealoneandworryaboutitlater.(Participant12)

ButusuallyI’minastateoffocuswhenIdoit[chairflying],whetherit’slyingdowninbedor

driving.It’sprobablybadtosaythat[laughs]....Youjusthavetositdownandnotbedistracted.

Icouldn’tdoitinfrontoftheTVoranythinglikethat;Ihavetodoitinquiet.(Participant15)

Participantswereawareofwhattheyneededtodotoeffectivelyachievethistypeoffocusandwould

takestepstoensurethatthecorrectconditionswereinplace(e.g.,removingthemselvesfroma

distractingenvironment).

Participant12explicitlynotedapositiveelementtohisfocusexperiencesinthepre‐flight

preparation.Mostoftheparticipantsimpliedthatitwasapositiveexperiencewhentheywerefocused

inpreparation;however,onlyParticipant12describedthesepositivefeelings.Hestatedthathefound

chairflyingcalmingandwhenaskedifhefeltthathewasfullyfocusedduringthesetimeshereplied

“Yeah.It’sanotherweirdtimethatI’mniceandrelaxed”.Forthisparticipant,astateoffocuswas

characterizedbytheabsenceoftension.

Participantsalsodescribedtheirpre‐flightpreparationfocusasbeingofthesamequalityas

theirperformancefocus;theywouldengagewiththesamehighleveloffocusintheirmentalrehearsal

astheywouldintheirmissionexecution.

There’snowaytosimulate[anenginefire]inreallife,butinthesimulator...I’lldothe

maneuvers.AndIexercisemyselfinthesameway:Idon’ttakeitnonchalantly.Ijustbreathe,

‘okay,this,this.Okay,co‐pilotdothis,navigatordothis’andthenI’llactionafewotherthings.


SoItryandkeepitasclosetoasifIwoulddoitinreallife.I’veonlyhadonetrue[enginefire]

experiencereallife.(Participant11)

Participant12alsostatedthatwhenpreparingitwasimportanttofullyengageasonewouldinaflight.

Hecommented,“Don’tpayitlipservice:actuallystudyit”.

MentalReadiness

Akeycomponentforallpilotsduringthepre‐flightpreparationwasensuringthattheywere

mentallyreadytoexecutetheirmissiontothebestoftheirabilities.All15pilotsdiscussedtheconcept

ofmentalreadinessthroughideassuchascapacitybuilding,studying,andanticipatingvariousaspects

oftheflight.Thispreparationwasespeciallyimportantinachievingsuccessandimprovingskillsasa

student.Pilotsusedvariousskillsandstrategiestoachievethisgoal,andallclearlyemphasizedthe

importanceofthispreparation.

Preparation,Ireallythink,waswhatit’sallabout.Soeventothisday,ifIknowI’mnotgoingto

flyforaweekIwillalwaysgobacktothebooksthatthestudentsuseandthatIused,andIwill

re‐readthebooks.BecausenevershouldI–eventhoughmydayispredominantlyrunningthe

[flight]schoolandalltheissuesthatgowiththat–nevercanIgotoacockpitandnotbe

prepared.(Participant1)

Participantsdescribedthedevelopmentoftheirmentalreadinessasbeingdrivenbyseveralimportant

elements:reviewingwrittenmaterial(e.g.,flightproceduresandmaneuvers),buildingtheircapacity

(i.e.,theabilitytoattendtomultiplestimuli),learningfromothers,planningforunplannedevents,and

engaginginmentalimagery(whichincludedvisual,auditoryandkinestheticcomponents).

Reviewingandretainingflightinformation

Manyparticipantsindicatedthattherevisionofpertinentmaterialallowedthemtofeel

comfortableandconfidentbeforetheflight.Participantsfeltthatthroughtheirreviewprocess,they

wereabletoformulateaplanfortheflightandwerebetterequippedtodealwithsurprises.


Ithinkit’sacombinationofIknowwhattoexpect,Iknowwhatthesurprisescanbe,Iknow

whatIneedtodo.Yeah.It’salmostlikegoingthroughtheflightmentallybefore,withoutreally

thinkingaboutit.Withoutreallysittingdownandgoingthroughit.Butbeingcomfortablewith

whatwillhappen.(Participant13)

Notonlydidtheyreviewtheirmaterial,butpilotsalsotookextrastepstoensurethattheyunderstood

allofthecomplexitiesandwereabletoretainthatinformationforuseinflight.

Severalpilotsexplainedhowtheysimplifiedthematerialbybreakingitdownintosmaller

pieces,allowingthemtocommitittomemorymoreeasily.Anothertechniqueusedtosimplifytheoften

complicatedorabstractinformationwastolinkittosomeconceptorskillthatwasalreadyfamiliar.

Ijustblockthingsupintopieces;Iguessthat’sthebestwaytosayit.Everything’sblockedup

intoprocedures,likeyouproceduralizeeverything.Whenyou’rememorizing,likeachecklist,I

wouldalwaysblockitintopieces.(Participant15)

Youtrytolinkeverythingtosomethingelsethat[youorthestudentshave]seenordoneor

know.Everythingnew,wellyouknowhowtodothisbecauseyou’vedonethis,soit’slike

somethingyouknow...gobacktosomethingyouknow.(Participant12)

Throughthesemethodsofsimplification,participantsenhancedtheirunderstandingandretentionofa

staggeringamountofcomplexinformation.Linkingorbreakingdownmaterialwasanefficientand

effectivewaytostudy;oncepilotshaddeterminedthis,theystuckwiththesemethodsthroughouttheir

trainingandflyingcareers.

Somepilotsalsomentionedprioritizationasatechniqueintheirpre‐performancepreparation.

Participant3describedastudyroutinethatheusedfrequently:

FirstIslowlyrunthroughalltheinformationIthinkispertinenttotheflight.Itryandbeas

carefulasIcantogothroughoursimple,directprocedureslikehowtoflythemaneuver.And

thenanythingassociatedwiththatmaneuver,likeforinstanceifwe’regoingtogooutanddoa


solocheckItrytorunthroughalltheordersandfindoutwhatassociateswithasolocheck.And

thenItryandputitintomyown[words]...soIcanunderstandwhatI’vegonethrough.ThenI

tryandre‐orderittorunastheflightwillrun....SoIorganizethestudypackageandthenItry

andskimitdownasmuchaspossible;ItryandcrossoutstuffthatIthinkwillnotbeuseful

informationuntilhopefullyIhave[everythingIneed]–likerightnowI’mgoingtodoafour‐ship

[aformationflightwithfouraircraft]thisafternoon,myfirstfour‐shipworkupflight,andI’ve

kindofpaireditdowntoabout10pagesofinformationthatI’mhopingistheinformationthatI

shouldhavestudied.

Usingthesetechniques,participantswereabletomemorizealloftherequiredproceduresandtechnical

information,andbegantoanticipatepossiblesequencesofeventsfortheupcomingflight.Thisallowed

themtofeelprepared,comfortableandconfident.

Buildingcapacity

Mostparticipantsnotedtheimportanceofcapacityinthesuccessfulexecutionofamission.For

thepurposesofthisinvestigation,capacityisdefinedasone’sabilitytoeffectivelyattendtomultiple,

oftendynamic,variables.Participantsmadeaconsciouseffortthroughtheirpreparationtoenhancethis

ability,whichwouldallowthemtoperformmoresafelyandefficientlyinflight.Onesimpletechnique

thatfourpilotinstructorsreportedusingandrecommendingtotheirownstudentswastoengageina

secondaryactivitywhilereviewingprotocolsorperformingmentalimagery.

Iusedtodomyredpageswhilejuggling.Myredpagesare[proceduresfor]criticalemergencies,

likeyouhavetosaythemoutloud,byheart.SoIusedtojuggleandthendomyredpages[at

thesametime]orcookdinnerandthensomebodyasksyou[i.e.,testsyourknowledgeofthe

redpages]....Ifyoualwaysgothroughyourprocedureswhenthere’snootherdistractions,well

yougooutthereobviouslyyou’regonnagetdistractions.Thetowercontrollerwillcallyou,


there’sgonnabeatrafficconflictsomewhere,there’sgonnabeabunchofdifferentthings.So

it’sgoodtogooverprocedureswhileyou’redistracted.(Participant7)

Participant11describedincorporatingthatconditionofmultipleinputsdirectlyintohismentalimagery

routines,practicingthesequenceinwhichhewouldattendtovariousstimuli:

Some[pilots]arejustbetterthanothers[atdoing]acoupleofthingsatthesametime.Butyou

canpracticeit.Whenyougothroughtraining,wehavesomethingcalledchairflying;it’s

basicallyyousitdownandyoufocus,yougothroughacertainmaneuver[imaginingitinyour

mind],butyoucanpracticethat‘okaywhenI’mdoingthisI’mgonnadothat,lookouthere,look

outthere,dothis,dothat’,soyoucanpracticethattoacertainlevel.

Pilotsexplainedthatthiscapacitywasanimportantpartoftheirmentalreadinessasitallowedthemto

carryouttheirproceduresinflightinafluidmanner,oftenwithoutlookingorconsciouslythinkingabout

whattheyweredoing.Participant1commented,“ifyoucannotgoflyingandprocedureshappen

withouteventhinkingofthembecausealltheotherstuff’scomingonyourplate,you’regoingtofail”.

Learningfromothers

Anextremelyvaluablesourceofinformationformanyparticipantswastheexperienceand

insightofotherpilotsandstudentpilots.Participantsdescribedseekingoutotherpilotswhenpreparing

foranewprojectormissiontogatherrelevantinformation.Often,participantsfoundithelpfultospeak

withseveraldifferentpilots,allofwhomhadexperiencewiththeirparticulartaskorchallenge.

Ifyoulistentowhatotherguyshavegonethrough,andmaybemadeamistake,thenyouwon’t

makethatsamemistake....ImightmakeonemistakeandeverythingelseisokaysoImight

thinkthat’showyoudoit,whenanotherguymightgodothesamemissionandmakea

differentmistakethatIdidn’teventhinkabout.Youhavetotalktothatotherguytokeep

learningaboutwhattodoandwhatnottodo.Ithinkthat’sincrediblyimportant.(Participant5)


There’sanawfullotofconversations,inourflightanyways;it’slike‘wewentupandthisguydid

thesethings’and‘whatshouldItellhim?’Andyoucandrawonotherpeople’sexperienceand

there’scertainlyalotmoreexperiencedinstructorsthanme.Butthey’llkindofadd‘wellwhen

hedidthis,didthesethingshappen?’and‘thisiskindofacommonmalfunctionwiththis

maneuver’.Andit’squiteinteresting,the‘aha’[moment].It’salmostlikebeinganinternIguess.

(Participant9)

Theongoingdialoguebetweenpilotsandstudentpilotsseemedtofocusmainlyontheavoidanceof

potentialmistakesandspecifictipsortricksthatwereusefulincompletingvarioustaskssuccessfully.

Pilotsusedthistechniqueoflearningfromothersinpreparationformissionsasstudents,pilots,and

instructorpilots.

Whenpreparingforaparticularlychallengingevent,participantsspecificallynotedseekingout

informationfromothers.

I’vehadthingsthrownatmeacoupletimestooquickly...Whichwasdauntingand

overwhelming.ButIendedupdoingokaywithit....Atfirstit’slike‘holyshit,really?’because

that’sprettyfast.Andthenafterthat,Isearchforotherguysfortheinformationtheyhaveand

thenjustgohomeandstudy.(Participant12)

Gatheringinformationfromothersbeforeanexceptionallychallengingorunexpectedtaskempowered

participantstofeelmorecomfortablewiththeircapacitytosucceed.

Twopilotsalsomadeapointofmentioningtheimportanceoflisteningtoothersonaday‐to‐

daybasis.

IremembergoingthroughaphaseinmyyouthwhereIrealizedtherearepeoplethattalkand

don’tlisten,andtherearepeoplethatsitthereandlisten[but]don’ttalk.Andintheperfect

situation,neitherofthoseisagooddeal.AndIwentthroughaconsciouspointofmylifewhere

Iwasprobablyinclinedtotalkmoreandnotlisten,andIforcedmyselftobetheonewholistens


themost.Ithinkbydoingthat,ImayhavetrainedmyselforImayhavebecomemoreobservant

thanwhatIwouldhavenaturallybeenifIhadn’tconcentratedonthat.(Participant5)

Bylisteningattentivelytoothers,participantsopenedthemselvestomanymorelearningopportunities.

Participant5alsofoundthatbylisteningtoothers,hewasabletopinpointissues,provideeffective

adviceandhelpthemtolearn.

Planningforunplannedevents

Participantsemphasizedtheimportanceofplanningforpossibleincidentsandemergencies

beforeaflight.Thisprocesswouldincludethinkingaboutpotentialcircumstancestheymayencounter

(gatheredfromtextbooksorotherpilots’experiences),howtheywouldrespondtothesecircumstances,

andoftenvisualizingtheirpreferredresponsesoranumberofpossibleresponses.Asstudentsandnow

aspilots,theseparticipantsfeltthatitwasimportanttoalwayshaveoptions,toknowthatshoulda

situationarise,theywouldhaveapredeterminedsetofresponsesfromwhichtochoose.

Asmanyscenariosasyoucouldpossiblythinkabout,youhavetotalkaboutbecauseonce

you’reactuallydoingit,youcandostuffontheflybutit’sverydifficulttoarticulatewhatyou

wantsomeoneelsetodoinanotherairplanethat’samileawayontheradio.Veryhard.Soyou

havetohaveaplanbeforeyougo.(Participant5)

OnethingthatIalsonotice,flyingwithnewpilots,isalwaysthinkingaboutthe‘whatifthis

happens’andalwayshavemanyoptions.Sothat’sonethingthatIfound,especiallyinmylast

fewyears....Soifsomethingdoesn’twork,Ialreadyhavethoughtaboutfiveorsixother

options,soIpickoneofthem...ithasbecomenaturalandIguessthat’sbecauseofthejob,

becauseI’vebeenflyingforalongtime.AndIfindmyselfdoingthatathomesometimes,it

drivesmywifeinsane[laughs].(Participant13)

Participant15plannedforthesepossibleeventsusingmentalimageryorbymentallyrunningthrough

scenarios:“Potentialdistractionsandemergenciesarebothpartofthechairflyingprocessforme.For


example,Iwilloftenaskmyself,andvisualizehowIwouldrecoverfromaparticularemergencyduringa

particularphaseofflight”.Oneparticipantnotedthatfartoomanypotentialcircumstancesexistedfor

pilotstoadequatelyprepareforeverysingleone.Hereasonedthatbytrainingonlyforcertain

emergencies(throughchairflyingandsimulationsonthegroundandinflight),astheCAFdoes,apilot

wouldenhancehis/hergeneralproblemsolvingabilities;thiswouldallowhim/hertorespondtoan

unplannedeventappropriatelywithouthavingtrainedforthatspecificevent.

MentalImagery

Mentalimagery,chairflyingorvisualizationwasanimportantpartofstudenttrainingforevery

participant.Itremainedausefultoolastheygainedmoreexperienceaspilotsandtookonnewand

morechallengingtasks,andwasalsoimportantwhenreturningtoanaircraftafteraperiodofabsence

(i.e.,vacation,flyingadifferentaircraftetc.).All15participantsdescribedtheuseofmentalimageryas

partoftheirpreparationforflight.Themostcommontypeofmentalimagerytrainingusedwithinthe

CAFischairflying.Whenapilotengagesinchairflying,he/shesitsdown(orstands,ifpreferred)and

runsthroughtheflight,orkeysectionsoftheflight,mentally.Thismentalrehearsalcaninvolveoneora

combinationofthefollowingelements:visualimages,kinestheticmotionsorsensations,andauditory

signals.Inadditiontochairflying,participantsalsodescribedusingflightsimulatorsandother

alternativemethodsofmentalrehearsalforaflight.

SimulatorsandAlternativeMentalRehearsal

Flightsimulatorsareacomputerbasedtrainingtoolintendedtocloselyreplicatethecockpit

environmentandtheupcomingmissionrequirements.Thesimulatorconsistsofanexactmodelofthe

cockpit,whichfacesalarge,wrap‐aroundscreen.Acomputerprojectsthehorizonontothescreen,

showingacloseapproximationofwhatthepilotwouldseeashe/sheprogressesthroughthemission.

Allstudentstrainedonsometypeofcomputersimulator,withthecurrentversionbeingmuchmore

technologicallyadvancedthanprevioussimulators.Severalparticipantsexpressedanappreciationfor


themoreadvancedequipment.Participant2stated,“Nowadaysit’sdefinitelyeasiertopracticethose

[routineproceduresandchecks]withtheflightsimulatorsthatwehave”.Unfortunately,these

simulatorsalsohavetheirlimitations:

Withtheseflightsimulators,itmoreorlesssimulatesflyingandthey’regreatforthiswholeidea

ofprocedures,goingonesteptothenextsteptothenextstep.They’renotidenticaltohowthe

airplaneflies,andthere’sdefinitelysomedifferencesbetweenthetwo;oneofthemisthelack

ofsensationthatyouhavewithregardstoGforces.LikewhenIpull4G,Iknowwhat4Gfeels

likewithoutevenlookingataG‐meter.Icanpullthe4Gandknowthatthat’swhatitis,Ijust

lookoverandyep,itis,andcarryon.BecauseIknowthephysicalfeelingsofit.(Participant2)

Studentsalsohaverestrictedaccesstosimulatorsduetothehighcost(andthereforescarcity)ofthe

equipmentandasaprecautionarymeasure,toavoidthereinforcementofself‐taughterrors.

Formanyofthepilotsinthisstudy,however,thesimulatorsonwhichtheytrainedwerenot

nearlyasadvancedasthoseinusetoday.Participant9describedhowthesimulatorsavailableduringhis

trainingwere“nothinganywherenearasgoodastheboxtheyusenow”.

Wehadjustaclear,itwaskindofawhiteglass,andtherewasnomovement,onlythedials

moved,andtherewerenovisualsatall.SoIthinkthat’sahugebonus,becausetheycan

practicetheclearhoodportionsorthevisualflyinginthatbox.Butwecouldonlypracticethe

instrumentflying.Andtherewasnosensationofmovementoranythingelse,itwasquitean

antique,incomparisontowhatwehavenow.(Participant9)

Restrictedusage,lackofrealisticmovement,andincompletecompositionsofthehorizon(e.g.,the

currentsimulatorscannotprojectadditionalaircraftintotheskiesonthescreen)wereallcitedas

downfallsofthesimulatortraining.Whileitprovidedsomevaluableexperienceinthecockpit,

participantsfeltthatthistrainingwasnotsufficientonitsown.


Fourparticipantsdiscussedtheirownalternativetechniquesformentalrehearsalor

visualization,tosupplementtheirsimulatorandchairflyingexercises.Thesestrategiesvarieddepending

ontheindividual,butalwaysincludedprogressionthroughthedifferentstagesofthemissionand

enabledthepilottocreatesomesortoftangiblerepresentationoftheabstractproceduresorchecklists

presentedintheirtextbooks.

I’mabigvisuallearner,andalotofpilotstendtobe,like3Dspatialandthatkindoflearning,so

theotherthingI’ddoisI’ddrawoutallthesequencesandputlittleticksbesidethenext

functionthatgoesalong,witheverythingIdo.AndIstilldothat,evenwithflyinganewairplane.

Alotofvisualization.(Participant2)

I’veevenusedmodelaircraftforlearningaerobaticsandthingslikethat–[it’sdifficult]to

imagineitwithoutsomekindofarealthinginfrontofyou,andwhattheairplane’sgoingtodo.

Ifounditwasusefultoholdthelittleairplaneinfrontofmeandgo‘okaywhenitgetshere,

wheredoesitwanttoturn?Whatdoesitwanttodo?AndwhenIbringittohere,howamI

gonnagetittothere?’AndIfoundthatausefulthing,andIevenrecommendittomystudents

becauseit’slikewecanwatchthisonamovie,butyouhavetobeabletomakethatmoviestop

andthenwhat’shappeninghereandwhat’shappeninghere?(Participant9)

Inthesealternativemethodsofmentalrehearsalfortheflight,participantsreliedonthemanipulation

ofprops,suchaspaperdiagramsormodelairplanes,toprovideaphysicalrepresentationoftheflight.

ChairFlying

Chairflyingencompassedalargeportionofmanyparticipants’pre‐flightpreparation.Atrusted

techniquewithintheCAF,everyparticipantwasfamiliarwithchairflyingandhadpracticeditatsome

point.Itisworthnoting,however,thateventhoughchairflyingisarecommendedtrainingexercise,

formalinstructioninthemethodofchairflyingisnotprovided.Participant8notedthisdiscrepancy:“It’s


interestingbecauseeverybodysayschairflying,butnobodyreallyteachesanybodyhowtodoit”.Most

ofthelearning,itseems,iseithercompletelyself‐directedorarisesfromdialoguebetweenstudents.

Instructorswouldtellmetositthereandjustgothroughyourchecks.HowIdoitisjust

somethingIdidonmyown,Idon’tknow.Ibasicallyjustputoneofthoseboardsup[diagramof

thecockpit]andstartedgoingthroughmychecks.(Participant2)

Wewouldseeallthe[studentsaheadofusinthecourse],becausewe’realllivingkindof

togetherinthesamebarracks,smallrooms.Andyouwouldwalkinonsomebodydoingitand

like‘dudewhat’sgoingon?’Thenhewouldshowyou.Sothere’salotoflearninghappening

betweenstudentsaswell.(Participant4)

Notsurprisingly,whendescribingtheirmethodsofchairflying,participantsoftendifferedinthequality

oftheirexperienceandinthedetailsoftheirexecution.Also,whileallparticipantsbelievedinitsutility

asalearningmechanismforroutineprocedures,somewereskepticaloruncertainofitsapplicabilityto

thepracticeofmoredynamicmaneuversorsituations.Oneexperiencedpilotwasastrongadvocatefor

theuseofchairflyinginanysituation.Heexplainedhisbeliefinthefollowingway:

Ithinkchairflyingworksawesome,Ialwayshave.Ihateitwhenpeopletellmetheycan’tchair

flysomethingbecauseIthinkit’sbullshit.Ithinkyoucandoeverythingmentallybeforeyougo

upintheplaneanddoit.AndIthinkitmakesitwayeasier.Youhaveguyssay‘wellyoucan’t

chairflyformation’.Bullshit.Yesyoucan.That’smyadvicetothem...whenyouhaveabookfull

ofinformation,itsucksbecauseyou’rereadingitandyou’relike‘wow,howamIsupposedto

turnthatintosomethingthatIdo?’Soturneverythingintoprocedureandchairflyit,that’smy

[advice].Don’tflybytheseatofyourpants,itjustdoesn’twork.(Participant12)

Thisparticipantseemedtohaveastrongerviewontheutilityofchairflyingforlearningand

performanceinthemilitarycontext.However,allpilotsgenerallyemphasizedtheuseofchairflying

throughouttrainingandforsubsequentmissionsortests.


Clearandrealisticdetails

Animportantcharacteristicofchairflyingwastheinclusionofclearandrealisticdetails.Nine

pilotsspecificallynotedthatthey“putthemselvesinthecockpit”orusedafirstpersonperspectivein

whichtheysawthecockpitandthehorizonastheywouldinreallife,lookingthroughtheirowneyes.

WhenIsaythatI’mgoingtodosomething,ifIcanI’llmovemyhandsanddoitorIwillimagine

myselfthroughmyeyeslookingatitandpulling.Andbydoingso,mybrainnowknowswhereto

lookandwhattodo.(Participant11)

Participantsdescribedseeingthehundredsofbuttonsandswitchesaswellastheirgaugesandwhatthe

variousreadingswouldbe.Participant15stated,“You’dseetheattitudesintheairplane,you’dseethe

buttonpushing”.Intheinitialstagesoflearning,participantswouldsituatethemselvesinfrontofa

cardboarddiagramofthecockpitsothat,ifnecessary,theycouldrefertoavisualrepresentation

depictingtheplacementofthevariousinstruments.

Participantsemphasizedtheimportanceofpracticingchairflyingsothattheywouldknow

exactlywhattoexpectduringtheirmission.Participantsfocusedonmission‐specificelementsand

attemptedtoincorporateasmuchdetailaspossibletoachievethisunderstandingoftheflight.

That’sjustwhatI’vealwaysdoneactually,evenwhenIwasgoingthroughpilottraining.AndI

trytositdownandteachtheguysthatIflywith,howIarmchairfly,andtovisualize,literally,

notonlythechecksandtheflightandthecallsandwhatthewindsaredoing,butthemoreclear

youcanvisualizeitbeforeyou’reouttherethebetterofftheflightwillbebecauseit’slike

you’vealreadyrehearsedit.(Participant1)

Youknowmostofthestuffyouneedtobe[doinginaspecificmission]–soyoufocuson[that]

stuff,becauseyouhavealistofstuffthat’sgoingtobecarriedout.Youcan’tjustthinkthat

you’rejustflying…afteryou’redoneyoucandothat.[Participant4]


AnotherthingthatIrecallIdidasastudentwaswehadaTVroominthebarracksthatwasa

largeroom,andthereweretwodoorsoneithersideandtherewasahallway.Andtherewas

essentiallyarectangularpaththatonecouldwalk,notunlikethetrafficpattern[standardpath

usedfortake‐offorlanding].SoIwouldactuallywalk,simulatingwhatIwoulddo,andI’droll

outandI’dcheckthis,speed’sthis,selectthegeardown,andIwasdoingitwhilewalking.Andit

gavesomewhatofageographicalcomparison:hereIam,hereIam...It’sastepup,say,from

chairflying,butitwouldbewhatwewouldcallchairflying.Ihaveseen,intheparkinglot,two

studentsontheirmountainbikesdoingsomeofthetacticaltypeformationtopractice,where

youcanwalkthroughit.Iwouldimaginethatfromamentalpreparationstagethatthecloser

wecansimulatetheactivity,thatwe’reusingthosegears,we’returningthesamegearsthat

wouldturnintheairplane.(Participant6)

Participant8recalledanexperienceinwhichheobservedtheSnowbirds,Canada’seliteformation

aerobaticflyingteam,practicingagroupchairflyingsession:

I’veseentheSnowbirdspreparethemselvesandifyouwatchthem,theysitasateaminaroom,

theyclosetheireyes,allofthem,andthentheleadstartstakingthemthrougheverymaneuver,

andtheyallstartdoingtheirpartsandyouhearthemalltalkatdifferenttimes.Andyoucansee

themvisualizingthelooporwhateverthey’redoingasthey’redoingit.

Totheresearcher’sknowledge,theparticipantsofthisstudydidnotusethisteamchairflyingtechnique

intheircurrentpositions,eventhoughtheydidflyformationflightssimilartothoseoftheSnowbirds.

Teamchairflyingwasalsonotusedintheformationflyingportionofstudentpilottraining.One

instructorexplainedthatwhilethismaybeausefultool,therewassimplynotenoughtimeto

incorporatesuchapracticeintotheiralreadybusyschedules.

Participantsalsopracticedchairflyingtodevelopacompleteunderstandingoftheprocedures

(i.e.,theydidnotwanttohaveanyunansweredquestionsaboutthemaneuvers).Participant7


explained,“Ifit’snotclearinyourmindbeforeyou’rewalkingoutthedoor,itwillnotbeclearinthe

airplane,that’sforsure”.Participantsusedvariousmethodstoachievethisgoal,includingwritingdown

anyquestionssothattheycouldbeaddressedinthebriefbeforetheflight,andpracticingtheirchair

flyingwithamanualclosebytoanswerquestionsthatarised.Oneparticipantexplainedatechnique

thathereliedonwhenhewasastudentpilot:

ImakerecipecardssothatIdon’tmissanything;that’swhatIdidasastudentanyway.AndI

haveastackofthem.Soforeach[typeofflying]Ihave[acertainnumberofcards],likeforthe

clearhoodstuffIhave50cards.AndIjustgothrougheachone,starttofinish,andit’llbelikethe

startoftheflighttotheendoftheflight,andthatjustmakessurethat[I’mprepared].Infront

of[thecard]Ihavewhattheprocedurewasandonthebackofit,ifIforgotanything,I’dhave

everythingwrittendown.AndI’djustkindofflipthough,justsitthereandthinkaboutit,start

tofinish.Fliptothenextone,samething.Justvisuallygothroughit.That’swhatIhadtodo.

(Participant12)

Forthesepilots,chairflyingwasanopportunitytopinpointanyuncertaintiessothattheycouldattend

tothoseareasbeforetheflight.Theyunderstoodthattoflytheirbest,therecouldbenodoubtabout

whatwasexpectedofthemandwhattheyhadtofocusontoperformtheirbest.

Toensurethattheirchairflyingwasasrealisticaspossible,someparticipantsattemptedto

performthemaneuversinrealtime,orclosetothat.Participant6statedthathewould“simplyrun

throughtheprocedureasclosetorealtimeaspossible,withobviouscompressionintherefor

necessity’ssake”.Participant11furtherstated,“Ithinkmoreimportantly,playitoutreal‐time.Don’t

fast‐forward”.Otherparticipantsdescribedmanipulatingthetimingofproceduresbycompressingtheir

chairflyingiftimewaslimitedoriftheywerealreadyfairlyfamiliarwiththemaneuvers.Participants

alsoincreasedtheamountoftimespentoncertainparts,suchasnewmaterial.


Itwon’tbethefulllength.Ifit’slikea1.3sortofmission,solikeanhourand18minutes,Ichair

flyitin20butI’lldoitthreetimes.Soit’snotalways,itmightnotberealtimebutit’spretty

damnclose.(Participant12)

Twoparticipantsmadespecificmentionoftheimportanceofflowintheirchairflying,howeverifthey

weredistractedduringtheirchairflyingexperiencestheyhaddifferentwaysofre‐engaginginthe

exercise.Participant5statedthatifhewasinterruptedwhilechairflying(suchasbyhavingtowrite

downaquestion),hewouldoftenreturntothebeginningoftheimagery“sothatthere’snobreakdown

intheflow”.Participant12,ontheotherhand,statedthathewouldsimplyreturntowherehewasin

hismentalflight.

Involvingthesenses

Formanyparticipants,chairflyingwaslargelyavisualexperience.Thesepilotsdescribedthe

experienceassimplyrunningthroughtheflightintheirminds.

Iwouldn’tsitinfrontofathing[cockpitposter]andactuallymove,butIwouldlieinbedand

mentallydoit.Yeah,Iwouldthinkitthrough,likevisualizeitinmymind...You’dseethe

attitudesintheairplane,you’dseethebuttonpushing.(Participant15)

IdositdownandthinkabouteverythingIneedtodo...Ipictureitinmyhead.IthinkI’ma

visuallearner,soifIseesomethingIcanusuallyreplicateit.SoifIdoitinmyheadandflythat

tripinmyhead,thenIthinkIcaneasilygoupandflyafterwards.(Participant5)

Someparticipantsnotedthattheirchairflyingwouldincludeorientationtowardsimportantstimuli.

Participant1describedthisasfollows:“I’mlookingwhereIneedtobelookingforgroundcrewor

lookingjusttomakesurethechalksareout”.Mostparticipantsspecifiedthattheyclosedtheireyes,

however,somepracticedchairflyinginfrontofacockpitposter,whichwouldpresumablyrequirethat

theyopentheireyesatleastintermittently.Participant6alsomadethefollowingcommentregarding


chairflying:“whetherthatinvolvesclosingyoureyesornot,Ithinksomepeoplewould[closetheir

eyes];Ididn’tpersonallydothat”.

Someparticipantsdescribedtheuseofkinestheticcomponentsintheirchairflying.Thesepilots

practicedhandmovementssuchasreachingtoflickcertainswitchesorpullingbackonthethrottle.

Participantsalsodescribedleaningtheirupperbodyinsynchronizationwiththemovementandturnsof

theaircraft.

Ifyouwatchsomebodychairflyingwiththeireyesclosed,they’releaningbackandforth.The

otherthingyouseepilotsusingistheirhands,alot.Soyouknowiftheyturn,orinformation,it

tendstobealotofflyingtalklikethis[handmovements].Itusuallydrivesoutsidersbonkers.It’s

thesamewhenIchairfly–ItendtoclosemyeyesandImove,like‘okayIneedtoturnleft’,and

Ivisualizewheretheinstrumentsaregoing,whatthey’redoing.(Participant2)

Ihadafriendactuallygo‘hey,areyoupointingatthingsasyou’redoingit?’andI’mgoing‘no’,

butthenIthought‘wellthatkindofmakessense’,likeifI’mgonnalookoverhereitmightmake

sensethatIphysicallytellmyselfthat,youknow,mycross‐checkshouldgoleft‐right‐center,and

thenIshouldbelookingatthepowermeterwhileI’maddingthepower.Notsureifthatworks,

butitwasatechniquethatIpickedupalittlebit.(Participant8)

Whilemanyparticipantsincorporatedakinestheticcomponentbyphysicallymovingtheirbodies,only

oneparticipantspecificallydescribedbeingabletofeelthesensationofflying.Participant1

commented,“it’sasifI’mflying...Evenifit’sG.IcanfeeltheG”.WhenParticipant2wasaskedwhether

heexperiencedthesetypesofsensations,hegavethefollowinganswer:

Iwouldn’ttrytoreproduceitinchairflying,butI’llknowthatwhenIdothemaneuverI’llbelike

‘okayI’mgonnaturnandI’mgonnapulltoalightbuffet[slightshaking]’andI’dbetellingmyself

‘okay,pulllightbuffet’andinmyheadI’dbetellingmyselftophysicallygoandfeelforlight

buffet,likeI’dbelookingforasensoryfeedbackIguessforwhatthatwouldfeellike.Ican’t


simulateiteveninachair,likeIwouldn’ttrytoshakemyself,butI’dknowthatwhatI’mdoing

rightnowisIamthinkingaboutfeelingit.Ittendstoberightintheseatofyourpants,that

feelingthatyoufeelasyougoaroundthecorner,andthenthewhat’snextagain.

Participant2didnotattempttoreplicatethesensationofmovementinhischairflying,butwas

consciousofthefactthatthiswouldoccuratcertainpointsduringthechairflying.

Someparticipantsalsodescribedusingauditoryelementsintheirchairflying.Thisoften

involvedhearingthevariouscallsbeingmadeovertheradioduringtheflight.

IvisualizeeverythingfromwhatIseeoutsidetocontrolsinthecockpit.IevengooverwhatATC

[AirTrafficControl]willsay/askandwhatIwillverbalizetomyselfwhenIneedtodochecksin

thecockpit.(Participant5)

Participant3stated,“IguessI’magooddaydreamer...Imeanitfeelsrealtome,asmuchasIknowthe

airplaneIcanputthosesortofsoundsandwhateverintomyimagination”.Whilediscrepancies

betweenparticipantswereobviousinthechairflyingmethodology,itwasclearthatallparticipants

attemptedtoengageinarealisticreplicationofpotentialflighteventsandtheirpreferredresponses,

anywaytheyknewhow.

Practicingroutineprocedures

Formostparticipants,chairflyingwasusedtopracticeroutineprocedures,orprocedureswith

clearlydelineatedsteps.Themajorityofparticipantsfeltthatchairflyingwasnotaseffectivefor

dynamicmaneuversthatofteninvolvereactingtoenvironmentalcuesorotheraircraftandcangenerate

certaindistinctphysicalfeelings.

Youcanbenefitgreatlyfromthechairflyingoftheslowflyingorthestallbecauseithasthose

proceduresandsteps,andwhatpeoplemessupistheylosetheircadenceinthat;whereasina

loop,youreallycan’tchairflythattoanygreatdegree.Icouldsay‘IdothisandIdothat’,but

it’sadynamicmaneuverthathasfeelandfeedbackthatyouneedtodo,andsowherethevalue


ofchairflyingliesisontheoppositesideofthedynamicsandfeel.Iwouldn’ttraditionallysenda

studenttochairflydynamicmaneuvers.Inthesamewaythatoursimulatoraroundthecorner

here,wedon’tdotheaerobatics,notgoodenoughfeedbackandgraphicstodotheaerobatics.

Wecandothemoremundane,themoreproceduralthings.(Participant6)

Chairflyingisprobablyoneofthemostimportantthingsyoucandoforveryroutinesequences.

Andthat’swhatbasicpilottrainingisgoingtobe,alotofsequenceswhere[students]can

predictthingsaregoingtohappeninthenextlittlewhile.Asflyingtraininggoeson,somethings

becomealittlemorefluid,alittlemoredynamic...Sothat’salittlebithardertochairfly...It

becomesoneofthesemorefeelingthings,likewhenyou’reridingabike,howtokeepyour

balance.(Participant2)

Participantsusedchairflyingtocommittheroutineprocedurestomemory,astheywereusedoftenand

didnotchange.Astheseroutineproceduresentailedthesamestepseverytime,participantsgradually

becameabletoanticipatetheupcomingstepsinflight.

Practicingroutineproceduresalsoallowedparticipantstoeventuallyperformtheprocedures

withoutconsciousthoughtinflight.Withenoughtimespentchairflying,participantsfoundthatwhenit

cametimetoexecutethesesameproceduresduringamissiontheywereveryfamiliarwiththesteps

andwereabletocompletethemquicklyandwithouthesitation.

TheotherthingIfindthatchairflyinghelpswithisitautomaticallymakesyouthink‘what’s

next’;soyouhavetherhythmofwhat’scomingupandyouknowwhattodo.Withmilitary

flyingalotofitisverystructuredinthesensethat,inthecaseofaHawk[trainingaircraft],as

I’mcominguptoatargetonanavigationrouteIhavecertainchecksthatIgothroughtomake

surethatmyweaponsarearmedandeverythingisgoodforthetargetthatI’mgoingto.Soif

youdothemthesamewayeverytime,theyjustbecomesothatyouareabletodothemvery

rapidly.Andittakespractice,soagain,chairflyingandpracticingthose.(Participant2)


When[students]chairflytheyusuallytrainforproceduresandchecks,tomemorizethings.

Becauseyoutellthemoncetheyknowtheirchecks,theyknowtheprocedure,thatfreesalotof

braincellstodootherthings.Checktheinstruments,lookoutside,flytheaircraft.Sothat’swhat

theymainlyfocusonwhentheychairfly.(Participant13)

Idid[useaposterofthecockpit]whenIfirstshowedupasastudent,tofigureouthowtogetit

startedup.It’sthesamesortofthingwhenyou’rereadingachecklist.You’vegotallthesethings

infrontofyou,buthowareyousupposedtodoit–youkindagottaseeit.Mightbethesame

thingwithchairflying,youkindagottaseeitandturneverythingintoastepbystepprocess.So

thathelpedbigtimebecauseittookallthemysteryaway.(Participant12)

Thechairflyingofroutineproceduresallowedparticipantstobuildwhattheycalled“musclememory”

andperformproceduresinflightwithoutconcertedattention,orinamoreautomaticmanner.Theyalso

gainedabetterunderstandingofwhatwouldhappenfollowingeachstepoftheprocedure.Asaresult,

theybecamesofamiliarwiththeseproceduresthattheyknewwhattoexpectaftereachstepandwere

eventuallyabletoexecutethestepseffectivelywhileconsciouslyengagedbyotherstimuli.

DistractionControl

Sevenparticipantsdiscussedtheiruseofdistractioncontrolstrategiesduringtheirpre‐flight

preparation.Formanyofthesepilots,distractioncontrolcameintheformofidentifyingpotential

distractorsandeitherremovingthedistractorsfromtheirenvironmentorremovingthemselvesfrom

thedistractingenvironment.

Icamethrough[UPTS]withaoneyearoldandatwoyearold,anditworkedout.BecauseI

couldjustclosethedoorandnothaveanydistractionsanditworked.ButIknowthatguyswho

don’thavethatenvironmentarescrewed.Youjustcan’tdoit.It’soverwhelminganddaunting

andyoujustfallbehindandfalloffthewagon.(Participant12)


Participant15commented,“OnethingIcan’tdo,Ican’tstudywithdistractions.I’mnotsomebodywho

cansittherewiththeTVinthebackgroundandstudy.Ineedquiet”.Knowingthis,Participant15would

makeacommitmenttoavoidsuchdistractionswhenitwastimetostudy.

OtherparticipantsnotedthattheenvironmentwassimplydifferentduringtheirtimeinUPTS.

Manysuggestedthattheenvironmenttodayisonethatisfullofpotentialdistractions,whereasthey

wereexposedtofarfewerdistractionsasstudents.

Theoddguyhadadesktopcomputer,maybetherewasabookwormthatread,butifyou

walkedaboutthebarracksandyoupokedyourheadintosomebodyelse’sdoor,therewasa

highprobabilitythathewasstudyingorhewaslookingatsomething.Sotheenvironmenthas

changedquitesignificantly,tochallengethestudentoftodaytoremainfocused.(Participant6)

Participantsnotedthegradualincreaseinageoftheaveragestudentoverthepasttwodecades(duein

parttoanewrequirementthatrecruitsholdauniversitydegree).Withthisshiftinagecamean

increasednumberofstudentswithfamiliestocarefor.Participant1exclaimed:

Thedemographicsarethebiggestpiece.WhenIwentthrough,everybodywas19,single,

roughly.Youhadmaybetwomarrieddudesonyourwholecourse...Almosteverybodynowis

mid20sorlater,mid20stomid30s,someguysareearly40s,married,kids,divorced,single

parents,kidswithdisease,parentsdyingofcancer–becausethewholeshifthasgone10or15

yearsbecausewe’venowsaidthatwewanteveryonetohaveadegree...Wellthatfocuspiece

–wehadaguyoncoursewithtripletsforgod’ssake.Imeanhedoesn’ttellanybody.Dude!No

wonderyoucan’tstudy,youcan’tevensee.Like,thatisapiece…yougobacktothefocusandI

agree,butyourdemographicsarecompletelydifferentnowthan20yearsago.

Thus,whileparticipantsmadeaconsciousdecisiontoavoidpotentialdistractorsintheirstudy

environment,theyalsohadfewerdistractorstocontendwiththanthestudentpilotsoftheUPTStoday.


EnvironmentalConditions

Possiblythemostfrustratingdistractorforpilotsinthepre‐flightphasewasthedelayofflights

duetoweatherconditions.Participantsemphaticallydescribedthedisappointmentoflearningofa

delayedflight,theagonyofprolongedwaits(andsometimesmultipledelays),aswellasthedifficultyof

regainingthemotivationandfocusrequiredtoflyafterwindingdownfromtheirinitialpre‐flight

preparationandfocus.

Thosearetheworsttimes[delayedflights],especiallyinthewinter,becausewecan’tflyinicing

conditions.Butthisairplane,sometimesyou’rescheduledfirstwave[groupoftake‐offs]inthe

morningandthenbecauseoftheconditionsoftheday,‘oh,wellwe’lldoitsecondwave’,and

thensecondwavetheweatherdidn’timproveenoughsonowyougetpushedbacktothethird

wave.Soyougetreadyforyourflight,you’reallreadytogoyou’rementallypreparedand

everything,andthenyougetpushedtothesecondwave.Soyoukindofletitgoforanhouror

twoandthen,‘okay,Igottarefocusagain’.Anditgets,funnyenough,yougethomeattheend

oftheday,you’retired.AndIrememberasastudent,whenthathappened,beingpushedback

fromfirstwave,secondwave,thirdwave,hopingI’mjustnotgonnagobecauseyougettoa

pointwhereyou’rejustnotinyourzoneanymore;youjusthopethatyou’renotgonnago

becauseyouknowthatit’snotgonnabenecessarilyagoodtrip.Spoolingupandthenspooling

down,‘okayI’mready,I’mready’,‘no,we’renotgoing’.It’snotcool.(Participant7)

Whenaskedwhatpilotsusuallydidwhenflightsweredelayed,Participant5respondedasfollows:

Notmuch[laughs].Youjustsitaroundandwait.It’snotinstantaneousthatyougetyour

motivationback,itsortatakesawhile,butyougetintothatroutineofthatsamethingyoudo

everysingletimewhenyougooutintheairplaneofstrappingin,doingawalk‐around,starting

theengineup.Assoonasyougetintothatflow,itcomesback,thatmotivation.


Participant5reliedontheroutineofhispre‐flightpreparationstobringhimbackintothefocused

mindsetrequiredforflight.Participant7consciouslyattemptedtoshifthisattentionbacktothe

mission,refocusingonwhatheneededtodo,beforeflying.

Youreallyhavetogetyourselftogetherand,forme,itwasjustgoingawayfromeverybody.

Becausedayslikethat[delayedflights],everybodyhangsoutandtalksandeverything,andthat

getsallyourfocusandattentionawayfromwhatyou’regonnahavetodoinafewminutes.SoI

usuallygosomewherewherethere’snobodyinthereandthinkaboutwhat’sgonnahappenand

stufflikethat,andtrytogetreadyasmuchasIcouldforthemission.(Participant7)

Hedescribedsittingintheaircraftbeforetake‐offandtellinghimself“okay,I’mherenow,soI’mgonna

domybestandmakeithappen...Ineedtofocusonthis,it’llbeanhourandahalfandthenI’llbedone,

sogetitdone”.Eachofthesepilotsrecognizedtheirinabilitytocontroltheweatherdelays.They

acceptedthesituationand,whiledisappointed,didnotbecomefrustratedorlosefocuscompletely.

Whenthetimefinallycametofly,participantsdidwhattheyneededtodotorefocusontheflightand

performtheirbest.

Participant13relatedanexperiencewithweatherdelaysduringamulti‐dayreturnflightto15

WingMooseJaw,aftercompletinganexerciseintheUSA.Hewasawareoftheimminentdeterioration

inflyingconditionsandadjustedhisplansaccordingly.Whentheflightwasinevitablypostponed,

Participant13didnotbecomefrustrated,ashehadalreadyacceptedthischangeofeventsasbeing

beyondhiscontrol.

Ithinkwithtime,IlearnedallthethingsthatIcan’tdoanythingabout.AndIseethathere.Like

whentheweatherisbadforaweek,wecan’tfly,Ihearpeoplelike‘Iwishtheweather…’

There’snothingwecandoaboutit.We’regonnafallbehindtheschedule,sowhat.There’s

nothingwecandoaboutit.(Participant13)


Byplanningaheadandacknowledgingthefutilityofworryingaboutuncontrollableweatherconditions,

Participant13wasabletomaintainhisfocusandcomposure.

StressManagement

Allpilotsexperiencedsometypeofstressduringtheirflyingcareer,eitherasstudentpilotsor

fullmilitarypilots.Sourcesofstressandanxietyduringthepre‐flightphaseweremainlycitedasgeneral

workload(e.g.,longhours,hightaskload)andupcomingtests(e.g.,thethoughtofhavinganexaminer

watchingtheireverymove,thepossibilityoffailure).13ofthe15pilotsintervieweddiscussedtheir

experienceswithstressinpre‐flightpreparationandtheirpersonalmanagementtechniques.

Participantsshowedwidevariationinthewaythattheyperceivedstressandintheircopingmethods,

bothatthetimewhenthestresswasfirstperceivedandduringtheirrecoveryafterwards.

HeavyWorkload

Participantsdescribeddifferentapproachestodealingwithworkloadstress.Participant4

recalledthatbeingphysicallyfitasastudentenabledhimtohandletheworkload,butthatnomatter

howfityouaretheeffectsofthestresswilleventuallycatchupwithyou.

Theyhavetofindawaytobeabletogetalotofrestinaveryshortamountoftime.Because

sometimestheywillbeaskedtodoasmuchasthreeevents,andforus,threeeventswouldbe

likeeitherflyingorgroundschoolforthreehours.Soyoucouldbeingroundschoolforthree

hourslearningstufforflyingfirstinthemorning,goingtogroundschoolforthreehoursand

thenflyingagainintheafternoon.Andflyingisveryphysicallytiring,yougettiredalot,and

thenyoustillgottabeabletoperform...PersonallyIrememberasastudent[itwasimportant]

tobeextremelyfit,whichI’mnotanymore,tobeabletotakethatextrastressandtheextra

workloadandbeabletorecoverquicklyfrombeingphysicallyandmentallyexhausted.Most

peoplehitthewallatonepoint.Itdoesn’tmatterhowgoodyouare,youwillhitthewall

becauseyouaretired.(Participant4)


Ahighlevelofphysicalfitnessallowedhimtoperformthemanytasksandhandlethelonghours

withoutbecomingexhausted.

Participant5explainedthathesimplyacceptedthefeelingsofstressasaconditionofthejob.

Hedidnotattempttoactivelymanagethesymptomsofhisstressbutfocusedoncompletinghistasks,

regardlessofthecost.

Youjusthavetodealwithit.Youhaveto.Youhavenootherchoice.Anditdidmakeittough,

forsure.Butattheendoftheday,ifyouhavetogotowar,waristough.Andthefighterpilot

motto,whichIfindverydifferentfromthestudentscomingthroughherenow,wasifyougeta

taskyoudon’tcomplain,youdon’tbitch,youjustgetitdone.Whateverittakes,getitdone.

AndIfindnowadays,notevenwithstudentshere,justingeneraltheyoungergeneration,they

don’tgothroughthatsamestuffanymore.(Participant5)

Thispilotacceptedthesefeelingsofstressaspreparationfortheharshconditionsofwar.Heanticipated

whatwouldberequiredofhiminacombatsituationandapproachedhistrainingasanopportunityto

preparefordeployment.Participant12describedthathewouldsimplyflushawayanyfeelingsofstress.

Thisallowedhimtomaintainhisfocusonthetaskathandandgethisjobdone.Hestated

Youknowhowyoukindofsitthereandyoutryandrationalizeit[i.e.,determinethesourceof

stressandrationalityofstressresponse]?...I’veneverbeenabletorationalizeit.SoIjustflush

itanddon’teventhinkaboutit...Itneverhelpsme[tothinkthingsthrough]...Icandealwithit

all,it’sallwellandgood,butit’sjusttryingtorationalizeitallthetimesucks.SoIjustforget

aboutit.

Participant12didnotdwellonnegativefeelingsordistractionsthatheexperienced,preferringinstead

tosimplyforgetthemandrefocusonsomethingelseifpossible.

Twoparticipantsstatedthattheydidnotexperienceverymuchstressingeneralinthe

workplace.Participant5attributedthistohisloveofandcommitmenttomilitaryaviation.He


commented,“Idon’tthinkIfeel[stress]asmuchassomebodyelsewhomaybedoesn’twantitasbadas

Ido”.Participant13statedthathesimplydidnotexperiencemuchstressinanyaspectofhislife.He

explainedasfollows:

Idon’texperiencealotofstress,firstofall.Andit’sfunnybecausewhenIreadcomments[in

magazines]abouthowtorelax,theykindofmademesmilebecauseIthoughtthatwasvery

obvious.ButIguesssomepeopleneedhelpwithhowtorelax.WhatIfindisthatphysicallyand

mentallyhowtorelax…Iguessit’stwodifferentthings,forme.ButIneverlearnedhowtodoit.

Thesetwoparticipantsweretheonlypilotswhodescribedtheirday‐to‐dayworkandpersonallifeas

beingrelativelystressfree.

FlightTestStress

Manyparticipantsexperiencedanxietyinthepreparationtimebeforeatestorcheckflight

(airbornetest).Knownwithinthepilotcommunityas“testitis”,pilotsnotedthepervasivenessofthis

experienceonthebase,particularlyamongstudentpilots.Thisanxietystemmedmainlyfromnegative

thoughtsandafearoffailing.Severalpilotsnotedthattheiranxietylevelsbeforeatestoftenroseso

highthattheirabilitysleepwasseverelyimpaired.

Ineversleepthenight[before].I’llalwaysremembermyfinalinstrumenttestupstairsonthe

Hawk.Itwasthreeandahalfyearsagoandthat’salwaysbeenthescaryoneforeveryone,

‘don’tfuckitup.Don’tfuckitup’.Everyoneisscaredofthatone.Iremember,still,Ididnot

sleepthatnight.Literally.Andthat’sthefirsttimethateverhappenedtome.Couldn’tsleep,

juststayedup.ThenIwentonmytestandhadn’tslept,hadn’teaten,anditwentfine.

(Participant12)

Alotofthingscanhappenduringatestandtheexaminerjustsitsinthebackanddoesn’tsaya

word.Youknowtheprofile[missionrequirements],hewillsayawordifheneedstosee

somethinginparticular...Ifheneedstotalkortakecontrol,you’redone.Asanexample,you’re


comingbackfromthetrainingarea,you’rejoiningthetrafficpatternwherealltheaircraftsare.

Youdon’tseeanairplanecoming,whichcanhappen.Heseestheairplane,hetakescontrol,

boom.Eventhoughyourtaskwasgoingextremelywell,you’redone.Testisover.Hetouches

thecontrols,testisover.Becausethere’salotofthingsthatcanhappen,andknowingthat,

you’regoingonyourtestwithacertainlevelofstress.(Participant7)

Participant15describedhigherlevelsperceivedlevelsofanxietyespeciallywhenfacedwithunfamiliar

withthetestingmaterial:“IstillworrybeforeIdoaridethatI’mgonnafailit,especiallysomething

that’sforeignornew.Soforme,it’sthedegreeofnewnessIthinkthatincreasesmystress”.

Severalparticipantsnotedthatinthetimeleadinguptoatesttheywouldthinkaboutthe

possibilityoffailure.Participant14admitted,“IgotmorestresswithmyteststhanwhenIwasindanger

oflikecrashing,forexample.That’showdifferentmybrainworked,Iguessasastudent”.Anumberof

participantsindicatedthattheirperceivedlevelsofstresswereelevatedduetofearsofnegativepeer

evaluation.

Iworryaboutassessmentmorethanjustgoingoutandperforming,becauseday‐to‐dayIthinkI

doverywell.ButwhenIhavepeoplewatchingme,andit’smypeers,thenIstartgoing‘what

aretheygonnathinkifIscrewsomethingup?’andthataffectsme.(Participant8)

Thecultureofthemilitaryenvironmentwouldleadonetobelievethatthisfearofnegativepeer

evaluationisquiteprevalentamongstudentpilotsandexperiencedmilitarypilots.

Someparticipantsdiscussedtheuseofatypeofcognitiverestructuringtomanagetheir

perceivedstressandtransformthethoughtsthatinitiallycausedthemtofeelstressed.Thesepilots

realizedthattheirperceivedanxietywasahindrancetotheirperformanceandshiftedtoamore

constructiveperspective.

Thefactis,ratherthanbenervousIalmostwouldtellmyself‘whatdoyouhavetolose?’AndI

findifItellmyself‘whatdoIhavetolose’now,whichkindacontraveneswhatIsaidasIwas


goingthroughhereasastudent,Idon’tcareasmuch.AndifIdon’tcareasmuch,IfindI’m

morerelaxedandIperformwaybetter.SoI’mactuallytellingmyself‘whocaresifyoufail’kind

ofthing,butdeepdowninsideIdon’twanttofail.Justifithappens,ithappens.Iguessasyou

getolderyoukindofrealizeifit’sgonnahappen,it’sgonnahappen.Anddon’tworryaboutthe

future,becauseyouhavenocontroloverit,welltoanextent.(Participant11)

Usuallyattheendoftheday,thenightbeforeatest,usuallyI’mokaybecauseIjustkindof

accept.I’mkindofhappythatit’sgonnahappen.Butit’skindofthefewdaysbeforethatwhenI

getnervous.SothenIjuststudymore,tryandcoverallmybases.SeeifIcankindofnipitinthe

budbeforeIgetintheplane.DowhatIcando,andthenattheendofthedayI’vedone

everythingIcandoandifitdoesn’tworkout,itdoesn’tworkout.AndthenIfeelmorerelaxed.

(Participant12)

Theseparticipantsrecognizedthattheircontroloverthesituationwaslimited.Byshiftingtheir

perspectiveandfocusingonconstructiveelementsthatwereundertheircontrol,thesepilotswere

creatingbetterconditionsforsuccess.

Participant14discussedtheuseofvisualizationtoenhancehisconfidencebeforeatest.He

gainedconfidencebypracticingtheanticipationofeventsthatisrequiredduringchairflying.

Ifoundoutthatdoingvisualizationhelped,alot.Imaginingmyselfexpectingthoseareas,chair

flying,andthensaying‘okay,nowIjustscrewedthisup,sowhatamIgonnadoifIdothis’.Okay

wellIgonnadothisthisway,thisway,andthisway.Andintheend,Ivisualizethatit’sgonnago

well,becauseI’vebeenpreparedmentallyforthesethings.(Participant14)

Heincludedpotentialerrorsandhisrecoveryfromthoseerrorsinhischairflyingpreparation.Inthe

end,hefeltthathewasmorepreparedforeverypossibleeventthatcouldoccurduringthetest.

Afewparticipantsmentionedexerciseasawaytomanagetheirstressorarousalbeforeatest.

Participant8stated,“IfIfindIamgettingworriedaboutsomething,Icanliterally,15minutesona


treadmillandIfeelgood.AndthenIgenerallydobetter,sothathelpsmeprepare”.Participant7was

theonlypilottospecificallymentiontheuseofrelaxationandrefocusingimmediatelypriortoatest.He

stated,

OnceinawhileIwouldjustsitinaroomforaboutfive,10minutesjusttothinkabouttheflight

itselfandjusttotrytorelaxalittlebit.Five,10minutes.Iwoulddothatonceinawhile.

Especiallybeforeatest,anairbornetest,becausethosearestressful.Iwoulddothat.Five,10

minutes,that’sall...Itwouldhelpmerelaxandgetmoreincontrol.Justthinkpositive.

Healsomentionedtheuseofbreathingtoachievethisrelaxedfocus:“There’salotofthingsthatcan

happen,andknowingthat,you’regoingonyourtestwithacertainlevelofstresssoforme,again,

takingthatfive,10minutesjusttobreathein,breatheoutwas[important]”.Takingtimetorelaxand

breatheallowedthispilottorefocusonthemostimportantthing,whichwasthetaskathand.

Recovery

Themostcommonlycitedmethodforrecoveringfromstressonaday‐to‐daybasiswasexercise;

however,manyparticipantsfounditdifficulttofindtimeforregularexerciseorcommunitysport

involvementduringtheirbusydays.

Ididn’thaveanyissuesstress‐wise[oncourse].Obviouslythestressisthere,butit’showyou

manageit.Formeit’s,likeIsaidearlier,IrunalotsoifIdidn’trunforacoupledaysinarow,I

couldfeelitmentally;thestresswouldgetalotmoretome.It’sjustsomethingthatIneededto

do.SometimesIjustdidn’thaveenoughtime,butIstilltookthetime,30minutesorwhatever

togotothegym,Ihadtodosomethingelsejusttodisconnectfromeverythingandthatwasthe

onlywayforme.Ihadtodoit.(Participant7)

IwouldsayIworkalot,andItakeprideinmywork,andattimes[mywife]justseesthat;she

justseesthatI’mherealotandI’mhereworkingandotherguysgetvacationsandstufflike

that...Anddefinitely,Iwouldsay,takingtimeforyourselfisimportant.Itisabsolutely


important.AndthisiswhereIfindmysportscomesin,becauseIhaveobviouslyalotof

commitmenthereandIhavealotofcommitmentathome,youknow,andIworkaroundthe

houseandwebuildthingsinthebackyardsandmykids,I’vegotthreedaughters...AndIknow

thatwhenIgetoverbusyhere,andIstartgettingstressed,that’swhatIneed.IknowthatifI

justgoforarun,alotoftheproblemsgoaway.(Participant8)

Exerciseandsportseemedtoofferparticipantstwothings:(a)atimeforcompletedissociationfrom

workor(b)anopportunitytoworkthroughandfindsolutionsforvariousissuesatwork.Several

participantsindicatedthattheysometimesforcedthemselvestoexercisebecausetheyknewthey

wouldbenefitfromtheactivityeveniftheydidnotfeelmotivatedatthetime.

Manyparticipantsmentionedpartyingorsocializingatthemess,thecommunaldininghall,as

aneffectivewaytoblowoffsteamduringstressfultimesasastudent.

UsuallyFridaynightstherewasnostudying,therewasnonothing,wewouldallgotothemess

andblowoffsteam.AndtheCommandingOfficerusuallywouldalwaysturnablindeyetowhat

weweredoingbecauseheknewthatyouhadtoblowoffthesteamandwhetheritwasus

wrestlingandsmashingtablesanddoingwhatever,theygenerallyletusdoit.Andthen

Saturdaymorningyou’dberightbackatitagain.Sothatwasgenerallyquiteimportantto

releasingthetension.(Participant5)

Participant1referredtothisasan“excellenttooltogetthestressoutonFridaynightintheprotection

ofyourownmess”.Participantsdidnotdissociatefromworkbygatheringinthemess,onthecontrary

muchoftheeveningswerespentdiscussingvariousissuesrelatedtotheirtraining.

Asidefromthesetwomainoutletsforstressmanagement,participantsengagedinfew

additionalactivitiestoconsciouslyrelievetheirperceivedstress.Twoparticipants,whowereinvolvedin

musicbeforeenteringtheCAF,preferredtoplayinstrumentstohelpthemrelax.Twoparticipants

discussedtheuseofmeditation:


WhenIwasatColdLake[intheF‐18course]andIknewIwascomingdownhere[MooseJaw],I

waswaitingtocomedown,IwasinasquadronandIwasn’tnearlyasbusyasIamnow....ButI

madeapointof,everymorningormostmornings,goingoutsideusuallyontheflightline

[runway],justtryingtoclearmymindofeverything,justfocusononething,lookatatreeoffin

thedistanceorwhatever.Andthatwasnice,Ifeltbetterafterthat.ButhereIhaven’thadthe

timetodothat.(Participant10)

SometimeswhenI’mbymyselfIdosortoftypeofmediationthatmakesmefeelreally,really

good.Notjustan‘emptyyourbrain’kindof,andbreathe;it’ssomethingIcandoalmostany

time...it’slikeemptyingyourselfofallstress,basically.Flushingeverythingdown...Ican

experienceitevenifIgodriveoranything,andIdon’tdoitthatoftenactually,butifIfeel

stressed,ifIfeellikesomethingisnotgoinglikeIwant,thenIusethisasatoolanditmakesme

feelsogood...It’sthethoughtoffeeling;it’salmostself‐initiatedwellbeing...Let’ssayyou

thinkofsomethingreallysweetorreallysourandyoucanalmosttasteit,right?Wellifyouthink

thatyou’rereallyhappy,youcanalmosttasteit,thenallofthesuddenyoustartfeelingit,and

thenwithit,itjustcomesdownbasically,andthestressjustgoesaway.Becauseyoufindthat

youare[happy].Whenyouthinkaboutit,beinghappyisallinyourhead.Whetheryou’resick,

whetheryou’redyingoryou’regonnagetexecutedorwhatever,intheendit’sallinyourbrain.

It’salllikethatmoment.(Participant14)

Thesetwoparticipantsengagedinatypeofself‐taughtmeditation,havingreceivednoinstruction

duringtheirtrainingintheUPTS.Theyweresimplestrategiesthatallowedtheparticipantstocleartheir

mindsandrefocusonpositivethings.

Someparticipantsmentionedthattakingtimeoffallowedthemtorecoverfromtheirlevelsof

perceivedstress.


It’salongcourse,soyouhavetotakeatleastonedaywhereyoudon’tdoanything.Tomeit

wasFridaynights,Saturdayallday,andthenSundaystartstudyingagain.ButIneededthatone

day.YougottagetawayfromitforatleastadayandthatwastheonlywayIcoulddealwithall

thestress,andduringtheweek,likeIsaid,goingtothegymeverydayorgoingoutsideforarun

wasbig.Ineededthat.(Participant7)

Forotherparticipants,simplyspendingtimeathomewithfamilywastheirpreferredwaytorecover

fromaheavyworkload.ByrelaxingonthecouchinfrontoftheTV,talkingwithaspousewhilewashing

dishes,orplayingwiththeirchildren,participantswereabletostopthinkingaboutworkandjustrelax.

Whenengagedintheseactivities,theirfocuswouldshiftnaturallyawayfromwork.Otherparticipants

wereabletosimplyleavethestressesofthedaybehindassoonastheywalkedoutofthedoor.

WhenIgohomeonFriday,andonMondaymorningit’slike‘ohyeah,Ihavethatthingdue

today’butallweekend,sinceFriday,I’venevereventhoughtaboutit.It’sfunnybecause

sometimesIhearfriendstalkabouthowittakesthemtwoweeksofvacationtodothat.It’slike

‘no,no’.TheminuteIwalkoutthedoor,everythingisbehindme.(Participant13)

ForParticipant13,itwasasthoughhecouldflickaswitchwhenwalkingoutofthebuildingtoturnoff

allofthenegativethoughts.

Sleepwasalsoanimportantconsiderationforsometoensurethattheyrecoveredwell.Afew

participantsmentionedthattheirsleepwasaffectedwhentheyfelthigherlevelsofstress.Participant5

recommended,“Sleepasmuchaspossible.Imean,reallybecauseitissostressfulinthefighter

weaponsschoolit’simportanttoblowoffsteam”.Participant3commented,“Istill[view]sleepasmost

important[forrecovery].ItrytowatchwhatI’mdoingthere”.Theseparticipantsrecognizedthatsleep

wasimportanttotheirphysicalandmentalhealth,andmonitoredtheirroutinesclosely.


MissionExecution

Themissionexecutionphasebeginswhenthepilotarrivesontheflightlinetoconductthepre‐

flightchecksandstrapintotheaircraft.Theproceduresofamissionvaryaccordingtothenatureofthe

flight(e.g.,clearhood,low‐levelnavigation,instrumentflying,formation)andtheoverallobjectiveofthe

mission.Inadditiontothestandardexercisescompletedthroughtraining,participantsdiscussedtheir

engagementinmissionsthatinvolvedinsertingtroopsinhazardousconditions,landingonaircraft

carriers(i.e.,warships)atnight,searchandrescue,simulatingmulti‐aircraftattacksonenemywarships,

andcombat.Participantsspokeabouttheimportanceofthefollowingpsychologicalskillsinthe

successfulachievementoftheirmissionobjectives:focus,distractioncontrol,confidence,stress

managementandongoinglearning.

Focus

Forall15participants,aneffectivefocuswasanintegralcomponentofsuccessfulperformance.

Manyparticipantsexpressedthattheyfounditrelativelyeasytofocusinflight.Participant1stated,“I

wouldarguethateverytimeI’minanairplane,Iamfullyfocusedonwhatwe’redoing.Itisarare,rare

daywhensomethingfromtheofficecomesintomymindwhenI’mflying.Rare”.Healsomentioned,

however,thathewasfindingitincreasinglydifficulttoreachhispeakfocusasheaged.Participant12

alsofeltthathewasalwaysfocusedwhenflyingandthatthisfocuswasanautomatictransition(i.e.,did

notrequireconsciouseffort).Whenhewasinstructing,however,hewouldconsciouslyallowhismindto

wander.

Itjusthappens[beingfocused].Flyingisbusyenough,it’sdangerousenoughandscaryenough

attimesthatyoucan’treally[losefocus],especiallywhenyouhavesomebodyinthefront[a

student]tryingtokillyou[laughs].Thatbeingsaid,ifI’mteachingsomeoneandactuallynot

physicallyflyingtheplane,thinkingaboutit,justwatchingthem,Igooffintola‐laland...it’sjust

kindofthinkingaboutwhat’sfordinner.IcandothatifI’mnotflying.(Participant12)


Likemanyothers,Participant12madeaconsciouschoicetobefocusedor,insomecircumstances,to

allowhimselftobecomedistracted.Participant14singledoutfocusasthemostimportantelementto

achievingsuccess:

IwouldsaywhenIamverysuccessfulatsomethingverychallenging,Iwouldsaythefocus,the

mindfocusisprobablythebiggestkeyelementtomebeingsuccessfulinthoseparticularthings.

Andwhetherit’sflyingorwritingatest,thefocusandinmostcasesthepreparationaswell.But

let’ssayit’ssomethingthatdoesn’tneedpreparationbutyou’redoingitandyouexcelit,it’s

themindfocus.Concentration.

Manyparticipantsmadesimilarmentionofthecriticalimportanceoffocusinperformingtotheirfull

capacity.Exceptionalperformanceswereoftennotablefortheeaseandflowoffocus,whereasduring

less‐than‐bestperformancespilotsoftenfeltdistractedorfounditdifficulttoengagefullyinatask

orientedfocus.

IntheMoment

Asnotedinthepre‐performancephase,participantscharacterizedaneffectivemission

executionfocusasbeinginthemoment.Thisinvolvedshuttingoutallotherirrelevantorunnecessary

stimuliordistractingthoughts.

Yourfocusnarrowsandyou’renotthinkingaboutotherstuff.Icanhaveoutsidestressesat

home,orwherever,anditwon’taffectme.It’llaffectmebeforeIgetintheplane,it’llaffectme

asI’mwalkingtotheplane,andassoonasIgetintotheplaneIdon’tthinkaboutitanymore

untilI’monthegroundbecauseI’mbusyenoughwiththat.(Participant12)

Iwouldsay–[it’shardtoputintowords]–totalityofthemind.It’slike100%ofyourbrainis

focusedonthere.Andthatusuallyispronetoincreasingyourchancesofsuccess,mychancesof

success.(Participant14)


Alotofotherthingsarebeingignored.Anexampleinflyingiswhenyou’redoingaerobatics,

you’reunderG[gravitationalforce]thewholetimebutyoutotallyputthataside,youdon’t

focusonthat,youfocusonthemaneuverwhichtendstoactuallyincreaseyourgtolerance

even.Becausethat’sjustsomethingyou’renotworriedaboutrightnow.(Participant2)

Participantsdescribedbeingabletoleaveotherdistractionsbehindassoonastheybegantheflight.

Participant14explained,“therestdoesn’texist”;thetaskathandistheonlythingthatmatters.

Beinginthemomentalsoinvolvedanelementofanticipationandaconnectionwiththeflowof

tasks.Participantswerethinkingaheadtowhatwouldhappennextandpreparingthemselvesbefore

theyneededtoact.Inthisway,participantswereabletomovefluidlyfromonetasktothenext,

withouthesitation.

WhenI’mintheairplaneIdon’tthinkaboutanythingelsethanwhat’scomingupnext.Notwhat

I’mdoingrightnow,butwhat’sgonnahappeninthenextfiveminutes;Ihavetoknow.Because

whatI’mdoingrightnowisdependantonwhatI’mgonnadoinfiveminutes,soyoualways

havetobefiveminutesaheadofthatairplanesothatyoucanplanaccordingtothat.

(Participant7)

Ithinkabigpartoftheflyinggameisthat:Whatisnext?Tomethatisthebigfocus.WhatamI

doingnow?WhatcouldIdo?Ratherthanjustsitthereand‘ohwe’rehere’,andnowyou’re

lookinginthepastagain.(Participant9)

ItfeelslikeIcalmdown,andIjustkindofgothroughthemotions.Idon’tknowthebestwayto

phraseit.Youjustkindofsitdownandstartgoingthroughthingsanditkindofalljustcomes

together.Andyou’renotreallysearchingforthatnextthing.(Participant12)

Participantsemphasizedtheimportanceofremainingaheadoftheairplaneatalltimes.Pilotsfeltthat

becausethingshappensoquicklyinmilitaryflying,iftheyarenotaheadoftheaircraft,theywillbe


behindit.Beingbehindtheaircraftcanpresentamajorproblemasthepilotthenbeginstoreactrather

thanact.Oncethepilotisbehindtheairplane,itbecomesverydifficulttorecover.

Participantsalsonotedtheimportanceofbeingabletobroadenornarrowtheirfocus,as

requiredbythetask.Whileflying,participantscouldattendtostimulifromavarietyofsources(suchas

thehorizon,radiocalls,instrumentsandgauges).Whenexecutingacriticalordifficulttask,participants

narrowedtheirfocustoonlythosestimulithatwereessentialforthesuccessofthattask.

You’rethinkingaboutit[missionobjective]allthewayout,‘causethatinsert[oftroops]isfairly

critical,butyou’restillrunningthemission.Soyou’rebusy,butIcanstillseewhenthere’s

certaincallsmadeintheairplane,sortoflikefivemilesback.Andthenyou’dstarttogetintoa

cadenceasagroup,andtheneverybodyjustgoes[motionsacomingtogetherwithhands]and

allyou’reworryingaboutnowistheexactpointthatyou’regonnaputthosetroopson.Andas

youcomeoffthattargetyougo[motionspullingapartwithhands]rightbackoutagainandnow

youstarthearingyourboystalkingatyouagain[overtheradio].(Participant1)

Igetvery,veryfocused...Ifit’snormalandI’mjustflyingalongIhavetheabilitytoaccept

stimulusfromabunchofdifferentplaces.Butwhenitcomestoaveryfocusedtask,thenthat

stuffstartsgoingoutofmyperipheralandIfocusonjustthatone[task].(Participant2)

ParticipantsalsomentionedrelyingonATCtoletthemknowifanyotheraircraftwerecloseby.Knowing

thatthetowerwaskeepingwatchovertheairtrafficallowedtheparticipantstofocustheirresources

onthetaskwithlessconcernfortheirsurroundings.

SituationalAwareness

Forthepurposesofthisinvestigation,situationalawareness[SA]isdefinedasapilot’sworking

knowledgeofhis/herenvironment,includingairtraffic,weatherconditions,aircraftstatus,task

demands,etc.Thisawarenesscanbeeithertemporalorspatial.AbroadSAallowsapilottodirect


his/herfocusappropriatelyandavoidbeingcaughtoffguardbyanunexpectedsituation(suchas

anotheraircraftflyingcloseby).

Yousortofneedtomulti‐taskbutyouneedtofocusatthesametime.Youneedtobeawareof

theaircraftperformanceparameters–youraltitude,yourheading,yourairspeed–andatthe

sametimeyouneedtobelisteningtotheradioforyourcallsign,andatthesametimeyou

needtothinkaboutweather,youneedtothinkaboutthemechanicalstateofyouraircraft–

howmuchgasyou’reburning–soyouneedtothinkaboutallthesethings.Notnecessarilyat

thesametime,butinseries,veryquickly.Soyouneedtokeepyour,wecallitascan,youneed

tomoveyourscanandyoucan’tstopit;it’sgottaalwayskeepgoing.(Participant10)

Ithinkbeingabletocopeinchangingcircumstances[isthemostimportantskillforapilot].

Becauseyoucanhaveaplan,buttheplancanchangevery,veryquickly.Sosituational

awareness[SA]throughoutchangingenvironmentswouldprobablybethenumberonething.

Becausethehandsandfeetarejustbasic,right?Youknow,everybody[canlearn]handsand

feet,butit’sthethinkingpartthat’sthemostimportant.(Participant15)

Itrytobeawareasmuchaspossible[ofwhatthecrewisfocusingon],especiallywhenIhave

peoplewithlessexperience.Ithinkthemoreexperiencetheyhave,themoretheyworryabout

whattofocuson,importantthings.Sowhentheywerelessexperienced,Ihadaflightengineer

andco‐pilotthatwerelessexperienced,IwouldmonitortheirfocusandifIhadtoredirectI

woulddothat,forsure.(Participant13)

Apilotmustbecontinuallyupdatinghis/herSAinordertorespondappropriatelytostimuliandperform

maneuverssafely.TheseparticipantsdescribedthemselvesashighinSA,meaningthattheyhad

excellentfocusingskillsandtheabilitytomonitoralltherelevantvariablesduringaflight.Participants

believedthattheirSAimprovedastheygainedmoreexperienceflying.


Itcomeswithexperience...someguysarejustbetteratitthanothers.Butitalsodependson

yourexperience,becausewhenyoustartflying,youdon’treallyhaveadatabaseonwhatcan

happen;you’rejustbarelystartingtofly,youdon’tknow,youdon’tthinkaboutallthe

possibilitiesorwhatyoucanbeconfrontedwithwhileyou’reairborne.Soyourdatabaseisvery

small.Asyougetmoreexperience,nowyou’reabletothinkmoreaboutwhatcanhappenout

thereandmakebetterdecisionsaboutitjustbasedonyourexperience.It’scertainlysomething

thatyoucandevelop.(Participant7)

Astheybecamemoreexperiencedaspilots,participantsbecamemorefamiliarwiththepossible

situationstheycouldencounterandwhattheywouldneedtobeawareoftobesuccessfulincarrying

outtheirmission.Participantsalsoincreasedtheirskillsinperformingroutineprocedureswithout

consciousthought,allowingthemtofocusmoreontheirsurroundingsandotherSArelevantstimuli.

Capacity

Asdescribedinthepre‐performancephase,capacitycanbeseenasapilot’sabilitytoeffectively

attendtomultiple,oftendynamic,variables.Capacity,ortheabilitytofocusontherightthingsatthe

righttime,isessentialtothesafeandeffectivecommandofanaircraft.TodevelopabroadSA,apilot

musthaveasignificantamountofrelevantfocusingcapacity.Theparticipantsinthisstudypossessed

sufficientcapacitytoshifttheirfocusasnecessaryandattendtomultiple,relevantstimuliintheirSAat

variouspointsthroughoutaflightormission.

There’sacertainpercentageofthecoreofyourfocusthathastobe[centered]onthetaskat

hand,andthentherearesecondaryringsthatdealwithotheraspects[ofthemission].Andour

corefocus,whatwe’retryingtodo,iswe’retryingtomakethatmoreandmoreautomaticor

secondnature,suchthatwecanbegintoputthe[other]taskson...Andwegive[students]

objectivechecklistsinthebeginning,hopingthatitbecomesfluidandnaturalattheend.That’s


thebalancebetweenthetwo.Andwe,asseasonedaviators,simplyjustdothosethings

naturallynow.(Participant6)

Ifindmybrainkeepsjumpingfromone[task]totheother,whileprioritizingwhat’simportant.I

catchmyselfdoingthatathome,orinanythingIdo,butI’dsaywhenI’mflyingit’sgoingback

andforthbetweentheimportanttasks....beingabletowatchwhat’sgoingon,orflyandlisten

totheradioandthinkaboutwhat’saheadandwhat’sgoingtohappennext.Iguessbeingable

togobackandforthbetweenthosetasks.Ifinditjustcomesnaturally.Idon’tthinkaboutit.I

don’tforcemyselftodothat.(Participant13)

Experiencedpilotsdescribedhavingtheabilitytosubconsciouslymonitortheautomaticmechanicsof

flyingwhilealsoconsciouslyshiftingfromonetasktoanotherandanticipatingupcomingevents.

ConnectedFocus

Whenfullyfocused,participantswereconnectedwiththeirtaskandthemissioninanatural,

organic,orfreeflowingway.Participantsdescribedcompletingtaskswithoutconsciouslythinkingabout

them,bytrustingintheirabilitiesandsimplyallowingtheirbodiestoperformthemovementsthatthey

havetrainedthemtodo.

[DoI]getintoagrooveanddoit?Yeah.Especiallywhenyougetverycomfortablewithit...The

moretimeyouhaveintheairplane,youknowthatfeeloftheaircraft–ormusclememory,

brainmemoryorwhateveritis–ifsomethingfeelsalittleweirdyou’lljustgo‘okaysomething’s

offhere’andyou’llbeabletoanticipateorchange.Ifthewind’smovingyouaroundyou’ll

actuallygo‘wow,thisisnotnormalsoI’llfixit’.(Participant8)

Tobehonest,I’mactuallyaskingmyselfnow‘doIevenfocus?’–nowthatyou’veaskedmethat

question.Andasridiculousasitsounds,Ithinkthere’salwaysgoingtobelittleitemsthroughout

thetripthatyou’regoingtodothatyougottafocuson,butI’mnotthinkingaboutthatasI’m

doingit.Ialreadythoughtaboutthatinmychairflight.(Participant11)


EachoneoftheairplanesI’ve[flown]hasdifferentchecks,soI’mstillsometimesthinking‘what

doIneedcheck‐wise?’‘WhatdoIneedhere?’Butbasicallytotaketheairplanefromthis

positiondownwindtothispositiononfinal,andwhatIneedtodotomaintainthat,andwhat

thewindsaredoing,I’mnotthinkingaboutitanywherenearasmuchasthestudentsare,

becauseit’sjustkindoflikewellthereweare,weland.(Participant9)

Participantsdescribedfeelingconnectedtotheairplane,asifitwereanextensionofthemselves,similar

tothewayinwhichsomepeopledriveacarorrideabike.Thisideaofdoingwithoutconsciously

thinkingledsomepilotstofeelthattheyweremaybenotfocusedafterall,eventhoughitisapparent

fromtheirstatementsthatatthetimeoftheexperience,theywerefullyengaged.Thesepilotswerenot

“trying”tofocusbutweresimplyfreeingthemselvesfromirrelevantthoughtsandconcernstoconnect

withwhattheyweredoing.Someoftheseparticipantsseemedtointerprettheword“focus“as

somethingthatrequiredmoreconsciouseffort(asopposedtofreedomfromeffort).

Manyparticipantsfoundthatwhentheyattemptedtoconsciouslythinkaboutfamiliar

maneuversoractionstheyinhibitedtheirperformance.

It’sveryequivalenttowhenIflewhelicoptersandhovering–ifyou’rethinkingaboutit,usually

yourbrain’snotthinkingasfastastheaircraftismoving,sowhenyoumakeanactionyou’re

alreadyonestepbehindofwheretheoppositeactionneedstogoinnow.Andsohovering,for

someguysinitiallybecomes...quitehumorousanyways.Theytendtomoveallovertheplace

andthey’rereactingtowhattheysee,physically,rightnow.Whereaslateron,onceyouhavea

fewhoursonahelicopter,youdon’teverthinkabouthovering,youjustphysicallylookwhere

youareandsay‘okayIneedtomoveoverthere’;youdon’ttellyourhandsorfeetanything,you

juststartmoving.Sosometimesover‐thinkingthingscangetyouinto[trouble]–wellit’sjust

thatwhenyoustartphysicallythinkingaboutthings,youusuallycan’tthinkofthemfast

enough.Inthecaseofformation,it’s‘okay,I’mbelow,I’mgoingtomoveup’,andashe’sdoing


thathecouldbegettingclosertothe[other]airplanebutrightnowhe’sconcentratingon

movingupbecausethat’swhathisbrainisworkingonrightthissecond.(Participant2)

Theabilitytoactinpositiveandappropriatewayswithoutthehesitationordelaycausedbyconscious

thoughtprocessingwasviewedasveryimportantformilitarypilots.Duetothehighspeedsatwhich

theseaircrafttravel,ifpilotsareunabletocarryouttasksandmechanicsautomaticallytheyriskputting

themselvesandothersindanger.

PositiveFocus

Itwasevidentthatapositivefocuswasanimportantfactorinfluencingperformanceforall

participants.Forsome,thispositivefocuswasfoundintheirrefusaltothinkaboutfailing.Participant10

stated,“Youtryandcompartmentalize[blockitout],becauseifyou’rethinkingaboutfailingthenyou’re

notthinkingaboutsucceeding.Andyou’renotsettingyourselfuptodowell,ifthatmakessense”.

Participant7commented,“Ineverreallythoughtaboutthat[consequencesoffailure].Tometherewas

onlyoneoutcome:Iwasgoingtobesuccessful”.Forotherparticipants,theirfocuswasdirectedin

positivewaysinthattheydidnotthinkabouttheriskstheyfacedwhileflying.Participant5stated,“I

neverthinkaboutit[risks].Ifyoudo,youcouldn’tdothisjob.It’slikeifyouthinkaboutpeopleshooting

atyou:ifyou’rescaredofthat,thendon’tdothisjob.That’sblackandwhite”.Participant12offereda

similarthought:“[I]don’tthinkaboutit[potentialrisks]thatmuch,becausethere’snosenseinlosing

sleepoverit.Whenyou’reintheairplaneyou’rejustlookingoutasmuchasyoupossiblycan”.These

participantsrecognizedthatthoughtsoffailureandpotentialriskwouldonlyhindertheirabilitytoact

positivelyandtoperformwithconfidenceandsotheyavoidedanythoughtsofthatnature.

Whenaskedtodescribetheirbestfocusinflight,twoparticipantsreferredtophysiologicalor

emotionalreactions.Participant10stated,“Iactuallyenjoyit.Ifeelmorealive,IfeelI’mgoodat[flying];

Ifeellikehey,I’mgoodatthis,thisiswhatI’msupposedtobedoing.Ilikeit”.Participant13described

feelingcalmandrelaxedwhenhewasfullyfocused.Manyparticipantsspokeaboutanabsenceof


tensionduringflightandastrongpositivedesiretosucceedintheirmission.Thesemaynotbeovertor

deliberateexpressionsofapositivefocus,howevertheyareindicativeofthepresenceofanoverall

positivemindsetorfocusinflight.

FocusingThroughEmergencies

Inemergencysituations,pilotsmustbeabletoremaincalmandfocusedtoconsiderthebest

courseofactionwithinalimitedtimeperiod.Themajorityofparticipantshadexperiencedstressful

situationswhileflyingthatrequiredanemergencyresponse.Duringthesechallengingtimes,all

participantsrecalledthattheywereabletomaintainacalmandeffectivefocus.

Thethoughtof"ohmygod...Isthisreallyhappening"definitelycrossedmymind.Thethought

ofejectionissomethingthatejectionseatpilotsthinkofoftenandtobeinthemomentwhereit

couldpossiblyoccuriskindofsurreal.ItissomethingthatIwasn'tworriedaboutatthetimeas

wewereinareasonablygoodpositiontoland.Afterseeingthatwehadsufficientenergyto

maketherunwayIdorecallasenseofreliefcomingoverme.(Participant8)

I’vehadanenginefire;itwasstartingtodestroyitselfontheship[aircraftcarrier].Itwasa

challenge,butIfind,myself,whenI’munderpressuremoreIfindI’mabletoactuallycalm

myselfmore.Andyouhaveto.(Participant11)

Imeanyourwholebodyisreacting,evenyourphysicallikeyourbreathingrategoesup,your

heartbeatgoesup,yougettense,andnowyouhavetofightthat.Youhavetodealwithyour

owncomposurebeforeyoustartdealingwiththeairplane,really.That’sabouthowIremember

itandhowIdealtwithit.(Participant4)

Someparticipantsexpressedanawarenessoftheirautonomicresponsetothestressfulsituation(e.g.,

increasedheartrate,respirationrate,perspiration,etc.),howevertheirconsciousresponsewasto

maintaincontroloftheirfocusandtheiractions.Someparticipantsregainedtheircomposurebyfirst

focusingontheirbreathing.Participant11describedhowheachievedthiscontrol:


Withmyco‐pilot[duringtheenginefire],theswitcheswerethere[i.e.,theco‐pilotwasflicking

thecorrectswitches]butprobablyweren’tintherightorder,becauseofthenervousness,the

adrenalineorwhatever.Idon’tknowwhatkicksin,butyoudon’tthinkright.AndI’vealways

stressedto,wellmyselftobeginwith,andmystudents,Isay‘guys,unlessweexplodeinmidair,

takethetwosecondstobreathe.Youneedtobreatheatleastonceandthenyou’llseeyour

mindwillrelaxabit’.Yourmindwillde‐clutter...Iknow[inthatsituation]ittookafewseconds

formejusttothink‘okay,emergencyengineshutdown,go:SSLoff,Thandlepull’[andsoon].

Severalparticipantsdiscussedtheimportanceofthecockpitenvironment.Forthesepilots,thecockpit

wasaplacewheretheyhadtrainedtoremaincalmandconnected.Theyfeltthatthislearned

associationbetweenthecockpitandaphysicalabsenceoftensionallowedthemtomaintaintheir

composureinemergencysituations.

WellIthinkthateverybodywasconcerned[whenthelandinggeardidnotcomedown],butI

thinkaswellthewholemethodologyoftrainingthatwedointhesimulatorsisallkindoflike

‘pilotsarereallycalmpeople’;it’sjustreallykindofbasedaroundthat,likeherearethethings

youneedtodoandtheseareyourtools.Here’sachecklist,here’ssomeknowledge,here’s

someexperience.AndIthinkthatallkindofleadstowardsacertainamountofcalmnessbuilt

intothecockpitenvironment...I’msurethereisalevelofpressureinatensemoment,evenin

thesimulatorbecausethey’resorealistic,it’slikearealplane,butwedon’tlikefailure,you

knowwewon’tacceptitwejustkeepfightingit.SoIthinkthatmaintainsalevelofcalmness

withmostofthepilotsI’veflownwith.(Participant9)

Allparticipantsseemedtoapproachtheiremergencysituationsinarelativelycalmandlogicalmanner,

maintainingtheir“inthemoment”focusanddrawingupontheircapacitytoattendtovariousstimulias

necessary.


Automaticactions

Whenfacedwithanemergencysituation,manyparticipantsnotedthattheirresponsesseemed

tooccuralmostautomatically.Theyrecallednothavingtothinkaboutwhattheyweredoing,butsimply

allowingtheirtrainingandinstincttotakeover.

Wewerejustdoingaerobatics,hewasshowingmesomeofthestufftheydoinGreece.And

backthenwewerehavingsomeissueswithaprop‐sleevetouchdown,sosomethinginsidethe

enginewastouching,metalagainstmetal,anditwassheddingmetaleverywhere.Soyouwould

losethrustontheengineandyouwouldknowrightawaytherewasaproblem.Everything

changedatthatpoint.Everythingwe’dbeentrainingfor,becausewealwayssimulatethose

instances,andatthattimeIknewitwasn’tsimulated.SoIjusttookcontrolfromhimand

broughttheairplaneback.Ijustdidmydrill.(Participant4)

Theytrainyousomuchthatifyougetintothesedifficultsituationsyourtrainingtakesback

over,soyoudon’thavetothink.Youjustdowhatyoupracticedacouplehundredtimes.Like

withweaponstraining,it’showtoloadaweapon,howtofireit,andyoupracticeitafew

hundredtimessoifallofthesuddenweweremovingfromonebasetoanotherbaseandgotin

afirefight,itwasjustreactiveatthatpoint.Youjustwentalongwithitbecauseyouknewwhat

wasgoingon.Yourhandsandminddotheirownthingandit’snotoneofthethingsyouwere

taskconcentratingonatall.(Participant2)

Therewascertainlyanelementoftrustduringthesechallengingtimes.Participantsdidnotsecond‐

guesstheirautomaticreactions,butsimplyallowedtheirbodiestoreactaccordingtoinstinct.

Participant6describedaformationflightduringwhichheexpectedtheformationleadertoperforma

maneuverinaspecificway,butbecamedisorientedwhentheleadermaneuveredinadifferentway.

Luckily,hewasabletorecoverhisaircraftandnarrowlyavoidhittingtheground.


IwouldsaytheclosestthatIevercametokillingmyselfinanairplane...wascarryinga

photographer....Itwasaformationofsixairplanesthatweweretryingtophotograph,usbeing

theseventh....ItwasonlylikemysixthsensethatcausedmetorealizethatIwasabouttofly

intotheground,andImaneuvered.SoifIwastoanalyzethat,thedistractionof...tryingtoget

intopositionforhimtogetaphotographwasone[factor].Butanalytically,expectation

probablyplayedthebiggestrole...myexpectationwasthatthebosswasgoingtodo[the

maneuver]thewaythatIdid,andhedidn’t,hediditadifferentway.Andtherewasnothing

wrongwithwhathedid...Butwhatsavedmeisdifficulttosay.Isayitwasmysixthsense

becausesomethingjustdidn’tseemright...Therewassomethingthattriggeredme[tolook

forward].AndIwasabletoreact,therewasn’tpanic,thereweren’tthosethings.Iwasableto

reactandthensafelyrecovertheaircraft.(Participant6)

HadParticipant6nottrustedhisintuitionthatsomethingwasamiss,helikelywouldnothavehad

sufficienttimetorecovertheaircraftsafely.

Pilotsalsoreportedexperiencingafeelingofsuspendedtimeinemergencycontexts.Participant

11recalledhisexperiencewithanenginefireinagroundedaircraft:

Assoonassomeonesaid‘fire’thetwopeoplebehindmewereoutofthecockpitandIwas

stuckwithmyco‐pilot.AndIremembermyco‐pilot,weweredoingtheemergencyengineshut‐

down,andmyco‐pilotwasjustflickingswitchesandeverythingandIbroughtitdowntokindof

aslowtime,andyouhaveto…intheaircraft,unlessitexplodesyoudohavetimetothinkfor

mostemergencies.Wasitachallenge,thatepisode?Itcouldhavebeen,Iguess.Ittestedmea

bit,too.Becausewhenitreallydoeshappen,there’salwaysthattwoorthreesecondsthat

you’rejustgoingtositthereandyou’regoingtobelike‘okaywhatthehellishappening?’...

there’susuallythattwosecondswhereittakesforyourbraintoabsorb‘whatdoIneedtodo?’


Becauseyouknowit’snotatrainingscenarionow,andmaybeit’sthatpartwhereyouhear

peoplecomebackandtheysaytimestandsstillforthatbit,anditdoesfeellongerthanitis.

Participantsfeltthattimestoodstillastheytookamomenttoabsorbwhatwasgoingonaroundthem,

recalltheirproceduresandpriorities,andformulateaplanofaction.

Participantsexplainedthatbeforeevergoingupinanaircrafttheywerewellawareofwhat

theirprioritieswereinanemergency;thus,theyknewwhichtasksneededtobecompletedfirst.By

havingpre‐establishedpriorities,participantsalwaysappearedtohavesomewhereconstructiveto

directtheirfocusinanemergency.

Therearedifferentstages[ofresponse]andtherearedifferentemergencies,andthatisforall

aircraft,theredpages,yellowpages[standardemergencyresponseprocedures].Soyes,the

immediateactionsarebang,bang,bang.Butaircraftcontrolisalwaystheprimarything:don’t

doanythingifyoucan’tflythething,right?(Participant14)

Knowingorestablishingprioritiesinanemergencywasakeyfactorindecisiveaction.Ifapiloteverfelt

overwhelmedorunsureinanemergency,he/shewouldrelyontheCAF’sstandardprioritysystem:

aviate,navigate,communicate.Whenindoubt,apilot’sfirstpriorityisalwaystoflytheplane[i.e.,to

nothittheground].Oncetheplaneisflyinglevel,thepilotcannavigateordeterminewherehe/sheis

heading.Afternavigating,apilotwillthenattendtotheradiosandcommunicatewithATCorother

aircraftifnecessary.Withthesethreeprioritiesasafoundation,thepilotwouldthenevaluatethe

situationanddeterminetheorderofsubsequenttasks.

Taskorientedfocus

Participantsmaintainedafocusonproblemsolvingthroughouttheirresponsestoemergency

situations.Theydidnotbecomedistractedbyirrelevantstimuliorphysicalreactionstothestressful

circumstances.Whenpilotswereflyingwithacrew,theymadeaconcertedefforttocommunicatewith

thecrewanddemonstratetheirowncomposuresoastoreassureothersandmaintaincontrolofcrew


actions.Participantsdescribedmaintainingataskfocus,concentratingonwhattheycouldcontroland

blockingoutotherunimportantstimuli.

Ifocusrightaway...assoonasyoupanicyou’renotthinkinganymore,judgmentisoutthe

window.Sothat’swhenIforcemyself,ifIcatchmyself,totakeonestepback,calmdown,and

thenfocus.WhatdoIhavetodohere,what’simportant,anditcomesbacktofocus.AndI

prioritizewhatIneedtodo.(Participant13)

[Intheemergency,communication]waslikeaconstant,whilethoseguyswereworkinginthe

backoftheairplaneandupdatingusonceinawhile,itwasaconstantbetweenthetwopilots:

here’stheplan,here’showlongwe’regonnaflyfor,here’showmuchfuelwe’regonnaburn

beforeweabsolutelywillland–becauseyoucan’teject,sobasicallyyou’restayinginthe

airplane,there’snoparachutesonboardoranythingelse.Sowejustworkeditthrough.ButI

thinkthewholelookingaheadhelpswiththe‘ohwell,youovertorquedtheengines,thisis

reallynotimportantrightnow’.(Participant9)

Participantsdidnotspendtimeworryingabouthowtheymanagedtofindthemselvesinanemergency

situation;theysimplyfocusedonwhatwasrequiredtoresolvethesituationinasafeandeffective

manner.

Adaptation

Animportantskillwhenrespondingtoemergencieswastheabilitytoadapttonewsituations

andmakeappropriatedecisions,sometimeswithverylittletime.Participantsemphasizedthatwhen

facedwithanovelsituation,theymustrefertowhattheyalreadyknow(frompastexperience)and

adaptthatknowledgetothenewcircumstances.

Ithinkinflying,especiallyfighterflying,everysituationisdifferentandyoucan’texplaintoa

guywhat’sgonnahappenontheground.Butonceyouseeit,somethingsimilar,youcanapply


thatsamevisualreferencetosomethingelseandgetitdone.Somaybevisuallearnersarea

littlebetteratthisflyingbusinessthantheothertypes.(Participant5)

Thetrainingisfairlystraightforwardandthere’sjustnotenoughtimetoseeeverysituationthat

youcanencounter,it’simpossible.Asapilot,youstartlearningthefirstdayyoustartflying,and

youwillstoplearningafteryou’redoneyourcareer.Youwilllearnsomethingeverysingletime.

Soyoucan’tlearneverythingwhileyou’reontraining...Soyoumakeyourdecisionbasedon

whatyou’relearned,asbestyoucan,Imeanyouwillmakethatdecisionbasedonyour

experience.Youalwaystrytomakethebestdecisionbasedonwhatyouknow,andbeingable

toadaptortakeskillsthatyou’velearnedandadaptittoanewsituationisamust.Youneedto

beabletodothat.Ifyoucan’tdothat,you’renotgonnagoveryfar.(Participant7)

Participant13discussedhispracticeofcontinuouslythinkingabouthisoptions.Ifhesuspectedthata

hazardoussituationmightariseinflight,hewouldpreparehimselfbyconsideringwaystoadapthis

missionplans:

WehaveanotherabilitythatIthinkstudentsneed:tobeabletoadaptallthetime.Theycan’t

walktotheaircraftthinkingthateverythingwillhappenexactlyastheyexpectorplanned.And

sowhileflyinglikethat[exercise]upnorth,theweatherwasworsethanwhatweexpected,but

asIseeitgettingworseI’malreadythinkingaboutplanA,B,C,D,E,ifitkeepsgettingworse.

Pilotswereflexibleandextremelyattentivetoanychangesintheircircumstances.Whentheirsituation

changedunexpectedly,pilotsattemptedtoadjusttheirplansaccordingtotheirrequisiteknowledge.

Pilotsrarelydecidedonacourseofactionthatwasnotrelatedinsomewaytoapriorexperienceor

knownprocedure.

Ofnoteisthefactthattherewassomeslightvariationrelatedtotheeasewithwhich

participantsfeltthattheycouldenterafocusedstateduringflight.Oneparticipantinparticular

struggledwithhisfocus.


Ididn’tdreamaboutbeingapilotgrowingup,soIhadareallyhardtimehere,justtryingtonot

daydream.WhenI’mintheplanehalfthetimeI’mpicturingmynextrenovation....Ijusthave

somanythingsonmymind...IfoundthatIwasworriedaboutnotevenmakingitthroughasa

studentbecauseIdaydreamedsomuchintheplanethatI’dmakemistakes.AndIstillhavea

hardtime,youknow,maintainingmyfocusonthat.Ithinkthat’sprobablythethingI’vegrown

withmostinflyingaircraftwiththemilitaryisthatI’vebeenforcedtofocusonsomethingfor

morethanlike10seconds.(Participant3)

Uponcompletionofhispilottraining,Participant3foundthathisfocusingabilitiesimproved.Withless

perceivedpressureandincreasedexperience,hetaughthimselftofocusatimportantpointswhen

instructingstudents.Hewasalsoabletofocusduringimportantflights,suchascheckrides.He

attributedthisabilitytotherelativemagnitudeofthesetasks:

Priorityofthetask.Ithasaneffect.Theconsequenceislarge,ifIscrewacheckrideup.

Whereas,allitwouldbeismemissingalittlethingonastudentlikeIdidn’thearthathedidtwo

minorchecksinreverseorder,youknow.Soattheendofthedaythatcertainlyisn’tearth

shattering.(Participant3)

Itwasinterestingthatthispilotfeltthathewasabletofocuswithverylittledifficultywhenplaying

hockey.Hefeltthatthiswasduetothefast‐pacedandexcitingnatureofthegame.Oneparticipant

mentionedhavingdifficultymaintaininghis“scan”,orhissituationalawareness.Otherparticipants

indicatedthattheybecameboredquicklyorthattheyneededtoforcethemselvestofocus.Thiswas

oftendue,itseemed,tothenatureoftheirrolesasinstructors.Whenflyingwithstudents,participants

werenotphysicallyengagedintheflightmechanicsandwereobservingroutinesthattheyhadobserved

manytimesbefore.


DistractionControl

Militarypilotsareconstantlybarragedwithinformationinflight,especiallyduringcomplex

missionsordifficultconditions.13ofthe15pilotsintervieweddiscussedtheirpersonalexperiences

withdistractorsinflightandhowtheymaintainorregaintheirfocusdespitethesecompetingelements.

Forsomeparticipants,thesepotentialdistractorsneverposedaproblem.Thesepilotsletgoof

irrelevantdistractorsandmaintainedfocusonthetaskathand.Forothers,humanelementssuchas

fatigue,workload,priormistakes,andvariousenvironmentalelementscompetedfortheirattentionon

amoreregularbasis.Toensurethattheywereabletomaintainorregain(ifnecessary)anappropriate

taskfocus,participantsdiscussedtheuseofdistractioncontroltechniques.Themosteffective

techniquesusedbythesepilotswereverbalcuesandrefocusing.

VerbalCues

Whenparticipantswereawarethattheycouldbecomedistractedwhencompletingaflighttask,

theyoftenusedverbalcuestopreventtheirfocusfromshifting.Forexample,whenattemptingto

completeamulti‐stepprocedure,oramaneuverthathadbeendifficultfortheminthepast,

participantssometimesspokealoudthevarioussteps,walkingthemselvesalong,astheyprogressed

throughtheprocedure.

I’llverbalizeit,like‘geardown,flaps,power’.I’llsayallthosewords.Andit’sprobablyafairly

highpercentage,probably80to90%ofthepilotsouttheredoit;theyverbalizethings.Andthat

worksforsomemaneuvers.Slowflight,forinstance,itdoesworkbecauseit’sslowenough.But

otherthings,likesomeofthefightermaneuversormoreoftheadvancedmaneuvers,things

happenveryrapidlyandifyoutalkthroughthem,you’llbebehind.So[some]guyswilltryto

talkthroughthem,butthey’rebehind.(Participant2)

Ononetrip,Iwasjustallovertheplace.Iwasn’tsettlingin.AndIwasflyingwiththisguy,[name

removed],hetoldme‘justtalkyourselfthroughit’.AndIstartedtodothat,andI’dsay‘plane,


line,hinge’,andthosearethethreereferencesthatweuse,‘plane,line,hinge’,andIwas

forcingmyself,asIsaidit,tolookatthosedifferentspotsontheairplane.Anditfinallystarted

toclickformeonthatflight.(Participant10)

AsstatedbyParticipant2,thesecuesareonlyappropriateforuseinslowermaneuversorwhenapilot

isbeginningtolearncertainmaneuversorsequences.Participantsfoundthisstrategyusefultoensure

thattheydidnotoverlookanythingandtoguidetheirfocustotheappropriatestepsinthesequence.

Refocusing

Assoonasapilotfoundthathe/shewasdistracted,theimmediateresponsewastoattemptto

refocusonthetaskathandasquicklyaspossible.Fortheseparticipants,refocusinggenerallyinvolved

threecomponents:compartmentalizationofthedistractor,prioritizationoftheremainingtasks,and

shiftingfocustothenewpriority.Manyparticipantsusedverbalcuestopromptorsupportthisprocess.

Youdothinkabout[yourmistakesinflight];ifsomethinghappenedIwouldthinkaboutit

quicklyandgo‘shit,thatsucks’butthen–becauseIknowtherepercussionsofwhathappensif

youdon’tdoit,justfromflyingforsolong–youhavetojustgo‘okay,what’snext?”Andmaybe

Imightevensaythatoutloud‘what’snext’,andthatforcesmetocarryon.(Participant5)

Youjusthavetoslowdown...theothermisconception,Iguess,is[thatthereis]alwaysasense

ofurgency.AndIguessjustslowingitdown,andifyou’renotinapositiontoslowitdown,

buying[time].Doingsomethingtobuyyourselftimetoslowdown.Andthentakingastep

backwardsandsaying‘okay’,likerefocusing‘aviate,navigate,communicate’,goingbacktowhat

youknow.(Participant15)

Someparticipantsusedthephrase‘Aviate,navigate,communicate’asaverbalcuetorefocusonthe

appropriatetask.ThisphrasecomesfromtheUPTS(UndergraduatePilotTrainingSystem)andistaught

toallstudentsasatoolforprioritizing.Aspreviouslydiscussed,apilot’stopthreeprioritieswillalways

befirsttoflytheaircraft(aviate),secondtoorientthemselves(navigate),andthirdtotalktoATCor


othersontheradio(communicate).Participantsalsoaskedthemselveswhatwasimportantrightnow,

orwhethertheyweredoingtherightthing.

Itrytoget[students]todevelopthatskillofalwaysaskingthemselvesifwhattheyaredoingis

therightthing...I’veseenthatmanytimeswhereIwasinQuebecCity.IflewoutofCartier,we

werethreecrewmembersintheaircraftandeverytimeweflewoutoverthecityortoofarfrom

theairport,thecontroltowerwouldalwayssay‘okay,Ihavetrafficforyouinthisdirection,so

manymiles’.Many,manytimesIsawthreeheadsturn.AssoonasIseethat,Ibringmyhead

backtosomethingelse.Ialreadyhavetwopeoplelookingforthatone.Idon’tcareaboutit.And

thenIfocusonotherthings.Or,ifI’mtheonewhoshouldbelookingforthataircraftbecause

I’mnotflying,theotherpilot’sflying,Iwouldtellhim‘Iwilltakecareofit,youshouldhaveyour

attentionsomewhereelse’.(Participant13)

Forsomepilots,usuallythosewithmoreexperience,thethreecomponentsoftherefocusingprocess

(compartmentalizationofthedistractor,prioritizationofremainingtasks,andshiftingfocustothenew

priority)happenedalmostinstantaneously,whileforothers,attimes,itrequiredmoredeliberateeffort

orpromptingatoneormorestagesoftheprocess.

Compartmentalization

Themostcommondistractorsfromwhichparticipantsstruggledtorecoverweretheirown

mistakesduringtheflight.Thegenerallyfastpaceofmilitarymissionsrequiresthatpilotsmaintaintheir

‘inthemoment’focusandcontinuetoanticipateupcomingevents.Assuch,itisdangerousforapilotto

becaughtdwellingonapastmistake.Toavoidthishazard,participantswouldcompartmentalizethe

distractor,orsimplyblockitoutoftheirmindsandmoveforwardtothenexttaskorstep.

Weobviouslyareflyershereandinstructors,butwealsohavesecondaryduties;that’sonebig

thing.IfindIgetpulledinalotofdifferentdirections.Everybodywantsmetomakealotof

decisions,soasIcomedownfromaflight,I’mthinkingaboutdebriefingastudent,maybeIhave


anothereventthatdaythatI’vegottadoorI’mworkingonsomethinginmyofficeandthenI’ll

getalltheseotherinstructorsandschedulersandDeputyFlightCommandersandthey’reall

comingtome,saying‘whataboutthis?’and‘whataboutthat?’and‘howarewedoingthis?’

and‘canyoudothis?’Andsothere’salotofdistractionsforme[ontheground].AnddoItakeit

airborne?Ican,yeahIcan,definitely.Itrynotto.OnceIwalk[ontotheflightline]Itrytojust

leaveitallbehindme,buttherearedefinitelydistractionsthere,forsure.(Participant8)

AnotherthingIthinkisreallyimportantforstudentpilots,thatI’vehadtouseandI’veusedwith

somesuccess,iscompartmentalization.Whenyouscrewsomethinguponaflight,I’mactually

gonnagiveyoutwoexamplesofcompartmentalization:oneiswhenyouscrewsomethingupon

aflight,youneedtokindofboxthatupandputitbehindyoubecauseifyouthinkaboutitwhile

you’retryingtodosomethingelse,you’retakingattentionawayfromthetaskathand,and

that’snotgonnahelpyouatall,that’sgonnahurt;andthenanotherexampleof

compartmentalizationisifyou’vegotsomethinginyourlifethat’sgoingonthat’snotrelatedto

flying,maybeyouhadafightwithyourboss,maybeyourdogdiedoryourdad’ssickor

somethinglikethis,andyouchoosetogoflying,againyouneedtoboxthatupandnotworry

aboutit.Becausewhateverthoughtsyou’regivingtoyourdogoryourbossoryourwifeoryou

dadatthatpoint,they’renothelpingyouflyanairplane.Andit’smakingyoulesssafe.Sothat’s

somethingthat,youknow,intrainingifyoumakeamistakeyouneedtoputthatbehindyou.

Andthenintherealworld,samething:ifyoumakeamistakeyouhavetoputthatbehindyou.

Butalso,ifyoudodecidetogoflyingandyou’vegotsomeexternalstressors,youneedtoput

thoseaway,outofyourmind.(Participant10)

Apilot’sdecisionandabilitytocompartmentalizewasbolsteredwiththerecognitionofhis/herinability

tocontrolthedistractor.Forexample,apilotcouldnotcontrolamistakethatwasinthepastora

distractorthatwasapersonalissue,unrelatedtoflying.


Ijusttellmyself,ortherestofthecrew,‘okay,thathappened.Wecan’tfixitnow;it’stoolate.

Wenowhavetoconcentrateonthenextthing’.Andit’seithertellthemortellmyselfthattoo

bad,that’seitherafailpointifitwasatestorit’sathingthatwe’regonnahavetotalkabout

later.(Participant9)

WhenIwasintheMarines,guystalkedaboutit.Theytalkedaboutkindofboxingstuffupand

puttingitoutofyourmindforthetimebeing.Because,youknow,there’snotadamnthingyou

candoforyourdyingmomwhenyou’reflyinganairplane.Thatfightwithyourwife–youcan’t

callher,youcan’ttalktoher,youcan’tbuyherflowerswhileyou’reflying.Youjustneedto

focusonthetaskathand.(Participant10)

Havingmadethedecisiontoputthedistractoroutoftheirminds,participantscouldthendecidewhere

theirfocusshouldbeusingtheirprioritizationskills.Oncepilotshadprioritized,theycouldshiftfocusto

anappropriatetaskthatwouldbemostbeneficialforthemselvesandtheirmission.

Prioritization

Forthemajorityofpilots,prioritizationwassimplyamatterofreturningtoprocedureasthis

directedthemtothemostimportanttasks.Manyparticipantsreferredtothephrasefromtheirtraining

‘Aviate,navigate,communicate’.Thisprioritizationcomponentwasespeciallyimportantwhen

participantswerebeingdistractedbyanoverloadoftasks.Whenfacedwithalargenumberoftasks,

pilotsmayreachapointoftasksaturationwherethetaskrequirementsexceedthepilot’savailable

processingcapacity.Atthistime,pilotsmuststopattemptingtomanageallthetasksatonceandstart

prioritizingorfocusingonlyonwhatismostessentialatthatmoment.Iftasksaturationisnotattended

toimmediately,apilotcanquicklylosecontrolofthesituationandwindupbehindtheaircraft.

Thattookpersonaltrainingtotellmyselfifthat’shappeningtome[tasksaturation],Ineed

figureoutifthere’saredballthat’sthemostimportantball.Andifyouseefourballscomingat

you,Idon’tcareabouttheotherones,justcatchthatredball.Andjustusethatasthehow


[concept]togetyourselfout[ofthetasksaturation].Thisiswherewe’vegiventhestudentsthis

ideaofAviate‐Navigate‐Communicate;it’sthewayoutoftasksaturation,it’s‘flytheairplane

first’.Andit’severythingwedo,inallphasesofflight.AnytimeIseeastudentstrugglingwith

something,I’llsay‘okaywhat’sthemostimportantthingrightnow?’Andsometimesthey’llsay

‘doingthis’andyou’relike‘no,what’sgoingtokeepyoualiverightnow?Flyingtheairplane.So

justflyit’.(Participant2)

Well,onpurpose[theCAF]willtasksaturateyou[inthefighterweaponscourse].Because

everyonewho’safighterweaponsinstructor,ifthere’sawar,thoseguyswillbethewar.Not

thegenerals,notthepoliticians,it’stheguysthatarethefighterweaponsguysthatleadthe

packagesintowar.Soonpurpose,they’lltasksaturateyou.They’llmakesureyoudon’thave

enoughsleep,they’llchangethingsonyouattheverylastminute,they’llgiveyoustuffthat

you’renotexpecting.Andthetripsareallverydynamicandasbigastheycanpossiblybe,for

everytrip,forthreemonths.SoIimaginethatthatfirstcoursehelpedmeoutinmylaterflying

situationsthatIhandled,becauseitreallyteachesyouthatyouhavetoprioritize.Youhaveto.

Andthere’sactuallysomethingsthatyouneedtodothatyoucan’tgetdone,butyouhaveto

say‘evenifIdon’tgetthatdone,it’snotgoingtoaffecttheendresult.It’dbenicetodo,butwe

don’thavetodoit’.(Participant5)

Oncethepilothaddeterminedwhattheprioritieswere,he/shefocusedonthetoppriorityfirst,

eventuallyworkingthroughmostoralloftheremainingtasksonthelist.Oncethepilotwasattending

tothemosturgentpriority,he/shewasrefocusedandre‐engagedintheflight,havingcontrolledthe

distractorsuccessfully.

Somepilotsfoundinstantaneousmotivationtorefocusinthepotentialconsequencesof

becomingdistracted.Theknowledgeofthepotentiallynegativeoutcomesencouragedpilotstoactively

refocusonthetaskathand.


IfIscrewsomethingup,I’vegottenbetteratknowingthatImustcontinueintothenexttaskat

handbecauseIknowtheresultisoftenthattheentireridewillbefailed,asaresultofme

fixatingonsomethingbackthere.(Participant3)

Iactuallydon’tknowhowIdoit.Youjusttellyourselftostayfocusedifyoufindyourmind’s

driftingandyoujusthavetotellyourselftogetyourshitingearandgetbacktowork.Iguess

maybeyouknowtherepercussionsifyoudon’tstayfocused,especiallyifyou’reflyinginclose

formation:youcouldhittheguy.Imeantherepercussionsarehorribleifyougetitwrong,so

maybethat’sagoodmotivatortostayfocused.(Participant5)

Participant2explainedthecriticalimportanceofrefocusingskillsformilitarypilotsinfuture

deploymentstohigh‐riskorcombatzones:

Whensomethingbadhappens[somestudents]justphysicallyshutdown.AndI’vehadafewof

thosestudentswheretheyshutdown,andyou’redoingeverything–tryingtopeptalkthemin

theairplane,tryingtorallythetroops–andthey’relike‘sir,canwejustgohome’andyou’re

like‘no’.IfIwereacivilianflightinstructor,yeahsurelet’sgohome,butbecausewe’remilitary

it’sdifferent,becauseIcan’thavehimdoingthatinAfghanistan.He’sgoingtoendangerthe

livesofhimselfandpotentiallyotherpeople.Sointhatcase,it’snotanacceptableanswer.

Inacombatzone,apilot’sabilitytorefocuscouldmeanthedifferencebetweenlifeanddeath,notjust

forhim/herself,butalsoforothersbothonthegroundandintheair.

Confidence

Ofthe15participantsinterviewedforthisstudy,13pilotsdiscussedtheimportanceof

confidenceasacontributortoasuccessfulflight.Participantsdescribedthreemajorsourcesof

confidence:personalabilities,fellowpilots,andsafetyprecautions.Manyparticipantsfeltthatageneral

confidenceintheirabilitieswaspartoftheirpersonality.Othersrequiredaseriesofpastsuccesses,

relevantlearningexperiences,orspecificpreparatorymeasures(e.g.,knowledgeofprocedures,safety


measures)fromwhichtobuildandgrowtheirconfidence.Participantsalsodescribedinstancesinwhich

theyfeltunconfident,andthedetrimentaleffectthatthishadontheirperformance.

ConfidenceinAbilities

Participantsusedvariouspsychologicalskillstostrengthenorenhancetheirpersonal

confidence.Participant11discussedtheuseofpositiveself‐talkwhenhewasunsureorhesitantina

flightsituation:

Iwasprettynervousgoingthroughthiscourse[UPTS],thereasonbeingIdidnothavemy

degreeyet,soIhadnothing,Iguess,leftbackhome.I.e.,ifIweretofailthiscourse,therewas

nojob...AndIthinkthenervousnesshamperedmeabitbecauseasIprogressedonthroughthe

helo[helicopter]school,littlebitnervoustheretoobutlittlemoreconfidence,andasI

progressedontotheSeaKing[operationalhelicopterfleet]andIgotmyqualifications,Ibegan

tolearnthatthisnervousnesswashamperingme.AndifIjusttoldmyselfthatIknewwhatIwas

doing,IfoundIcalmeddownalittlemoreandIwasabletoseealittlemore;thehorseblinders

kindofcameoffabit.(Participant11)

Ifhewasfeelingslightlynervous,remindinghimselfthathewasacapablepilotandthathehadtrained

extensivelyfortheseflightsallowedParticipant11tofeelcalmandconfident.Participant15also

attemptedtoapproachallflightsandmissionswithapositive,confidentattitude:

IfIgointoaflightsayingI’mgonnnadoreally,reallywell,guesswhatIdo.Idoreally,reallywell.

IfIgointherewithsomeseedofdoubtinmymind,Iperformreallybadly.Andthat’sonething

I’velearnedalongthewayisyouneedtohavethat‘Icandoit’attitude.

Theseparticipants,andmanyothers,foundthattheycouldmakeaconsciouschoicetoshifttheir

perspectiveandelevatetheirlevelsofconfidence.Thisalmostalwaysresultedinanincreasein

performancequalityandconsistency.


Manyparticipantsalsodiscussedtheuseofpastexperiencesinthedevelopmentand

maintenanceoftheirconfidence.

Ithinkit[confidence]increasedwithage.Iprobablyhadalotlessself‐confidencewhenIwas20

thanwhenIwas30,andnowit’sevenhigherthanitwaswhenIwas30...Itkeepsgetting

better.I’mgoingtobeverycockybythetimeIgetto60[laughs].Ithinkprobablyinthelate20s

waswhenIgainedalotofself‐confidence.AndIthink,professionally,itmadeabigdifference.

Justthefact,allthethingsthatIhadaccomplishedinmycareer,hasprobablyboostedmyself‐

confidencequiteabit.(Participant13)

I’vealwaysbeenrelativelysuccessfulinwhatIdid,sothatcertainlyhelped.Ididn’thaveany

reasontobelievethatIwouldn’tbesuccessfuluntilwhathappenedlater[failingtocomplete

thefighterjetcourse].Untilthatpoint,itwaslikenormalforme,like‘I’mgonnagetthrough

this’.(Participant7)

Someparticipantsfeltthatiftheysimplyputforththeeffort,theywouldbesuccessful.Othersdescribed

neverhavingfailedbeforeintheirlives.Manyparticipantstookstockofalloftheirexperiences,realized

thatfailurewasacceptable,andfocusedonthesuccesses.Thesepilotsusedtheirless‐than‐best

performancesaslearningexperiences,butdidnotdwellonthemforanextendedperiodoftime.A

smallnumberofparticipantsdiscussedtheirresiliencefollowingahigh‐stressincident;these

participantsfeltnohesitationorinternaldistractionswhentheyflewagain.Whatevertheirexperiences,

participantsseemedtofindawaytousetheirpastsuccessestogrowintheirconfidence.Participant10

notedthathealsodrewconfidencefromtherespectofotherpilots.

Ithink[confidence]isgrownovertheyears,I’mcomfortablewithmyself.LikeI’mnotthemost

self‐confidentguyintheworld,butIknowthatIfeelbetterthisyearthanIdidlastyear.

BecauselastyearIwasinColdLakeandIwasfailingtheprogramandIwashavingareallyrough

year.Itwas,Imean,itwasakickinthenuts.Sorry.Toputitbluntly.ButI’mgoodatflyinghere.


Thereareguysaroundherethatrespectme,whichisnice.Iseemtohaveagoodrapportwith

fellowinstructorsandstudents,sohereinthisjob,it’sgoodforme,formyself‐confidence.

(Participant10)

Eventhoughhehadexperiencedadisappointingyearinthefighterjetprogram,Participant10wasable

tomaintainhisconfidencebyfindingsupportfromthosearoundhim.

Manyparticipantsfeltthattheirconfidencewasalsoaffectedbytheirpre‐flightpreparation.

Theseparticipantsrecalledthehugeinvestmentthattheyhadmadeintraining,anddrewconfidence

fromtheirknowledgeoftheflightproceduresandtheirfamiliaritywiththetrainingdrills.

Itcomesrightbackdowntothebasisthatweteachthestudentshere:justmaintaincontrol,

numberone,asbestasyoucan,andthenthesearethethingsthatyoucantry....It’sabig

confidencethingIsuppose.Andokay,wehavesomeconfidenceandwe’vebeentrainedtodo

thesethingsandwecantrythem.(Participant9)

It’salmostlikeyouworryaboutitupuntilthemoment[oftheflight],butthenwhenthe

moment’sthereyoukindofgo‘youknowwhat,IjusthavetogoanddowhatI’vebeentaught

todo’or‘dowhatI’vetrainedtodo’.(Participant8)

ThesepilotstrustedthattheCAFinstructorsandtrainingprogramhadgiventhemallthetoolsthatthey

wouldrequiretoflysafelyandperformatthehighestlevel.Aslongastheparticipantsfeltthattheyhad

preparedadequately,giventheflightrequirementsandtrainingmaterial,theyhadnoreasontobelieve

thattheywouldnotsucceed.Theirtrustinthistrainingcombinedwiththeprojectionsofbelieffrom

instructorsandpeerssettheconditionsforstudentpilotsuccess.

Twoparticipantsnotedthattheirconfidencewasaffectedbytheirphysicalhealth,including

rest.OneparticipanthadrecentlytrainedforanIronManrace,whileanotherpaidspecialattentionto

hissleepingandeatinghabits.


IfIdidn’thaveapropernight’ssleeporwhatever,Ifounditwassupercriticalformysuccess.

Andformyconfidence,becauseifIcameinfeelingtired,IwasscaredthatIwasabouttoscrew

itup.Andofcoursethatjustbeginsthatwholenastycycle–you’reworriedaboutit,themore

youworry,themorelikelyyouaretosortofself‐manifesttheseproblems,issuesintheplane.

Andthenyoumakeoneissue,thenyouthinkaboutit,andyoumaketwo…Ifounditwasreally

importanttomaintain[takecareof]yourself.Mydiettoo,IstartedwatchingwhatIatesuper

closelytomakesureIsleptwell.(Participant3)

Forthesetwoparticipants,havinghealthybodiesallowedthemtofeelconfidentthattheycould

managethemorephysicalaspectsofflyingaswellasthementalrequirements.

Acertainlevelofconfidenceintheirabilitiesallowedparticipantstoactinapositivemannerby

makingdecisionswithouthesitation,beingassertive,managingcrewmembers,andtakingondifficultor

challengingtasks.

Ijusthadtheself‐confidenceinmyabilitiesthat,youknow,‘heyIcandothis;it’snotabigdeal’.

Whenyoustarttodoubtyourself,thenyoubecomemorehesitanttomakedecisionsandifyou

don’tmakeadecision,it’sgonnabetoodamnlate.(Participant10)

Youhavetogoinwiththatmindset‘Icandoit,Icanlandthisplane’...justputtheairplane

whereyouwantittogo,makeitdoit.It’snotthathard;justmakeithappen.(Participant15)

AtfirstIwasabitoverwhelmed…kindof‘Ineedmoretime[toprepare]’,‘IfeelsaferandIfeel

saferfor[theco‐pilot]ifIhavemoretime’.ButthenIsaid‘fuckit,justgiveitashot’soIjust

grabbedalltheinformationIpossiblycould.Anditdidn’tendupbeingasdauntingasIthought

itwouldbe.Everythingalwaysseemsmoreoverwhelming.(Participant12)

Whenparticipantsfeltconfidentintheirabilities,theyacteddecisivelyandcommittedfullytothose

actions,simplyfocusingongettingthejobdone.Thisisextremelyimportantinflight,asanyamountof

hesitationatacriticaltimecanresultinalossofcontroloftheaircraft.Confidentpilotsactedinatimely


manner,butknewthatiftheirinitialactionswerenotidealtherewouldmostlikelybeanopportunityto

fixtheminthenextmaneuver.

ConfidenceinFellowPilots

Theimportanceofhavingahighleveloftrustinone’sfellowpilotswasimplicitinmanyofthe

commentsmadebyparticipants.Everytimeapilotflies,whetheritissolo,withacrew,orflyingin

formation,he/shemusthaveconfidencethattheothersintheaircraftandintheairspaceare

competentaviators.

Trustisveryimportant.IhaveflownwithpeopleIdidn'ttrust.Youpaycloserattentiontowhat

theindividualisdoinganddoublecheckallhis/herswitchselections.Iwouldevenask

questionstoclarifytheirintentionspriortodoingamaneuver.Thetrustisinitiatedinthe

trainingenvironmentbutmustbecontinuouslymaintainedthroughoutyourflyingcareer.We

haveasayingintheAirForce:"Youareonlyasgoodasyourlastflight".(Participant5)

Participant4madethefollowingcommentinreferencetoformationflying:“I’mdoingthebestIcando,

Idon’twanttomissanythingIwastoldthatIhavetodo,andI’mtrustingthenextguyisdoingthesame

thing.Sothat’sbasicallyhowyoudoit”.Whenapilotisabletotrusthis/herfellowpilots,itbecomes

easiertofocusonthetaskathandandalltheotherimportantelementsinhis/herbroadsituational

awareness.

ConfidenceinSafety

Duetothehighrisksinvolvedinmilitaryflying,personalsafetywasatoppriorityforall

participants.Someparticipantsnotedthattheygainedconfidencefromtheknowledgethattheyhad

takenprecautionstoensuretheirsafety.Asidefromthepre‐flightpreparation,whichinvolvedplanning

forunplannedeventsandreviewingemergencyprocedures,participantsalsomaintainedtheirmission

confidencebyavoidingunnecessaryrisks.Participant3recalledamissionwhenhewasflyingsolo

throughtheRockyMountainsatnight.Afterbeinggivenclearancetoland,heaccidentallyturnedthe


aircraftthewrongway,puttinghimselfonacollisioncoursewiththemountainrange.Aswashishabit,

hedoublecheckedhismaneuvers,quicklyrealizedhiserror,andwasabletocorrecthiscoursewithout

incident.Thisexperience,however,wasavaluablelessoninavoidingunnecessaryrisks:

That’salotmorepressure[whenflyingalone]andIpurposefullydon’tflyaloneanymore.I

meanIwaspurposefullyflyingalonethere[intheRockyMountains].Becauseattheendofthe

day,what’sthepoint?There’sahugeriskfactorinbeingalone,whichisthatallpeoplemake

errors.SosinglepilotIFR[instrumentflying]atnight,incloud,inthewinter,youknow;it’s

probablyjustnotthebestdecision....Ijustwon’tdothatanymore.

Participant13tookamoregeneralapproachtoavoidingunnecessaryrisks.Hestated,“I’malways

thinkingaboutwhatifthishappens,whatwillIdo.AndtheminuteIdon’thaveanymoreoptions,I’d

ratherbeontheground”.Manyparticipantsadoptedthisapproachpriortothemissionofcarefully

consideringtheiroptionsshouldvariousemergenciesarise.

Participantsalsomaintainedtheirconfidencethroughtheknowledgethattheywereawareof

theirownpersonallimits(i.e.,atwhatpointtheycouldnotrecovertheaircraftsafely).Theselimitswere

differentforeverypilot,andalsochangedslightlyastheparticipantsaged.

It’sthecomfortzone.IfI’moutsidemycomfortzone,I’mnotsureIcangetoutofthere.It’sa

littlebitlikedrivinginthesnoworinasnowstorm:youreachaspeedatonepointwhereit’slike

‘Idon’tfeellikeIcandrivesafelyfasterthanthat’andsoyouslowdownalittlebit,keepitjusta

littlebitbelowthatlimit.[Inthe]comfortzone.(Participant13)

Atacertainpoint,beingold,youdon’thavethesamehandsandfeetandreactiontimethatare

requiredtorunflightslikeDFlight.AndIknowthat.SoIalwaysreliedmoreonmyexperience

neartheendbecausethat’swhatIhad,butIknewmyreactiontimesweren’tasfastasthe

boys.SoifIknewthattherewasacertaininsertandIneededitquick,andIhadoneofmystars,


Iwouldflywithhim.I’drunthemission,becausehedidn’thavethatmentalpiece,butI’dhave

himdotheinsert.Soatsomepointyouhavetounderstandyourlimitations.(Participant1)

Participantsdescribedbuildingtheirknowledgeoftheirpersonallimitsgradually,throughyearsofflight

experience.Oncetheyhadpiecedtogetherafirmunderstandingoftheirlimits,pilotsrespectedthese

boundariesasabsolutes.

StressManagement

Stressmanagementduringamissionexecutionwasmostevidentwhenparticipantswereina

testsituationorcompletinganeworunfamiliarmaneuver.All15pilotsdiscussedpersonalexperiences

inflightinvolvingstressfulsituationsandtheirresponsestothosesituations.Someparticipantsnoted

experiencinganincreaseinstressorarousallevelsduringthepre‐flightpreparation;formost,however,

anyfeelingsofstressdissipatedatthebeginningofthemissionexecution.

IfindthatI’llgetsupernervous[until]thepointwhereIactuallystrapin,andthenoncewe’re

startingeverythingupitkindofjustgoesaway,becauseyouhavetoomuchtothinkabout.

Beforethatallyoucanthinkaboutiswhatcangowrong.(Participant12)

Whenyou’resittingintheairplanethere’sso[many]thingsthatyouhavetodothat

automaticallyitkindofbringsallyourattentiontothetaskathand.Andthatworks,forme,

whenI’mmorestressedoncertainmissionsthanothers,itwillbebeforetheflight.TheminuteI

sitdownintheairplane,startstrappinginandeverything,it’slikeit’sgone.Becausenow,the

minuteIsitintheairplane,it’slike‘okayIgotsomethingtodo’andIjustautomaticallystart

focusingonwhatIneedtodo.(Participant7)

Theshiftinfocusfromperceivedstressandworriestomissionrequirementsandtaskcompletionwas

oneofnecessity.Inordertoproceedwiththemission,participantswereforcedtofocusonmultiple

flight‐relatedinputs,allowingnotimeorspaceforirrelevant,negativethoughts.


FlightTestStress

Formanypilots,flighttestscreatedthehighestlevelsofperceivedstress,bothduringstudent

trainingandnowasprofessionalpilots.Intestsituations,apilotflieswithanexaminerwhoevaluates

everythingthepilotdoesanddoesnotdo;thisexaminerisnotthesameinstructorthatthepilottrains

with.Usually,theonlytimetheexaminerwillspeakduringthetestistoaskforspecificmaneuversorto

makeacriticalcomment.Studentpilotsareallowedonlytofailtwoflighttests.Ifastudentpilotfailsa

thirdtest,he/sheisexpelledfromthetrainingprogram.Withthisscenarioinmind,itisunderstandable

thatduringtestsmanyparticipantsfounditdifficulttoallowthemselvestofocusandactautomatically,

astheyhadbeenabletododuringtheirregulartrainingflights.

SometimesIcanblockitout[theexaminer],butIfindthatI’veneverdoneaswell,likeontests,

asIdowhenI’mnotbeingassessed...Iwillhandlestressonanoperationalmissionmuchbetter

–becauseit’smainlyself‐imposedwhenI’mbeingassessed,becauseIwannadosowell.It’sa

littlebitlikeifIplaysquashandItrysomuchthatIwilllose.(Participant13)

Idon’tremembereverythingthatIdidwhenIwasyoung,butIremembergoingintothosetests

andbeinglike‘ohjeez,whatifthishappensandwhatifthathappens’,andyouprobablyover

thinkitsometimesinsteadofjustgoingbacktoyour‘okay,youhavethebasicmechanics.Just

doitthewayyouneedtodoit’.Butthat’swheresomeofthemwillmakeanerrorandthey

just…itleadstothenext[error]becausethey’reusingupbrainpowerthinking‘oh,howcanIfix

that?’Youcan’t.Youalreadydidit.(Participant9)

Participant7stated,“Asastudentyouhavemorepressure,becauseyou’realwaystryingtofindout

whattheguyintheback[theexaminer]islookingfor”.Thedesiretodowellledsomepilotstotrytoo

hard,tothinktoomuch,ortotrytoflyinawaythatwouldpleasetheexaminerbutthatwasnot

necessarilythewaytheyfeltwouldbebestforthemselves.Severalparticipantsnotedthefactthat


thereismorethanonewaytoflymostmaneuvers,soifastudentflewinanunconventionalmanner,

butstillcompletedthemaneuversatisfactorily,thiswasallowable.

Participantsalsodescribedaheightenedlevelofperceivedstressduringtestsbecauseoftheir

desiretodowell.Forsome,thearousaltriggeredbyatestexperiencewasfargreaterthanthatofan

emergencysituationinflight.

Iwouldsaythat’sbyfarmybiggestdistraction...thepressure.Likethebiggertherideis,the

moreIamdistractedbythefactthatImustdogoodonthisride.AndifIdosomethingbad,

knowingthatthere’ssomuchpressureontheride,ofcourseonelittlemistakethatonanormal

flightI’djustsay‘shithappens’orwhateveryouwanttosayandIkeeprollingon,wellifthere’s

atonofpressureontheflightI’llendupanalyzingthatthingthatIjustdidwrong...duringthe

flight,likeasI’mtryingtoflythroughtherestofthemaneuver.(Participant3)

Irememberhere[15WingMooseJaw],doingatest,instructorschooltest,becauseIwanted

thissomuchthatevenwhenIcamehereasaninstructor...Ifoundmyselfmorestressed,

comingbackintothetrainingsystemhereasopposedtothetrainingsystemonmyearlier

aircraft,justbecauseofhowmuchIwantthisandhowmuchIamharderonmyself.Andit’sa

bitofasnowballeffect,thatokayyoudoasmallmistakeandnowyou’refrustratedaboutthat

one,soitbecomesevenbiggerandsoonandsoon.SoIwouldsaythatoutofeverythingthat

I’velived,withregardstostress,includingthingslikewarningshots,arealthingthathappened

intherealworldwhichshouldbewaymorestressfulthanjustasimple,stupidtest.Buttome,

thestresslevelwaslikethat,different[muchhigher].Andit’sjustgottodowith,Iguess,

ambition.Likeself‐ambitionandbeingharderonyourself.AndunfortunatelyIfoundthatit

wasn’thelpingatall,itwasquitetheoppositeactually.(Participant14)

Theseparticipantsputpressureonthemselvestoperformwellintests,oftencreatingtheirowninternal

distractions,whichinterferedwiththeirfreeflowingperformanceduringthetest.Somepilotsbecame


caughtupinoveranalyzingtheflight(e.g.,theirmistakes,mechanicsofthemaneuver)andhadtrouble

lookingforwardtothenextmaneuverorsimplyallowingthemselvestoexecutethemechanicsthatthey

knewsowell.

Participantsdescribedtryingvariousapproachestodealwiththeirfeelingsofstressintest

flights.Forsome,approachingtheflightwiththementalitythattherewasnothingtolosehelpedto

alleviatethesymptomsofanxiety.Participant14discussedanapproachwherebyhebeganwithadeep

breathtorelax,thentriedputthetestinperspectivebyconsideringthepossibleconsequencesofa

failedflight,andfinallyaskedhimselfwhetherhecouldacceptandlivewiththoseoutcomes.Oncehe

hadacceptedtheworstpossibleoutcome,heresolvedtosimplydohisbest:

ThewaythatIwasdealingwithitwastoforcemyselftorelax.I’dtakeadeepbreath,‘okay’.

Let’ssayIfoundmyselfstressedout,orjustfoundoutIdidamistakewhichIwouldneverdo

otherwise...thenIwouldjusttakeadeepbreathandtellmyself‘okay,what’stheworstthat

canhappen?’It’sthis.Okay.CanIacceptthat?Thenguesswhat,it’sliketherestofthestress

goesawaybecauseI’vesortofacceptedeitherway.Asopposedto‘youcan’tdothis,youcan’t

dothatmistake’,youknowwhatImean?I’veneverreallyheardanybodydealingwithitthis

way,buttomeitwasalwayslike‘okay,what’stheworstthatcanhappen?Areyouokay?Are

yougonnabehealthyandhaveanicelife?’‘Yeah,yeah.Okay,sowhat’sthebigdeal?’Nowlet’s

putthingsinperspective.Sothatwasthebigthing,putthingsinperspectiveasopposedto

buildingthatmonsterwhichIbuiltinmyownbrain.Andtheotherthingisphysical,‘okaylet’s

justbreathe’...Thehealthisalwaysthebiggestthing.(Participant14)

Bysituatinghimselfwithinalargercontext(i.e.,generalqualityoflife),Participant14recognizedthat

shouldhefailthistest,therewerestillpositiveaspectstohislifethatwouldremainandlessonsthathe

couldusetoimprovehisabilitiesasapilot.Participant13stated,“Ihavetoforcemyselftoforgetabout

[theexaminer],justtreatitlikeanormaltrip,andthenperformanceincreases”.Severalpilotsdescribed


puttingasideorcompartmentalizingtheirthoughtsoftheexaminerandrefocusingtheirattentionon

thetaskathand,astheywoulddoinaroutineflight.

Afewparticipantsdidnotexperiencethischallengingdeclineinperformanceduringatest.

Participant15reportedapreferenceforflyingwithotherswhichallowedforenhancedperformancein

testsituations:

IthinkIjustthink‘ohIbettergetitright’.There’snootherthingtodobutgetitright,youhave

to.Somaybe,perhapsmyleveloffocusgoesup,youknow?LikeIalwayssayIprefertoflywith

somebodyelsebecauseitmakesyourleveloffocusgoupbecauseyouknowyou’vegotthe

pressureofsomebodyelsewatchingyou,right?AsopposedtoifIjustwentoutandflewby

myself,Ithinkmyleveloffocuswouldbeless.Notnecessarilyfocusonthejobathand,butmy

focusorcareofhowthemaneuversturnoutwouldbelessthanifIhadsomebodywatching.

Theseparticipantswhoperformedbetterintestsituationsdidnotappeartotrytoactivelymanagetheir

stress;theysimplyshiftedtheirfocustorelevantandappropriatetasks.ForParticipant15,the

knowledgethatsomebodywasobservingthemissionwasapositiveaspectandamotivatortoremain

focused.Goingintoare‐testafterhavingrecentlyfailedhisfirstattempt,Participant10statedthathis

levelofperceivedstresswasmuchhigherthanusual.Whenaskedhowhedealtwiththesefeelings(as

heperformedwellinthetest),hesimplystated,“Idon’tknowwhatIdid,Ijustflewtheflight”.

Interestingly,priortoParticipant10’sexperience,herecalledhighlevelsofperceivedstressthroughout

histraining:

It’sperformanceanxiety.ActuallyIhadtodealwiththatalotlastyear.Ihadareallyhardtime

withit.WhenIwasgoingthroughhere,IrememberthereweretimesonthecoursewhereIhad

moreproblemswithitthanothertimes.Iputstressonmyselftogetgoodgrades,becauseI

wantedjets,IwantedtobethebestIcouldbe,andIdidfairlywell.Thereareotherguysgoing


throughwhoputthestressonthemselvesbecausetheydon’twanttofail,whichIthinkisthe

wrongkindofstress.Nowyourfocusis‘whatifIscrewup?’insteadof‘IcandothebestIcan’.

Hefeltthatheperformedbetterbecausethefocusofhisfeelingsofstresswashisdesiretodoaswell

aspossible,asopposedtoafearoffailure.

OngoingLearning

Forallparticipants,ongoinglearningwasanextremelyimportantfacetofoptimalperformance.

Sevenpilotsspecificallydiscussedtheconceptofongoinglearningandanalysisinrelationtomission

execution.Flyingwasoftendescribedasacontinuousadjustmenttotheideal.Participant12stated,

“Flyingisjustaconstantcorrectionoferrors,that’sallitis.You’realwaysfixingsomethingthat’sgoing

wrong”.Becausepilotshavemanydecisionstomakeandlittletimeinwhichtoconsiderthem,they

acceptedthefactthataportionofthesedecisionswouldbeincorrect,ornotideal.Whatwasimportant

wasnotthecorrectnessorincorrectnessoftheirdecisions,butrathertheirabilitytoanalyzethose

decisions,recognizetheerrors,andadjustifnecessary.

Themoreimportantthingisthatyouseeyourownerrorsandyouknowhowtofixyourown

errors.Becausewhenyou’reaSnowbird,you’regonnabebyyourselfintheairplane;you’renot

gonnahavesomebodytheretotellyouyou’retoowideortootight.(Participant2)

[Themostimportantmentalskillis]theabilitytomakeadecisionandtorationallythinkout

differentoptions–notjustmakingadecisionandstickingwithit,butbeingabletocontinually

assessthatdecisionandtoupdateitandtomaketheproperdecisionattheendoftheday.

(Participant1)

Duringflight,participantsconstantlyanalyzedtheirdecisionstodeterminewhethertheyhadselected

themostidealcourseofaction.Inflightanalysiswasatimesensitiveprocedureandwascompletedas

quicklyaspossible.Ifthepilotrecognizedanerrorinhis/herdecisionorrealizedtherewasanalternate,

preferablecourseofaction,therecouldbenohesitationbeforethenewplanwasimplemented.


Post‐Flight

OngoingLearning

Followingeveryflight,pilotsengageinadetaileddebriefinwhichthevarioussegmentsofthe

flightareanalyzed,mistakesarepinpointed,andcorrectivemeasuresaresuggested.12ofthepilots

interviewedspecificallydiscussedtheimportanceofdebriefsandongoinglearning.Manyparticipants

notedthatthetoolsorstrategiesformakingcorrectionswerethemostvaluableproductofthedebrief,

astheywerefrequentlywellawareoftheirmistakesassoonastheyhadmadethem.

AsastudentItriedtofocusonthe"howtoimprove"portionsofthedebrief.Itisnormally

prettyclearwhenyoumakeamistakeorcouldhavedonesomethingbetter.Themost

importantpartinbeingcritiquedistoownitandfindwaystoimproveorthemethodsonhow

toimprove.(Participant8)

Theideaofowningone’smistakeswasimportanttoallparticipants,astheCAFdemandsaccountability

fromitspilots.Manydescribedanimpressivelevelofhonestyintheirdebrief:

Andthat’sonethingI’dsayisprobablyveryimportant,istolearnfromourmistakes.AndI

realizewithexperiencethatsomepeopleIworkwithdon’tlearnfromtheirmistakes.AndIfind

thatsometimestheyaremoreindenialthananythingelse;theydon’twanttofacetheirown

mistakes.SoIguessthefirststepisyouhavetoadmityou’remakingmistakes,thenyoulearn

fromthem.(Participant13)

Butattheendofthedayit’smyfault:Ilethim[studentpilot]getalittlebittootightandI

shouldhaverealizedthat[thestudentpilot]intheotherplanemaybewasn’tquiteexperienced

enough.Andheprovedthatprettyquick.Itwasmyfault,Ilethimgettooclose,andIhaven’t

letithappenagain.(Participant12)


Participantsknewthattheymustholdthemselvesaccountablefortheirmistakes;withoutthis

accountability,theywouldnotimproveaspilots.Oneparticipantdiscussedthisownershipofhisactions

withinthecontextofhiscircumstancesduringagivenflight:

Ilookatwhathappened,whatIdid,whatcouldIhavedonebettersothatIcanlearn

something.ButIalsotakeintoconsiderationthatit’salwayseasierafterthefacttoanalyze

becauseIalsothinkaboutwhatIhad,theinformationthatIhadatthetime,andthetimethatI

had.AndsometimesIwillsay‘okay,Ishouldn’thavedonethat,however,atthattimethat’sallI

couldthinkofandbecauseIdidn’thavealltheinformation,IdidthebestthatIcould’.Itwill

happenthatwaysometimes.(Participant13)

Participant13stillacceptedresponsibilityforhisactions,howeverhealsorecognizedthathewasacting

withincertainconfinementsatthetime.Hadhebeenoperatingindifferentcircumstances,hemayhave

beenabletotakeadifferentormoreidealaction.

Duringthestandarddebrief,participantsdiscussedmainlythemechanicsoftheflight(i.e.,the

procedures,thepilot’sphysicalactions).Whenaskediftheywouldeverdiscusshowonefeltduringa

flightoraparticularportionofaflight,Participant5responded:

Wewouldnevertalkaboutfeelings,never[laughs].Youwouldtalkaboutmaybewhattheguy

wasthinking,soifhesawacertainthingonhisradarscopeorifhelookedoutandsaw

somethingandhemadeadecisionbasedonthat,thenofcourseyouwouldtakethatandgo‘I

understandwhyyoudidit,it’sstillwrong,thisiswhatyouwoulddotofixit’.Butyouwould

alwaysfindoutwhyhedidsomething,andthatwayyoucanunderstandbetterhowtofixit.

PsychologicalaspectsofthedebriefwereconfinedmostlytodiscussionsofSA[situationalawareness]

andthepilot’ssequentialreasoningleadinguptocertaindecisions.Onlyoneparticipantnotedthe

inclusionofmissionexecutionfocusinthedebrief:


I’lllandandI’llsay‘Ishouldhavebeenalotmorefocusedonthattrip’or‘okay,Ijustmissed

that.Nowlet’sstop,let’sgetbackandfocushere’.BecauseIthinkthat’shumannaturethat

yourfocusdriftsandyouhavetocatchyourself.(Participant15)

Whilethispilotdidincludeareflectiononthemissionexecutionfocus,thedebriefdidnotappearto

advancefurthertowardstheconsiderationofaspecificfocusplanorfocusedactionforimprovement.

Participantsapproachedtheirdebriefsfromtheperspectivethattheywereconstantlystriving

forperfection.Theircommitmenttoachievingexcellencedrovethemtoanalyzealmosteverydetailof

theiractions(withtheexceptionofpsychologicaloremotionalelements),neversettlingforanything

thattheyfeltwaslessthantheirbest.

I’vetaught[militarystudentpilotsin]probably10differentcountriesnow,andIeventaught

instructorsfromGreeceaboutfiveyearsago,andthewaythoseguysflyairplanesiscompletely

differentfromus.Theyabsolutelydon’tcare.Theymakemistakesandaslongasit’snottoo

bad,they’rehappywithit.Andwe’relike‘no,youneedtodobetternexttime,sohowareyou

gonnadobetter?’‘No,no,thatwasgoodenough’.No,there’snogoodenoughinoursystem.

Thatdoesn’texist.Youhavetostrivetodoitbetterandbetterallthetime.(Participant4)

Thefocus(duringthedebrief)isonwhatwasdoneincorrectandthewaytoimproveorfixthe

mistake.IwouldtakenotessoIcouldreviewtheissueslaterbymyselfandchairflythe

maneuveruntilIcoulddoitinmysleep.Nothing,noteventhesmallestdetailisjust‘good

enough’.Wealwaysstrivetoexecutethemaneuverperfectly.(Participant5)

Participantsalsonotedthatasidefromthestandarddebriefwiththeflightinstructororleader,they

wouldoftenengageinapersonaldebriefand,sometimes,agroupdebrief.Participantsemphasizedthe

criticalimportanceofadebriefespeciallyfollowingaless‐than‐bestperformance.


PersonalDebrief

Manyparticipantsengagedinpersonaldebriefsfollowingtheirflights,mostoftenwhenthere

wassomeinaccuracyorflawintheirperformances.Formostpilots,thisdebriefsimplyinvolvedthinking

throughtheeventsoftheflightandanalyzingtheirpersonalperformanceinanhonestandopenway.

Iusuallyjusttakethem[errors]onboardandmakesurethatIsortofanalyzethem;I’llalways

analyzeerrorsandthentrytocomeupwithasolution.Idothesamewithmy[competitive

equestrian]ridingtoo:wheneverthere’samistakeIalwaystakeithomeandanalyzeit.OrifI’m

notdoingsomethingquiterightIalwaystakeithomeandanalyzeitinmybrain.(Participant15)

IdomyowndebriefafterIfly,personally.LikewhenIactuallyflytheplaneI’llcomebackand

say,‘Icouldhavedonethisbetter,thatbetter,thatbetter’...ThenexttimeIactuallythink

aboutdoingit–I’llusuallywriteitdown.IusuallywriteallthetricksandtipsdownandthenI

putitsomewhere.AndthenifI’mgonnadoitagain,I’lllookatit[topreparefortheflight].

(Participant12)

Participant5describedusingvideoofhisflightsforthesepersonaldebriefswhenhewasflyingthe

HornetinColdLake:

Youcarrytapeswith[you]oneverytripthatrecordyourcommunicationsandthere’saheads‐

updisplayinfrontofyou,it’slikeacamerathatpointsoutthefrontoftheairplane,andit

recordsinformation.IntheHawk[trainingaircraft]here,it’slikeyourairspeed,altitude,where

youare.IntheHornet,itrecordsabunchofotherthings.Soafteryoudebriefwithyourpeers,

thenyoucanactuallygolateronandwatchthistape.You’llwatchthetapewithyourpeersas

well,butyoucanalsogobackandlookatthingsandtryandfindoutwhatwentwrong,whereit

wentwrong,andfixitthatway.SoIthinkthedebriefisincrediblyimportanttocarryonandget

betterforthenexttripthatyoudo…veryimportant.


Mostoften,apersonaldebriefallowedtheparticipantstheopportunitytoanalyzetheirperformancein

amorerelaxedatmosphere.Participantswereabletoanalyzetheflightintheirownwords,withan

emphasisonthoseareasthattheyfeltweremostimportant.Attimes,thepersonaldebriefwassimply

anopportunitytoresolvenevertomakeacertainerroragainandthinkabouthowtolivethatlessonin

futureflights.Participantsmadesurethattherewasalessontotakeawayfromeveryflightdebrief,

regardlessofhowperfectorimperfecttheflightmayhavebeen.

GroupDebrief

Occasionally,participantswouldengageingroupdebriefsfollowingtheirflights.Groupdebriefs

arestandardprocedurewhentheflightisaformationflightorinvolvesaircraftwithcrewmembers,or

whenthereisanimportantincidentthatcouldpotentiallyaffectotherpilots.

Wejustdidallthepaperwork[followingtheincident],andthenwetalkaboutittoeverybody.

That’spartoftheprocess,sothateverybodylearns.Wetalkaboutitinthebiggroup,tellthem

whatwesaw,whatwedid.That’showwedealwithit.(Participant4)

Participantsalsodescribedengagingininformalgroupdebriefsoftheirownvolition.Participant15

sharedthelessonsfrompost‐flightdebriefswithothers:“There’salwayslessonsthatyoulearnfromit..

.Iusuallysharethem,becauseeveryonecanalwayslearnfromotherpeoples’experiences”.Group

debriefspresentedpilotswithavaluableopportunitytolearnfromothers,astheywerepromptedto

considerpossibleeventsandresponsesthattheymaynothavepreviouslyregardedasimportant,or

evenplausible.Forexample,pilotsmaylearnofpotentialproblemswithanaircraftthattheyhadnot

previouslystudiedorvisualizedintheirpre‐flightpreparation.Theymayalsolearnofstepsthatwere

takentoresolveaproblem,whichwereinnovativeandunusual.

Less‐than‐bestPerformances

Participantswereespeciallyconcernedwithandcommittedtolearningfromtheirdebrief

followingaless‐than‐bestperformance.Manyparticipantstookthisopportunitytorecognizetheir


fallibilityorimperfectionsandacceptthatmakingmistakesandgrowingfromthemarepartofthe

learningprocess.

Youdon’twanttobeafraidoffailure;itmayhappenfromtimetotime,noneofusareperfect,

sotheguyswhocanbouncebackfromthat,actuallyusethattofeedon,theytendtobequite

successful.(Participant2)

Weallgetcaughtoff[i.e.,haveanoffday].We’renotperfect.I’llreactthewrongwayfromtime

totime,butI’lllearnfromitandIwon’tdoitagain.Andthat’soneoftheotherbigthings:

learningfrommistakes.Youcanmakemistakes;youjustcan’tmakethemtwice.(Participant15)

Participantsacceptedtheirmistakesanddrewlessonsfromthem,buttheydidnotletthosemistakes

affecttheirprogressortheirnextflight.Participantsalsoconductedanalysesoftheirownactions,as

theyalwaysdoduringdebriefs,todeterminetheexactcauseofanyerrors.

If[thingswentwrong],andsayifthiswasmedoingsomethingandI’mbeingself‐analytical,I

wouldensurethatalloftheenvironmentalfactorshaven’tchangedandIwouldlookatit

analyticallyfromthatperspectivesothatIcanexcludethatasthecase.(Participant6)

Onaformationflightonce,here,Irememberlettingastudentgettighterthanthenormal

position.Andhewasgoinginandoutofposition.AndatonepointItookcontrols,butIthought

aboutitafter,Iwaslike‘maybeIshouldn’thavelethimgothatfar’.Becausetheriskwastoo

high.That’soneexamplethatIcanthinkof,butI’msurethere’sotherexamples...IguessIstill

feltinmycomfortzone.Butlookingatitafter,Ithoughtmycomfortzonewasprobablyalittle

toostretched...becauseIstillneedalittlebitoftimetoreact,ifshedoessomething,and

becauseitwassotightIdidn’thavethatreactiontimeanymore.ButIonlyrealizedthat

afterwards,soIlearnedsomething.(Participant13)


Participantsanalyzedtheiractions,theinformationtheyusedtoarriveatthoseactions,the

environmentalfactors,andtheirframeofreference(i.e.,whattheybelievetobetrue)goingintothat

flightormaneuver.

StressManagement

Followingaflightormission,mostparticipantsseemedabletorefocuswithoutdifficulty,

providedtheyhadengagedinameaningfuldebrief.Attimes,however,adebriefinitselfwasinsufficient

toeliminatepost‐flightfeelingsofstress.Intheseinstances,participantsturnedtostressmanagement

orreductiontechniquestohelpalleviatethesenegativefeelings.Fivepilotsdiscussedtheuseofstress

managementtechniquesinthepost‐flightphase.Theiruseofstressmanagementtechniquesfollowing

aflightseemedtomostlytargetthecriticismassociatedwithflightdebriefsandrecoveryandrefocusing

followingamajorchallengeorsetback.

DealingwithCriticism

Pilotsdiscussedtheimportanceofdealingwithcriticism,asitremainsalargepartofthepilot

trainingsystem.Apilotmustfacecriticalcommentsandevaluationfromsuperiorsthroughouthis/her

studenttrainingintheUPTSandwhenflyingmissionsortrainingexercisesasfullpilots.Theonlytimea

pilotdoesnotfacedirectcriticismiswhenhe/sheisintheroleoftheinstructororwhenhe/she

executesthetaskormissiontoperfection.Todealwithcriticisminaconstructiveway,participants

attemptedtoextractthemostusefulinformationfromthecommentsanddisregardthenegative

aspects(forexample,somethingthatmaybeperceivedasapersonalputdown).

Someguysjustliketodestroyyou,soyoujustkindofsitthereandsuckitup.Andthenyouhave

tobestrongmentallywhenyougooutthedoor,andtakeeverythinghesaidandputthatin

perspectiveandsay‘whatever.Yeah,Iagreewiththis,this,butIdon’tagreewiththat.AndI’ll

showyounexttime,Icandoit’.Soyougottabestrongmentally.Ifyou’reborderline,between


beingstrongand[not],you’regonnahaveahardtimetodealwiththat,especiallyifyougetan

instructorwho’slikethat.Butwe’realldifferent.(Participant7)

[WhenIreceivedcriticism]Ididusethetips,becauseIreallydidn’twannamakethesame

mistakesagain.Ireallywantedtodobetter...IstayedpositiveandmaintainedfocusbecauseI

hadthataim,Iwantedtosucceed,andthatwasthemaindrive.(Participant13)

Participantstriedtopreventanyinternalizationofthecriticalremarks,remindingthemselvesthatthe

instructorswerenotattackingwhotheywereaspeoplebuttryingtohelpthemtobecomebetterpilots.

Recovery

Asmallnumberofparticipantsrecountedverychallengingsetbackexperiencesfromwhichthey

hadtorecover.Participant7describedhisrecoveryafterhewasselectedtoadvancethroughF‐18

training,butthenfailedtocompletethecourse:

Ijusttooksometimeoff;Iwentonvacation.AndthenIthoughtaboutthewholething.You

know,youtrytoexplaineverypossiblesituationbutyourealizethatyoujustcan’tbecause

there’stoomanyfactors,there’stoomanyvariables,there’stoomanythingsinvolvedtoexplain

it;however,youkindofunderstandthegeneral[picture].Andthenyoutrytogetyourselfaway

fromitalittlebitandjustberational,tounderstandthebigpicture.Andthenyou’relike‘well,

youknow,itkindamakessensethatthathappened’becausenowwithalittlebitoftimeaway

fromallthatIthinkitwassomething,thelifestyledidn’tsuitme,itwasnotforme.

Similarly,Participant10attemptedtocompletethetrainingtoflytheF‐18,butwasunsuccessfulontwo

occasions.

Iactuallyaskedabuddyofmine,[nameremoved],whowentthroughthesamething.Hewasa

littlefartheralonginthetrainingand,youknow,gotbooted.AndwhatIaskedhimspecifically

washowyougetyourmojoback[laughs].Hedidn’thaveananswer.Hisbestanswerwastime,

andIthinktimeispartofit.Imeanitstillbugsme;liketheotherday,ItaxiedbyaHornet,Iwas


justlike[motionsdispleasure/feelingdown].ButIthinkasIgotintotheFlightInstructorcourse

andIgotbusywiththat,becauseit’safairlydemandingcourse,Iwasflyingprettymuchtwicea

day,andtheyexpectmoreofyouthanjustastudentdownstairs,rightfullyso.SoIwasbusyand

Iwasfocusedonthat.Andittookmyfocusawayfrommyfailureoflastyear,anditjustallowed

metobuildonwhatIwasdoing.AndtheHarvard,itisafunlittleairplane,soIenjoymyjob;I

enjoywhatIdo.SoIhadthisfun,enjoyablethingtodo,somestressupstairs,becauseyouknow

performanceanxiety,youwannadowell,andthatkindofshiftedmyfocus.AndnowI’vejust

kindofbuiltonit.(Participant10)

Forbothparticipants(whofellshortoftheveryhighF‐18trainingstandards),simplyallowing

themselvestimetoacceptthedisappointmentandtorefocuswasanessentialpartoftheirrecovery.

Participant10didmakeaconsciousefforttorefocushisattentiononmorepositiveaspectsofhislife:

IknewIdidn’twanttobeoneoftheseguyswhocomeshere[15WingMooseJaw]andispissed

offthathe’snotanF‐18pilot.Becausethereareeightor10ofthoseguyshereatthisschool.I

didn’twanttobeoneofthem.Becauseallthat’sgonnadoismakememiserable,andI’mgonna

havelessfundoingwhatI’mdoingnow.Maybeitwasaconsciousdecisionasopposedtoa

consciousshift.Idoremembertherewasonetimeabuddyofmineputonavideo,itwasjusta

bunchoffighterstakingpictures,flyinganddoingcoolstuff.AndIlefttheroom;Ididn’twanna

watchit.Itwasbuggingme.ButthatwasprobablybackinAprilorMay,whenheputthatvideo

on.SoI’vehadafewmonthssincethentokindofgetpastit.

KnowingthattheywouldnotlivetheirF‐18dreamwasinitiallyanextremelydifficultrealityforbothof

theseaccomplishedpilotstoaccept.However,byallowingthemselvestotakesometimeandby

refocusingonotherpositiveaspects(i.e.,theircurrentflyingrole),theywereeventuallyabletomove

forwardinpositivewaysandtakeonotherchallenges.


Deployment

Fourparticipantshadexperiencedoneormoredeploymentsintocombatzonessuchas

Afghanistan,Bosnia,Somalia,PakistanandIraq.Theseparticipantssharedtheirstoriesandrecollections

ofwhatwerealmostsurrealexperiences,completelydifferentfromeverythingtheyhadknowntobe

reality.Manyofthepsychologicalskillsthesepilotsreliedonduringtheirdeploymentwerethesame

skillsorvariationsofthesameskillstheyhadusedwithsuccessduringtrainingandstandardexercises.

Forparticipantswithdeploymentexperience,psychologicalpreparation(forthenewrealities

theywouldface)beforetheirdeploymentwasdifficult,ifnotimpossible.Participant2stated:

Bosniadefinitelydidn’tpreparemeforAfghanistan.Ihadbeenontour,soI’dseenoverseasand

IhadseensomethingsinBosniathatwerealittlebrutal,butinAfghanistan,nothingcould

preparemeforthatone.Thatwasawholedifferentexperience,completely.

Insomeinstances,theseparticipantswerethefirsttroopsdeployedfromtheCAFtoaspecificcombat

location.Thismeantthattherewerenoreturningpilotsfromwhoseexperiencestheycouldlearn.Most

ofthetime,however,regardlessoftheirefforts,itwassimplyimpossibletoimaginethephysicaland

emotionalrealitythatawaitedthem.

Asintraining,participantstookgreatcaretopreparethoroughly(bothphysicallyandmentally)

beforeexecutingtheirdeploymentmissions.Participantsspokemainlyoftheimportanceof

communicationinstrengtheningtheirmentalreadinesspriortomissionsorflightswhileondeployment.

Preparationseemedtoshiftfromasolitaryexercisetoagroupexperience,possiblyduetothefactthat

participantswerenowengagedinagroupeffort.ForParticipant14,athoroughbriefingwasthemost

importantpreparationbeforeaflight:

It’saverydifferentenvironment:weworkwithacrewandaco‐pilotandpeopleintheback,

andwehaveaspecificmission.Andinthatcase,thekeyismoreamongstthecrew.Becausethe

flyingabilities,wehave.Thehoursandtheexperience,wehave.Thereforewecanalmost–it’s


likeeverythingelsewhenyoudoitsomanytimes,it’sreallyeasy.Butnowthefocusismore

amongstthepeoplebecausenowyoudealwithun‐experiencedcrew,potentially,andyoumay

dealwithpeoplethatdon’tworkwelltogether.And[asthepilot]you’regoingtobethe

[catalyst]intothepositiveenvironmentotherwisetheperformancewilldecrease.

Participant14notedthatwhilehestillpracticedchairflyingduringhisdeployments,thiswasnotas

importantbecausehewasalreadysofamiliarwiththeaircraft.Participant10communicatedwithother

pilotsonthedeploymentandlearnedfromtheirexperiences.Hedescribedoneexperienceinwhichhe

soughtinformationfromfriendsaftertheyweretargetedbyground‐to‐airweapons:

Youcouldtelltheywerealittle,kindofexcited,andalittlebitstressedoutfromit.AndIwanted

toknow,ImeanIwascurious,‘hey,howdiditgo,whatdidyoudo?Whathappened?’...Itwas

easytoputmyselfinthatposition,youknow,whatwouldIhavedone?...I’dmaybegoback

andlookatthemaneuversthattheydidto–theyactuallyweren’tdodgingthebullets,they

weredefeatingtheradarthatwasguidingthebulletsgoingtothem–buttothespecific

maneuverthattheydid,Iwouldmaybegobackandlookatthat.

Thepreparationformissionsduringdeploymentwasessentiallythesameasanyothertrainingexercise,

includingelementssuchaschairflyingandstudyingprocedures.Inthiscontext,however,the

communicationbetweenpilotsandthebuildingofacohesiveteamtookonanewsignificance.Inthese

cases,participantsweretrulyputtingtheirlivesonthelineandinthehandsoftheirfellowpilotsand

crewmembers.

Participantsemphasizedtheimportanceofaneffectivefocusduringdeployment.Theirfocus

duringdeploymentwassimilartotheeverydaybestperformancefocus,rootedinthepresentmoment,

howeverthisdeploymentfocusdifferedinitsincreasedintensity.Participantsdescribedstayingfocused

everydayoneverytask,andwerecarefulnottolettheirfocuswandertothecalendar(i.e.,howmany

dayswereleftintheirdeployment)orbecomepreoccupiedwiththoughtsofhome.


Ithink,mentally,Ijuststayedfocusedoneveryday.Ineverlookedatacalendar,Ineverplayed

thatcalendargame–guysmarkoffthecalendarandas[they]getclosertotheendtheyget

morecautious.Verydeadlygame,youcan’tdothat.Youactuallygottagomoreaggressivenear

theend.Istillrememberthedaytheysaid‘you’releavingtoday’.Isaid‘Jesus,really?’Packed

up,andoffIwent...Ifyougetcautious,you’llmakemistakes;you’llgetkilled.Soyoujustgotta

pushrighttotheendandeventuallysomebodywilltellyoutogohome.(Participant1)

Ittendstobealotoftaskfocus.Youfocusonwhatyou’vebeentaskedtodo.Thefirstfew

weeksIwasthere,wehadthecampgetrocketattackedprobablyalmosteverynight.Andfor

thefirstfewweeks,youknow,itwasjustlike‘holysmokes’.LikeIhadabombexploderightin

frontofme,about50metersawaymaybe,whenIwasonmywaytothegym.HereI’mjust

goingtodoaprettymundanething,andboom!Rightinfrontofme.(Participant2)

Itwasactuallyeasier[tofocus]becauseIdidn’thavethedistractionsthatIwouldathome.I

didn’thavefriendscallingtogoout,Iwasn’ttryingtogoplaysports,Ididn’thavealotofusual

workstuff.Wedidn’thavealltheemailsformeetingsandallthatstuff.Sowewereableto

focusmorejustonthemission,andforme,learninghowtoplanthemissions.(Participant1)

Incombatzones,theseparticipantsseemedtomakeaconsciouschoicetofocusontheirtasks,knowing

thatthepotentialforharmwasgreatiftheydidnot.Participantswerealsoawarethattherewasvery

littleintheirenvironmentthattheycouldcontrol,otherthantheirdailytasksormissiontasks.Asa

result,theybecameveryabsorbedintheirtasks,totheextentthatthedangerousrealitiesofthe

deploymentandtheirlifeoutsideofthedeploymentseemedtobeputasideorforgotten:

Thefearactuallygoesaway.ProbablywithintwotothreemonthsofthetourIwasnotafraidat

all.Ever.Likethattimewhenthebombhitinfrontofme,Iwasnotafraid.WhenIhitthe

ground,Iwasactuallykindoflike‘what,I’mtryingtogotothegymhere’.Iwasmoremadatthe

guywholaunchedthebombbecauseIwastryingtogotothegymthanbecausehewastrying


tokillme.Soyeah,trytostayfocusedonwhatyou’retheretodowouldprobablybemybiggest

[advice]foranybodygoingthere.(Participant2)

Forthesepilotslivingundertheseextremeconditions,theironlyrealitywasstayingfocusedonthetask

thattheywereattemptingtocompleteatthatmoment.

Participantsdescribedanoticeableincreaseintheintensityoftheirfocusduringtheir

deployment.Theyseemedtobeinaconstantstateofalertness,alwaysreadytoengage.Participants

flewmissionsthatcouldextendforlongperiodsoftime,requiredpreciseaction,andcouldinvolvevery

realconsequencessuchaslossoflife.

Youjustgointofightmodeanditjustbecomessomethingthat…likemybrainovertherenever

stopped.Isleptoverthere,likeIsaidfourtosixhourstherewasenoughformetostay

completelyactivealldaylong.AndwhenIslept,Islept.Isleptthroughafirefightonetime,you

know,itwasgoingonandyou’rejust[motionssleeping]untilmyalarmwentoff.[Laughing]

That’stheonlythingthatseemedtobeabletowakemeup.(Participant2)

Participant14describedhisdeploymentfocusas“immenselymoreintense”.Hisdailymissionswhileon

tourinvolvedidentifyingsuspiciousshipsandprovidingairsupportfortroopswhoboardedtheships,in

theeventthattheshipwastransportingterrorists(whocouldsuddenlymountanarmedattackonthe

troops).Thesemissions,herecalled,couldeasilylast45minutestoanhour,leavinghimcompletely

exhaustedfromtheintensityoffocusrequired.

Assomedeploymentcontextsinvolvedheaviercombatthanothers,participantsreportedthat

theextenttowhichtheyexperiencedstresswhiledeployedwasdependantonthelevelofriskpresent

intheirlocation.

Bosniawasn’tthatstressful,youweren’tworriedaboutgettingshotatverymuch.Inthecaseof

ahelicopter,landmines[were]thebiggestthing.Ifyouallofthesuddenhadanenginefailureor

somethinglikethatandyouhadtoputyourhelicopterdown,youwantedtomakesureyouput


itdownintherightspotbecausethere’slandminesalloverthatcountry.Moreorless,the

peoplewereveryfriendly;youknow,you’reintheircountry,butmoreorlessthey’repretty

friendly.Anditwasn’tthatviolentatthetime.Afghanistanontheotherhand,therewasalot

more[possibility]ofbeingshotat.(Participant2)

Itwasaninterestingfeelingflyingoveracountrythatwouldlovetoshootyoudownandkill

you.Anditwas,youknow,justtheknowledgetherethatifyoudidendupontheground,it

wasn’tgoingtobepretty.(Participant10)

ForParticipant2,themoststressfuleventsinitiallyseemedtobetherepatriationceremonies(for

soldierswhohadbeenkilledonthedeployment).Withsomeceremonieshonoringasmanyassixfallen

soldierswhowerereturninghome,thesewereemotionaleventsformany.

Tomanagetheirlevelsofperceivedstressandarousalduringdeployment,participantsrelied

primarilyoncompartmentalization,communicationwithotherpilots,andexercise.Participant2

describedusingcompartmentalizationsuchthatheattemptedtoblockhishumanconnectionwiththe

environmentaroundhim:

Probablythe‘heatofbattle’stuffwasmostchallenging[withthe]lossoflifegoingon.There’sa

senseofurgencytherethat’sforsure.Andtryingtomaintainacalm...abilitytodoyourjob

whileunderstrainisprobablythemorechallengingthing.It’salittledifferentthough[flying

unmannedaerialvehicles];it’salmostlikewatchingitonTVoronFoxNewsorsomethingwhere

you’reactuallyseeingthebattlegoingon,anditisliveandit’sreal.Sothattookalittlebitof

gettingusedto.Justtryingtomakesurethingsarehappeningwhilecasualtiesarebeingtakenis

kindoftough.Sothementalrequirementsonthatonearekindofharder.Forthefirstcoupleof

timesitwasabitmuch,butonceyou’vekindofseenitafewtimes...youjuststartdoingyour

job[almostlikearobot],notsomuch[without]careandemotion,butyoudoittryingtoextract

asmuchemotionoutofitasyoupossiblycan.Soyou’rejustverydirective.


Hefoundthathewasalsoabletocompartmentalizeorboxuphisemotionsduringtherepatriation

ceremoniesaswell,whichhadbeensodifficultatfirst.

Soatthebeginningyou’restandingatattention,saluting,crying,thewholehumancondition

thinggoingon;midwaythrough[thetour]tillkindoftheend,itwaslikeaninconvenience.It

waslike‘ohcomeon,I’vegottwomorehoursofthis,thenIgottagobackanddothisanddo

this’.Andthere’speoplegettingsenthomeandyou’rejusttotallyloose.(Participant2)

Participant1seemedtocompartmentalizehisentirelifeathome,separatingitfromhisdeployment

completely.Herecalled:

AnytimeI’vehadtodeploy,IkindofgointoamindsetthatisprobablyunhealthywhenIfirst

gethome.Iknowhome’stherebutI’llkindofjustputawall.AndI’lltalkeveryweekifIhaveto,

butI’mjustfocusingonwhereIamto,notevenstayalive,asmuchasdowhateverthejobis

overthere.Becauseit’snotreal,thisisnottherealworld:it’sadeployment.Realworldiswhen

yougetbackhomeandthenyoutakethisboundarydown.(Participant1)

Bycompartmentalizingorputtingonholdtheseotheraspectsoftheirlives,pilotsenabledthemselves

tofocusfullyonthetaskathand.Participantsmitigatedtheirriskofpersonalinjuryorharmbyensuring

thatthepreoccupationsofhomeorthedistractionoftheiremotionalresponseswouldnotcompromise

theirabilitytoperforminthecombatzone.

ForParticipant2,theapparentgraduallossofemotionduringtherepatriationceremonies

seemedtobeanunintentionalby‐productofhisattempttoremovetheemotionfromhismissiontasks.

Asaresult,hewastroubledbyhisnewfoundindifferencetotheceremonies:

Iactuallystartedtalkingtoguyswhohadgonewithmeandaskingthemiftheywerefeelingthe

samewayIwas,tomakesureIwasn’tsomesortoffreakorsomething.Andtheysaidthesame

things.Wedidnoticethat.LikewhatItoldyouearlier...thatIwasn’tfeelingsadatrep

ceremonieslater,thatoneactuallybuggedmewhenIwasthere,thatonekindoftroubledme


andIwasjustlike‘okay,I’msomerealbigjerknow,Idon’tthinkthatlife’simportantor

something’.AndactuallywhenIwasthere,Iwentandtalkedtoacoupleofmyfriendsandjust

kindofputitoutthereandsaid‘anybodyelsefeellikethis?’Andwealldid.Soitwasn’tjustme.

Thatmademefeelalotbetter,mademefeellikeIwasn’tsomeinsensitivejerk.(Participant2)

Participant2spokewithhisfellowpilotsinanattempttovalidatethenormalcyofhisexperienceswhen

hediscoveredthathewasneitherafraidofdyingnoremotionallyengagedintherepatriationsofhis

fallencomrades.Thesupportandcommonexperiencesofhispeersallowedhimtoacceptthisnew

developmentandrefocusonotherimportantmatters.

Asathome,participantsfoundexercisetobehelpfulinthemanagementoftheirfeelingsof

stress.Whileondeployment,however,participantsweremuchmorefocusedontheregularityoftheir

exerciseasitbecameevenmoreimportantforalleviatingthenewlyelevatedstresslevelsofdailylifein

acombatzone.

Becauseyouwerelivingintheenvironment[Somalia]forsixmonthsandyoucouldn’treally

leaveit,Iwouldruneveryday.And,mentally,thedealwas,becauseyouhadtojustruninyour

owncompound,becauseIwas[inacommandposition]overthere,Isaidtomyguys‘ifI’m

running,unlesssomebodycrashes,donotstopme’.Sothatwasthedeal.Ifsomebodycrashes

and,maybedies,stopme.Sothatwasaritualthatwehad...Iwouldrunprobablyanhour.

Well,you’rethere24hoursaday!Soevenafteranhouryou’relike‘okay,nowI’vegot23more

hours’.Therewasnogettingaway.Soanhouraday,andthenI’dprobablyworkoutabit–we

hadatentgymsetup.(Participant1)

Thegymwasanincrediblewaytogetridofstress,andalotofpeopleusedthegymthere.It

wasjustawaytoburnoffsteam.AndIwouldbeintheretwotothreehours,which,for

somebodywho’snotanathlete,wasalotoftimetospendinthegym.Icamebackherein

probablythebestshapeofmylife.(Participant2)


ForParticipant1,exerciseseemedtobeanescapefromhisenvironment,achancetomentallybe

somewhereotherthaninSomalia.ForParticipant2,exerciseseemedtoprovidemoreofanopportunity

tochannelhisintensefocusandreleasesomepentupenergyoremotion.Bothparticipantsrelied

heavilyonexercisetomanagetheirstressandcalmorfreetheirminds(asmuchaspossible)fora

periodoftime.Exercisewasacriticallyimportantpartoflifeduringdeployment;itwassomethingthat

pilotslookedforwardtodoingeachdayanditwasalsoonesmallactivityintheirdailylivesoverwhich

theycouldexertalmostfullcontrol.

Oncetheirdeploymentwascomplete,someparticipantsfoundthattheyhadtrouble

reintegratingintotheirprevioushomelives.Theyfounditdifficulttoleavebehindnotonlythe

memoriesofwarbutalsothementalityoffeelingperpetuallyhunted.

IttookmequiteawhileafterSomaliatogetthat[nobodyistryingtokillyouanymore]…you

know,you’dhearacarbackfireand[finally]youwouldn’twanttohittheground;thattypeof

weirdacutenesstosound.ThattookawhileafterSomaliaandthat’swhenIrealizedtheseare

toughonthebody,andmentally.Irememberthat.(Participant1)

Toevadetheseconstantremindersofhisrecentexperiences,Participant2refocusedhisattentionon

hislifeathome:

Thatwasprobablythehardestthingactuallywascomingbackintothenormal,day‐to‐day

world.IneededtorefocuswhenIcamehome,andItookonabunchofdifferenthobbies,Ikept

goingtothegym,totrytokindofkeepmybrainactive–becauseitwas,allthetime.Alotof

insomnia,alotofsleepingissuesafter[Afghanistan].Anditwasn’tjustbecauseofwhat

happened,butmorejustbecauseIwasworking20hoursadaymostdays[inAfghanistan],you

know,fourtosixhourssleepwasthenorm.AndIneverfelttiredoverthere.Soitwaslikenine

monthsofadrenalinebasically.SowhenIcamehomethatwasprobablythebiggestthing...The

militarygivesyouabunchofleavewhenyoucomeback,soIdidn’tworkforamonthandahalf.


SoinsteadItookonabunchofhomeimprovementprojectsathome.Iwentandtoreaparta

bathroom.Ijustneededtokeepmyselfbusy;thatwasthebigthingformewasjustkeeping

myselfbusyallthetime...thereweresomebadthingsfrom[Afghanistan]thatIdidn’twantto

focuson,soIfocusedonremodelingthehouse.Ikeptmyselfbusy,bigtime.

WhileParticipant2waseventuallyabletore‐establishhispresenceinhispreviouslifestyle,itrequired

consistenteffortanddisciplineonhispart.Participant1alsomentionedthatthisattempttoreturnto

“normal”lifeisnotaneasytask:

Someguys,they’renotmentallystrongenoughtoactuallyrealizethat[they’re]homefromit,

andnobody’stryingtosnipeat[them]anymore.That’sahardonetowalkawayfrom,Ithink.

Someguyswillneverrecover.

Arguablythemostchallengingtimeinapilot’slifemaybethisreturnhomefromdeployment;thisalso

seemstobethechallengeormissionforwhichhe/shehasbeenleastprepared.


CHAPTER5

Discussion

ThepurposeofthisinvestigationwastoexploretheuseofpsychologicalskillsbyeliteCanadian

militarypilots.Threequestionswereaddressedthroughthecourseofthestudy:(a)whatpsychological

skillsareusedbyeliteCanadianmilitarypilotsandhowaretheseskillsusedthroughouttheirhighly

demandingaviationcareers?(b)Whatdoestheterm‘focus’meanforpilotswholive,train,andperform

inthemilitarycontext?And(c)howdopilotscontendwiththerisksandstressesimplicitinthisunique

profession?Resultswerepresentedaccordingtothethreetemporalphasesofflight:pre‐flight,mission

execution,andpost‐flight.Anadditionaldeploymentphasewasincludedtohighlighttheextreme

conditionsanduniqueskillsnecessaryforsuccessinthesechallengingsituations.

ThisinvestigationwasconductedwithintheframeworkofOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellence.

Orlick’smodelcontainssevenelementsofsuccessdevelopedfromhisextensiveworkwithhigh‐level

performersofmanydomains.TheelementsoftheWheelofExcellenceare:focus,commitment,mental

readiness,positiveimages,confidence,distractioncontrol,andongoinglearning.Theresultsofthis

researchrevealthatCanada’selitemilitarypilotsincorporateeachelementofOrlick’sWheelof

Excellenceintooneormoreofthethreeflightphases(pre‐flight,missionexecution,post‐flight).These

findingsareconsistentwiththeconclusionsofpreviousinvestigationsinelitesportsuchasMahoneyet

al.(1987);OrlickandPartington(1988);andGould,EklundandJackson(1992).Thisresearchisalso

consistentwithfindingswithhigh‐riskactivityperformerssuchassuccessfulMountEverestclimbers

(Burke&Orlick,2003)andbigmountainfreeskiers(Coleman&Orlick,2006).Thepresentstudyhas

helpedtovalidatetherelevanceandapplicabilityofOrlick’sWheelofExcellencewithinthecontextof

elitemilitaryaviation.

Oneimportantconceptidentifiedwithinthispopulationwastheuseofpsychologicalskillsto

effectivelymanagestressandarousal.Stressmanagementisnotidentifiedasadistinctelementin


Orlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellence,howeverthementalskillspresentedintheWheelofExcellencecan

bedirectlyappliedtothemanagementofstressandarousal.Adiscussionofstressmanagementinthe

contextofmilitaryaviationwillfollowanoverviewoftheWheelofExcellenceinrelationtotheuseof

psychologicalskillsbyCAFpilots.

FocusisthecentralcomponentofOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellenceandhasbeenidentifiedas

acriticalelementofsuccessfulhigh‐levelperformanceinpreviousresearch(e.g.,McDonaldetal.,1995;

Werthner,2002).Thisthemewasalsooverwhelminglypresentinthecurrentresearch.Theexplicit

discussionoffocusasapsychologicalskilloccurredmainlyinrelationtothepre‐flightandmission

executionphases;however,focuswasanimplicitcomponentofallotherpsychologicalskillsandall

threephasesofflight.Thepresentationoffocusintheresearchresultsisanaccuraterepresentationof

thecommentsandopinionsprovidedintheinterviewswithelitepilots.Focusisalsopresentedinthe

discussionasanexplicitcomponentofthepsychologicalskillsofmilitarypilotsanditspresencewithin

otherpsychologicalskillsishighlighted.

Focus

Thefirstminitourquestionofthisresearchwas:Whatdoestheterm‘focus’meanforpilotswho

live,trainandperforminthemilitarycontext?Orlick(2008)statedthatexcellenceevolvesfromatotal

connectionwitheachstepandineachmomentofaperformancepursuit.Allpilotsreliedona

connectedfocustoexcelintheirflightsandmissions.Similarly,ToongandKoh(2005)foundthatan

MSTprograminvolvingfocustrainingresultedinimprovedperformanceonajumptaskbynovice

militaryparachutists.Theimportanceofafullyconnectedfocuswasespeciallyevidentinrelationto

missionexecution.Pilotsdescribedtheirbestfocusasoneinwhichtheywereinthemoment,

connectedtotheirtasks,thinkingpositively,maintainingabroadSA,andusingtheircapacityeffectively.

Whenfocusedinflight,pilotswereabletoanticipateupcomingevents,movethroughtheirtasksina

fluidmanner,andmanageorprioritizemultipletasksandinputs.Manypilotsspecifiedthatthistypeof


connectedfocus(ontherightthingsattherighttime)wasthedifferencebetweenabestperformance

andaless‐than‐bestperformance.

Trustinone’sabilitiesisakeycomponentofexcellentperformance(Cohn,1991;Orlick,2008).

Werthner(2002)identifiedtrustasaspecificcomponentofaneffective‘inthemoment’focus.

Werthner’sresearchwitheliteathletesindicatedthatathleteslookedtobalancethecognitiveaspectof

monitoringperformancewiththemoreinstinctualortrustingaspectofsimplyallowingone’sbodyto

performwhatithasdonemanytimesbefore.Thepilotsinthisstudyalsoseemedtomaintainsucha

balanceasmostoftheroutinemechanicsofflightwereperformedwithoutdeliberateorconscious

thought.Thecountlesshoursspentengagedinmissions,chairflying,andotherpreparatoryactivities

allowedpilotstocarryouttheseactionswithminimalattentionwhilesimultaneouslyprocessingother

inputsandprioritizingtasks.Manypilotsseemedtoviewtheaircraftasanextensionofthemselves

(similartohowonefeelswhendrivingacarorridingabike),statingthattomovetheaircrafttheyonly

hadtodecidewheretheywantedtogoandtheirbodieswouldreactappropriately.Athorough

preparationseemedtoempowerpilotstotrustthemselvesandsimplyfocusondoingwhattheycould.

Whenfacinganexceptionallychallengingtask,pilotsattemptedtofirstputthesituationinperspective

andthentrustintheirabilitiestoperformasrequired.Thistrustfreedthemtoperformtheirbest.

MooreandStevenson(1994)statedthattrustisaspecificmentalskillthatinvolves“freeing

oneselfofexpectations,fears,orotherconsciousactivityandmaintainingaclearandpresentfocus

necessarytoattendtohigheraspectsofsportscompetitionsuchascueutilizationandstrategy”(p.3).It

wasevidentfromthepilots’descriptionsoftheirbestfocusexperiencesthattrustwasanintegral

componentoftheirsuccess.Somepilotsdidnotethattheyexperiencedsomedifficultyinthisarea

whenfacedwithimportanttestflights,howevereverypilotseemedabletofullytrustinhis/herabilities

duringemergencyresponsesituations;inthesesituations,therewasquitesimplynotimetobegin

questioningthoseabilities.


MooreandStevenson(1994)proposedahierarchicalmodelofthepsychologicalskillsrequired

toachievetrustinone’sabilities.Accordingtothismodel,onebeginswithconcentration.An

appropriateconcentrationleadstoself‐confidence,whichisthenexpressedthroughcomposure.

Composureenhancesthelikelihoodoftrustingoneselfduringexecutionoftheskill.Theexperiences

relatedbypilotsseemtosupportthismodeloftrust.Thosepilotswhofounditdifficulttotrustintheir

abilitiesreportedfocusingontask‐irrelevantcues,suchasthepresenceoftheexaminerortheoutcome

ofthetest.Theyalsoexpressedfeelingaslightdecreaseinself‐confidenceaswellaselevatedsymptoms

ofanxiety.Forthosepilotswhowereabletoovercometheirtestworries,theprocessbeganwithashift

infocustotask‐relevantcues.Whenrespondingtoemergencysituations,pilotsreportedfocusingfully

onproblemsolvingandmaintainingtheircomposure,withnohesitationastotheirabilitytohandlethe

situation.Pilotsdrewconfidencefromanalyzingtheirsituationanddeterminingeitherthattheywerein

areasonablepositiontosucceedorthattherewereseveralcoursesofactionfromwhichtheycould

choose.Asaresult,pilotswereabletofreethemselvestotrusttheirdecisionsandproceedwithout

hesitationinwhateverwaytheyfeltwasbest.

Duringthesechallengingsituationsoremergencies,pilotsoftenreportedexperiencingastateof

fullyconnectedoroptimalfocus,similartoflow.Jackson(1995)definedflowas“astateofoptimal

experiencinginvolvingtotalabsorptioninatask,andcreatingastateofconsciousnesswhereoptimal

levelsoffunctioningoftenoccur”(p.138).Pilotsseemedtoexperienceafullyconnectedfocusorsense

ofFlowduringemergencyresponses;theirstateduringthistimewascharacterizedbyautomaticity,an

understandingofpriorities,totalfocusonthetaskathand,asenseofcontrol,andlossoftime

awareness.Theseexperiencesseemedtobepromptedbythepilots’abilitiestofreethemselvesthrough

trusttoconnectfullywiththetaskathand.AsfirstdefinedbyCsikszentimichalyi(1990),however,flow

isessentiallyanexperienceofintrinsicenjoyment.Whilepilotsdidexperienceasenseof

connectedness,theydidnot(understandably)seemtoexperienceenjoymentduringemergency


responses.Participantsdidnotexperiencenegativeordebilitatingthoughts,nordidtheyreport

experiencingjoyfulthoughts.Onecouldarguethattheirfocuswaspositiveinthattheyconcentratedon

movingforward,findingsolutions,andtakingactiontocreateamorefavorableoutcome.Also,many

pilotspursuedaflyingcareerforpurelyintrinsicreasons,soperhapswhenconsideredonamoreglobal

scaletheconceptofflow(orcertainlyafullyconnectedfocus)couldbeapplied.

Cohn(1991)notedanabsenceoffearwhengolfersexperiencedflowduringplay.Thepilots

interviewedforthisstudyalsoreportedanabsenceoffearduringtheirresponsestoemergencies.Some

pilotsfeltaphysicalresponse,suchasacceleratedbreathingandheartrates,butallwereableto

composethemselvesandrefocusquicklywithouttrouble.Onepilotrecalledafleetingthoughtofhaving

toejectfromanaircraftwhenitwasstruckbyabird,butdidnotdwellonthispossibility.Whetheror

nottheexperiencesofthesepilotscanbeclassifiedasflowexperiences,thisresearchdoeshighlightthe

importanceoftrustinreachingsuchastateofoptimalperformance.Perhapstrustmaybeincludedas

anessentialcomponentinfutureinvestigationsofoptimalperformanceorflowexperiences.

Commitment

Mahoneyetal.(1987)reportedthatcomparedtonon‐eliteathletes,eliteathletesinvest“more

motivationandpersonalmeaningindoingwellintheirsport”(p.197).Thepilotsinterviewedforthis

studydemonstratedaveryhighlevelofcommitmenttotheirdream(ofbeingamilitarypilot)andto

personalexcellence,equaltothatexpressedbyeliteathletesandperformersinotherdomains.For

manypilotsinterviewed,thiscommitmentwasevidentatayoungageandremainedsteadyovermany

yearsthroughvariousobstaclesandchallenges.ChrisHadfield,oneofCanada’smostprolificastronauts,

referredtothisunwaveringcommitmenttoagoalasretentionofpurpose(Orlick,2008).Hadfield

describedmakingchoiceseveryday,fromaveryyoungage,thatalignedwithhisgoalofoneday

becominganastronaut.Severalpilotsdescribedthissameinternalizationoftheirgoals.Many

encounteredmajorobstacles,suchasfailingtogainentryintotheUPTS(UndergraduatePilotTraining


System)ornotbeingselectedfortheunitorpositiontheydesired,buttheyallkeptworkingtowards

theirdreamgoal.

Forthosewhodidnotdreamofbecomingapilotasayoungchild,thissamehighlevelof

commitmenttotheprocessofachievingtheirgoalwasreadilyapparent.Oncethegoalofmilitary

aviationwastargeted,thesepilotsapproachedtheirobjectivewiththeverysamepersistent

commitmentasthosewhohadalwaysdreamedofflying.Orlick(2008)suggestedthatcommitment

growsnaturallyfromengagementinanactivitythatonelovesorenjoys.Everyparticipantinthisstudy

enjoyedflyingandformany,theirloveorpassionforflyingwasalmostindescribable.Oneparticipant

spokeofhisunwillingnesstotryanyactivityatwhichhethoughthemightfail.Flyingwastheonly

exceptiontothisrule:Hehadnoideaifhewouldsucceedasapilot;hesimplywantedtohavefun.

BarbourandOrlick(1999)measuredtheperceivedimportanceofvariousmentalskillsthrougha

questionnaireintheirresearchwithNationalHockeyLeagueplayers.Theresearchersreportedthatthe

hockeyplayersratedcommitmenthighestintermsofimportanceandtheplayers’ownperceived

proficiency.Pilotsalsoidentifiedcommitmentasanimportantcomponentofsuccessinmilitary

aviation,howevertheydidnotspecifythatitwasthemostimportantelement.BarbourandOrlick

furtherstated,“Funandenjoymentwereanimportantmediumforenhancingplayers’commitmentand

longevityinprofessionalhockey”(p.33).Thepresentstudysupportsthisfinding,witheverypilot

indicatingsomeaspectofflyingthatbroughthim/herenjoymentorpositive,upliftingfeelings.Most

often,thepositivefeelingwasrelatedtothefreedomofbeingintheair,afeelingthatcouldnotbe

attainedanywhereelse.Forothers,enjoymentwasrelatedtosuchelementsasthechallengeofthe

occupation,thecamaraderieoftheCAFortheirrolesasinstructorpilots.BarbourandOrlicksuggested

thatfunandenjoymentberecognizedasadistinctelementofsuccessinthepursuitofexcellence.The

resultsofthepresentstudyseemtoindicatethatfunandenjoymentareacomponentofcommitment,

servingtostrengthenapilot’sfocusonachievinghis/herhighlevelgoals.


Orlick(2008)morerecentlystatedthatapositiveandconnectedfocusisrequiredtoenhance

longtermdevelopmentofcommitment.Pilotsdescribedvariousfocuspointsthatenhancedtheir

commitment,includingshort‐termgoals(safety,missionobjectives,andmissionpreparation)andlong‐

termgoals(ongoinglearning,personalexcellence,desirablejob/certification).Participants

demonstratedaclearunderstandingofwhatwasrequiredtoachievetheirdreamgoal,whetherthat

wasacertainrank/positionintheCAForachancetoflytheF‐18s,andcommittedtoeachstepofthe

process.Participant5summarizedthepilots’generalconsensusontheimportanceofcommitmentas

advicetoincomingstudentpilots:“[Youmust]wantthisjob.Ifyoudon’twantthisjobreallybadly,then

godosomethingelse...Ithinkit’sactuallyquitesimple.Youjustcan’tbelazyanddothisjob”.

MentalReadiness

Highperformancemilitarypilotsinthisstudyengagedthemselvesinspecificactivitiesto

achievementalreadinesspriortoflights.Theseactivitiesincludedcommittingrelevantinformationto

memory,planningaheadforexpectedandunexpectedevents,buildingcapacity(i.e.,improvingtheir

abilitytomultitask),andusingmentalimagerytorehearsetheflightorimportantsegmentsoftheflight.

Orlick(2008)stated,“Toexcelinanypursuit,youneedtobecomementallyreadytothink,focus,and

actinpositiveways”(p.15).Throughtheuseofeffectivementalpreparationtechniques,participants

wereabletoentertheirmissionsfeelingreadytoperformtothebestoftheirabilities.Militaryaviation

isauniqueperformancedomaininthatperformersarerequiredtolearnvastamountsofinformation

rangingfromcomplex,technicalprocedurestotheinnermostworkingsofahighlyadvancedpieceof

machinerythattheymustcontrolwhilemovingatextremespeeds.Apilot’sabilitytocommitlarge

amountsofinformationtomemory(andretrieveitquicklywhennecessary)isthereforeessentialto

safeandexcellentperformance.

Intheirinvestigationofmentalreadinessinelitesurgeons,McDonaldetal.(1995)reportedthat

91%ofthesurgeonsinterviewedusedaidssuchasbooksandmodelsduringtheirpreparationfor


surgery.Formilitarypilots,theuseofbooksandmodelsforpreparationseemedtobemostimportant

duringtheirstudenttrainingorpriortoanespeciallyimportantmissionortest.Manypilotsreported

thattheywouldbreakdownrelevantinformationintosmallersegmentsor“proceduralize”(i.e.,turnit

intoastepbystepprocess)morecomplicatedmaterialormaneuvers;thisprocessenabledparticipants

tomemorizeimportantinformationquickly.Pilotsdemonstratedahighlevelofself‐awarenessinterms

oftheirpreferredlearningstyleandmostbeneficiallearningenvironment.Onceaneffectivestudy

routinewasestablished,pilotsseemedtomaintainthisroutinethroughouttheirtraining.Pilotsalso

upheldeffectiveroutinesfortheirmentalimageryandotherareasofpreparation.

Participantsfeltthatanextremelycriticalcomponentoftheirmentalreadinesswastheextent

towhichtheyhadpreparedforpotentialincidentsorotherunforeseenevents.Pilotsaccomplishedthis

taskbyanticipatingpossiblecircumstancesdrawnfromtheirownknowledgeandexperience,aswellas

byengagingotherpilotsindiscussionsoftheirpastexperiences.Thediscussionofmissiondetailswith

peers,whencombinedwiththereviewofrelevantwrittenmaterial,seemedtoenablepilotstoenvision

whatwouldtakeplaceduringtheflightandhowtheycouldbestrespond.Thistechniqueofcollective

mentalpreparationwithpeersseemssomewhatuniquetothepilotcommunity.ColemanandOrlick

(2006)reportedthatelitebigmountainfreeskiersdrewontheirownpreviousexperiencesand

inspectionofthechallengewhenpreparingforacompetition,butthisprocesswasnotundertakenin

collaborationwithotherskiers.BurkeandOrlick(2003)foundthatMountEverestclimbersreliedon

detailedplanningintheirpre‐performancephase,howeveritwasnotspecificallymentionedwhether

thisplanningincludedcommunicationwithothers.Whileitwasimpossibleforpilotstoplanforevery

possiblecircumstance,itwasimportantforthemtoentereachmissionfeelingpreparedandknowing

thattheyhadpredeterminedoptionstofocusonintheeventofanunplannedincident.

Inordertoutilizetheirpre‐flightpreparationtorespondappropriatelytostimuliinflight,apilot

mustfirsthavetheabilitytomonitorthesestimuliandshifthis/herattentiontothosethataremost


important.Pilotsattemptedtobuildtheircapacity,ortheirabilitytoattendtomultiplestimuli,during

theirpre‐flightpreparation.Tobuildcapacity,pilotsattemptedtoreplicatethemulti‐input,dynamic

environmentofthecockpitwhenstudyingorchairflying.Somepilotsbelievedtheycouldcreatea

similareffectonthegroundbyengaginginasecondaryactivity,suchasjugglingorbouncingaball,

whilefocusingontheirflight‐relatedpreparation(mentalimageryorreviewingwrittenmaterial).Some

pilotsfeltthatbyusingthistechniquetheyincreasedtheirabilitytomonitormultiplevariables(some

subconsciously)withoutbecomingoverwhelmedorlosingfocusonthemostimportanttask.This

strategyofintentionallyincorporatingmultiplestimuliintopreparatoryactivitiesisasimpleone,

howeveritisnotspecificallyaddressedinaviationresearchtodate.Assuch,thistechniquemight

provideavaluablecontributiontothefieldofsportandperformancepsychology.Theeffectivenessof

suchapracticalactivityisworthyoffurtherexplorationforperformersengagedinfastpaced,

multifacetedperformanceenvironments.

PositiveImages

RothandAndre(2004)suggestedthatchairflyingcouldbeequallyeffectiveassimulatorbased

traininginpreparationforasimulatorflyingtask,butthatfurtherresearchwasrequiredtodetermine

whetherchairflyingiseffectiveinrelationtopreparationforrealmissions.Fortheelitemilitarypilots

involvedinthisstudy,chairflyingwasanessentialandeffectivecomponentofpreparationforreal

missions.Mentalimagery,orchairflying,wasanintegralcomponentofthepre‐flightpreparationphase

foreverypilotinthisstudy.Orlick(2008)statedthattheworld’stopperformersusementalimagery

everydaytopreparethemselvesfortraining,toperfectormakecorrectionstotechnicalskills,to

overcomechallenges,toseethemselvesachievingtheirbest,andtoimprovetheirconfidenceintheir

abilities.Pilotsutilizedimageryinasimilarway,withanemphasisplacedonskillacquisition,skill

refinementanderrorcorrection.Pilotsincorporatedvisualandkinesthetic(i.e.,physicalmovements)

modalitiesintotheirchairflyingpractice.Somepilotsalsoincludedauditoryelements,suchashearing


radiocalls,andoneparticipantreportedthathecouldfeelthesensationsofbeingunderG(theforceof

gravity).Munroe,Giacobbi,Hall,andWeinberg(2000)foundsimilarresultsintheirinvestigationwith14

varsityathletes.Resultsshowedthatathletesincorporatedvisual,auditory,olfactoryandkinesthetic

elementsintotheirmentalimagery.Thepilotsinthisstudyreportedusingmainlyvisualandkinesthetic

componentsintheirimagerypreparation.Therewaslimitedmentionofauditoryelementsandno

mentionofolfactoryelements.Thispresentsapossibleavenueforimprovementbyenhancingboththe

qualityanddiversityofthispartofcurrentpreparatoryroutines.Amentalskillstrainingprogram

developedspecificallyforthiscontextcouldseebenefitsintheinclusionofspecifictrainingforimagery

content(i.e.,useofnewordifferentmodalities)withstudentpilots.

Munroeetal.(2000)alsonotedtheimportanceofspeedinmentalimagery,stating,“Thespeed

atwhichoneimagesisanareaofresearchthathasreceivedlittleattention”(p.133).Munroeetal.

suggestedthatthespeedoftheathletes’imagesvariedwiththetimeavailable.Forexample,duringa

breakincompetitionanathletewouldhavefasterimages(i.e.,theskillisperformedfaster),astimeis

verylimited.However,itwasconcludedthatfurtherinvestigationinthisareaisneeded.Mostpilotsfelt

thatimagesweremosteffectivewhenperformedinrealtime.Thisisconsistentwithpreviousresearch

conclusionsthataccuraterepresentationsofperformancedemandsareimportantinimagery(e.g.,

Munroeetal.;Orlick&Partington,1988).Whentimeislimited,pilotsnotedthattheyadapttheir

imageryasnecessary,focusingmoreonkeycomponentsthatareessentialtosuccessintheflight.One

pilotreportedusingfasterimagesformorefamiliarportionsoftheflight,andthenslowingtheimagery

duringneworimportantportions.Thismaybeaneffectivewaytomaintaintheflowoftheoverall

missionexperiencewhileappealingtotheneedfortime‐effectivepreparationtechniques.

Durand‐BushandSalmela(2002)investigatedthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofexpert

athleticperformancewith10multiplegoldmedalwinnersfromOlympicorWorldChampionshipevents.

Theresearchersstated,“Theathletesengagedindeliberatepracticeinboththeinvestmentand


maintenanceyears”;howeverfurtherresearchwasrequiredtodeterminewhetherthisdeliberate

practiceisnecessaryoncetheathleteshavereachedthepeakoftheirsportperformance.Themajority

ofthepilots’chairflyingwasperformedduringtheirtrainingintheUPTSwhentheywerelearningnew

proceduresandtechniques.Astheybecameincreasinglyfamiliarwiththeaircraftandthevarious

maneuvers,theyappearedtodecreasetheamountoftimespentchairflying.Laterintheircareers,

pilotswouldreturntochairflyingwhenpreparingforimportanttestsormissions,whentransferringtoa

newaircraft,whenondeployment,orwhenreturningaftertimeawayfromflying.KrampeandEricsson

(1996)similarlyfoundthatonceapianistattainsanexpertlevelofperformance,regulardeliberate

practiceisrequiredtomaintaintheselevelshowevertheamountofpracticerequiredisreduced.

Manypilotsfeltthatchairflyingwashighlyeffectiveformorestaticmaneuvers(i.e.,maneuvers

withclearlydelineatedsteps)butthatitmaynotbeaseffectiveoreasilyapplicableforusewith

dynamicmaneuversthatinvolvereactingtoenvironmentalcuesandgaugingprogressbydistinct

feelingsratherthanstep‐by‐stepprocedures.However,whenastudentpilotattemptsamaneuverora

portionofamaneuversuccessfullyinflight(orevenwhentheinstructordemonstratesthemaneuver),

he/shewillexperiencethefeelingofacorrectexecution.Oncethestudenthasexperiencedthisfeeling,

thatelementmaybeincorporatedintochairflyingthedynamicmaneuver.Theuseofimageryfor

dynamicscenariosisanareathatcouldgainfromfurtherresearchandinvestigation.Mahoneyetal.

(1987)brieflydescribedasignificantdifferenceineliteathletes’useofpsychologicalskillsinopen

(dynamicchallenge)andclosed(fixedchallenge)sports;however,theresearchersstatedthatfurther

investigationwasrequired.Highperformanceathleteswhoareinvolvedinmoredynamicactivities,such

asMountEverestclimbersandbigmountainfreeskiers,madenomentionofsuchlimitationstotheir

useofimagery(Burke&Orlick,2003;Coleman&Orlick,2006).Furthermore,OrlickandPartington

(1988)interviewedCanadianOlympicathletesfromawidevarietyofWinterandSummerOlympic

Gamesportsandreportednodifferencesintheimageryusebetweenopenandclosedsports.Infuture


research,therefore,itmaybeworthwhiletofurtherinvestigatethebestuseofimageryinactivities

requiringmorestaticmaneuverscomparedtothosewithmoredynamicmaneuvers.

Confidence

Pilotsdrewontheacknowledgementoftheirownabilities,theabilitiesoftheirfellowpilots,

andtheirpre‐flightsafetyroutines(i.e.,precautionarymeasures)assourcesofconfidence.Durand‐Bush

andSalmela(2002)reportedthatconfidencewasoneoftwomainpersonalcharacteristicsembodiedby

high‐levelathletes.Confidenceallowedtheparticipantstoactpositivelyandwithouthesitationduring

flight.Orlick(2008)suggestedthatconfidenceisvariable,dependingonthequalityofone’spreparation

andthedirectionofone’sfocus,aswellasself‐beliefinone’scapacity.Manyparticipantsfeltthatthey

hadcarriedalevelofconfidencewiththemthroughouttheirlives,believingthattheycouldsucceedat

anythingthattheychosetopursueinacommittedandfocusedway.Othersmadeaconsciouseffortto

buildtheirconfidencethroughthechallengesoftheUPTS.Whenconfidentinflighthowever,allpilots

feltthattheycouldcommittotheirdecisionsandactwithoutreservation.

Intheirworkwithbigmountainfreeskiers,ColemanandOrlick(2006)reportedthatconfidence

waslinkedtosufficientandeffectivepreparation.Thepresentresearchinvolvingmilitarypilotssupports

thisfinding.Onepilotstatedthattheonlyinstancesinwhichshefeltalackofconfidencewerethosefor

whichshefeltthatshewasinsufficientlyprepared.Formanypilots,afeelingofuncertaintybeforeatest

orflightmotivatedthemtoincreasetheirpreparatoryefforts.ColemanandOrlickfurtherreportedthat

bigmountainfreeskiersdrewconfidencefromsuchsafetymeasuresasknowingthelinetheywouldski,

havingback‐upexitplansincaseofanavalanche,andknowingwheretheirsafezoneswere.CAFpilots

alsoplacedagreatemphasisonpersonalsafetymeasures,astheywereawarethatmanypreventative

stepscouldbetakentoexecutethemissioninthesafestwaypossible.Pilotsdrewupontheirquality

preparation,excellentphysicalhealth,trustinfellowpilots,andpre‐flightsafetyroutinestobuildand

sustainhighlevelsofconfidence.


McDonaldetal.(1995)reportedthatelitesurgeonsenhancedtheirownself‐confidenceby

“devisingwaystosetcontrolsontheirenvironment”(p.693).Thesecontrolsincludedpositivethinking,

selectingtheirownteammembers,andpostponingsurgeryifnecessary.Similarly,pilotsdevised

methodsofinfluencingtheirphysicalselvesandtheenvironmenttoenhancetheirself‐confidence.The

methodsusedbypilotsincludedpositivethinking,positiveself‐talk,maintenanceofphysicalhealthand

fitness,andplanningflightsaccordingtoweatherconditions.Pilotsrecognizedtheaspectsofthe

environmentandofthemselvesthattheycouldcontrol,andactivelyattemptedtomanipulatethose

variablesinpositiveways.Intheireffortstobuildandmaintainself‐confidence,pilotsalsodeliberately

cultivatedakeenawarenessoftheirownabilitiesandlimitations.Iftheirabilitiestosuccessfully

completeamissionoramaneuverwereinanywaycompromisedorquestionable,pilotswouldsimply

notfly.Researchhassuggestedthatdisproportionatelydifficultgoalscanleadtoincreasedcognitive

anxietyanddegradedperformance(Earley,Connolly&Ekegren,1989;Jones,Swain&Cale,1990).When

presentedwithanexceedinglydifficultmissiongoal(generallyduetobadweatherconditions),pilots

recognizedthelimitsoftheircapabilitiesandchosetostaywithinthem,avoidingthisriskofdegraded

performancealltogether.Elitepilotsdidnottakeunnecessaryrisksorcontinuallypushthemselvesto

thelimit,butwerehonestwiththemselvesandothersabouttheirabilities.Thesepilotswenttogreat

lengthstoavoidunnecessaryrisks,knowingthatthepotentialrepercussionsweresimplynotworthit.

DistractionControl

Pilotsreliedheavilyondistractioncontrolstrategiesduringmissionexecution.Duetothenature

ofmilitaryflight(e.g.,oftenmultipleaircraftintheairspace,manyinstrumentstomonitor,multi‐step

maneuvers),apilot’sattentionisalmostalwaysshiftingbetweenmultipledemands.Addtothisthe

distractorsofeverydaylife,suchasfamilyrelatedissues,physicalhealth,orworkloaddemands,andthe

taskofmaintainingabestfocusisnowpotentiallymuchmorechallenging.Whilethemajorityofpilots

didnotbringpersonaldistractionsintotheirmissions,mostfeltthattheywereoftenbombardedby


flight‐relateddistractors.Orlick(2008)statedthateliteperformersrelyoncuewords,images,orfocal

pointstoinitiate“positiveshiftsinfocus”toacontrollableelement(p.20).Thisisconsistentwiththe

refocusingtechniquereportedbypilotsthatinvolvedcompartmentalizingandprioritizing.Thetypical

refocusingprocessfortheseelitepilotsseemedtofollowadistinctsetofsteps:(1)identificationof

distractor,(2)recognitionoflackofcontroloverdistractor(ifapplicable),(3)compartmentalizationof

distractor,(4)reprioritizationoftasks,and(5)executionoftopprioritytask.Manypilotsusedcuewords

orphrasessuchas“whatisnext?”toprompttheirrapidrefocusing.Thisentireprocesswasusually

completedwithinamatterofseconds,asnecessitatedbythehighspeedatwhichtheaircrafttravel.

Performersinotherdomainshavereportedusingcompartmentalizationorsimilarstrategiesto

blockoutunwantedorharmfuldistractions(e.g.,Orlick&Partington,1988).Forexample,athleteshave

discussedtheuseofthoughtstoppingtopreventthemselvesfrombecomingdistractedbyirrelevantor

negativethoughts(Zinsser,Bunker&Williams,2001).Oneaspectthatdoesnottoappeartohavebeen

addressedinsportpsychologyliterature,however,istheconsciousthoughtprocessoftaskprioritization

thatoftenfollowsapilot’scompartmentalization.Thismaybedueinparttouniquenatureofamilitary

pilot’sperformance(i.e.,therearemanymoretaskstoattendtowithinaveryshortperiodoftime).The

complexitiesofflyinganaircraftinabusyordangerousairspacerequirethatapilotmustbepreparedto

organizeamultitudeoftasksbeforeattemptingtocompletethem.Asstudents,pilotsoftenreliedona

pre‐plannedprioritizationschemeofaviate,navigate,communicate.Inanysituation,pilotsknewthat

theirfirstprioritywasalwaystoaviate(i.e.,keeptheaircraftfromhittingtheground).Assimpleasthis

mayseem,suchaplangavepilotsastartingpointonwhichtofocus.Fromhere,theycouldrefocusand

determinethestepsrequiredtogaincontrolofacomplicatedoroverwhelmingsituation.

Oneofthemorechallengingdistractionsforpilotswasthedelayofflightsduetoweather

conditions.Inthesesituations,flightscouldbedelayedmultipletimes,resultinginadayormorespent

readyandwaitingtofly.Attimes,pilotsfoundthemselveshopingthattheflightwouldnotgoatallthat


daysimplybecausetheywerementallyexhaustedaftersomanyhoursofuncertainty,gearingupfor

flightsonlytogeardownwhentheyweredelayedfurther.Pilotsacceptedtheirsituationhowever,as

theyunderstoodwellthatweatherconditionswerebeyondtheirpersonalcontrol.Thisrecognitionof

one’scontrolovervarioussituationswasanimportantpartofdistractioncontrolandstress

management.Orlick(2008)stated,“Youbestserveyourself,yourteammates,yourgoals,andthe

peopleclosesttoyouwhenyoufocusonpositivethingswithinyourpotentialcontrol”(p.157).When

thetimefinallyarrivedfortake‐off,pilotsshiftedtheirattentiontotheirpre‐flightchecksandused

positiveself‐talktore‐engagethemselvesintheprocessofdoingwhattheylovetodo:flying.

OngoingLearning

Orlick(2008)statedthatpersonalexcellencearisesfromstretchingone’slimits,engagingin

thoroughpost‐performanceevaluations,lookingforpositiveelementsaswellasareasforimprovement,

andactingonthelessonslearnedfromone’sexperiences.Theseelementsofongoinglearningandself‐

reflectionwereaconsistentcomponentofexcellenceforallpilotsinterviewed.Thisfindingwas

expectedgiventwofactors:(a)allpilotsarerequiredtoattendapost‐flightdebriefwheretheflightis

thoroughlydeconstructedandevaluatedforpossiblelearningopportunities;and(b)ongoinglearning

skillsareprevalentinresearchwithhighlevelperformersacrossmanyhighperformancedomains(e.g.,

Coleman&Orlick,2006;Orlick&Partington,1988).Upontheconclusionofeverymission,pilots

analyzedallelementsoftheflight,bothgoodandbad.Specificlearningopportunitiesandlessonsfor

ongoingimprovementweredrawnoutofeachflightsothatthepilotcouldactonthemimmediately.

Studentpilotsandexperiencedpilotsfocusedonfindingthetoolstoaddressanymistakesthat

hadbeenmade.Inthetrainingprocess,thesetoolswereoftenidentifiedorclarifiedbytheflight

instructor.Pilotsoftenreferredtotheirtoolboxes,whichtheycontinuallystockedwithtipsandbitsof

informationgatheredfromdebriefs,personalstudiesorexperiences,anddiscussionwithpeers.Once

theappropriatetoolorlessonwasdiscoveredforarespectiveerror,pilotsimmediatelyattemptedto


putthattoolintouse,carefultofocusonperformingthatmaneuvercorrectlyduringthenextflight.

Hogg(2002)suggestedthatwhendebriefing,anathlete’sattributionscandifferaccordingtothesuccess

ofthecompetition.Theathletewhoexperiencedapositiveresultwillattributethesuccesstostableand

internalfactorswhiletheathletewhoexperiencedanegativeresultwillattributethefailuretounstable

andexternalfactors.Hogg’sattributioncontentionwasnotsupportedbytheexperiencesofelite

militarypilots.Pilotsdisplayednodiscerniblebiasintheirattributionsofsuccessfulandunsuccessful

performances.Allpilotsstressedtheimportanceofbeinghonestwiththemselvesandtaking

responsibilityfortheirownactions.Pilotsalsoexpressedadesiretocontinuelearningthroughouttheir

careersinordertocontinuallyimprovetheirabilitiesasaviators.Therewasanoverwhelmingsenseofa

constantdriveforperfection,thenotionbeingthattherewasnosuchthingas“goodenough”;thereis

alwayssomewaytobebetter.

Manypilotsreportedthattheyengagedinpersonaldebriefsduringtheirowntime,following

theformalflightdebrief.OrlickandPartington(1988)foundthatOlympicathletesusedreflectionand

personaldebriefstocontinuetoimprovetheirmentalskills.Thepilotsinthisstudyseemedtofocus

almostexclusivelyonmechanicalaspectsoftheflightduringdebriefswithoutdirectlyaddressingthe

roleoftheirownpsychologicalskills.Onlyoccasionallydidapilotmentionreflectingonhis/herown

focus,forexampleiftheflightwasanexceptionallypooroneorifanerrorwasmadeneedlessly.Any

emotionsthatwereexperiencedduringtheflightwouldnotbediscussed.Hogg(2002)statedthata

successfuldebriefrequires“adesiretoreflectonallaspectsofperformancewiththeintentiontomake

changes”(p.184).Asthisresearchhasshown,psychologicalskillsareacriticalaspectofoptimal

performanceinmilitaryaviation,buttheseskillsarenotastructuredcomponentofdebriefs.Because

thesementalelementsplaysuchanintegralroleinperformancequality,itwouldbeofimmensevalue

inthefutureformilitarypilotstoincludepsychologicalskillsinbothformalandpersonaldebriefs.


Averyinterestinganduniqueaspectofongoinglearningdiscussedbymilitarypilotswasthe

extensionofthislearningthroughoutflightsandmissions.Manypilotsdiscussedtheimportanceof

ongoinganalysisofone’sdecisionsandactionsduringflight.Inordertocontinuemovingforwardwith

themissioninaneffectivemanner,pilotsmustunderstandthefullimpactoftheirlastdecisiononthe

flightandconsidersolutionstoanyresultingchallengesorundesirableeffects.Militarypilotsappearto

bethefirstperformerstospecificallyreportanactiveengagementinongoinglearningandanalysis

duringthecourseoftheirperformances.Previousresearchseemstofocusondebriefsandongoing

learningasimportantelementspriortoandfollowingaperformance,buttheprocessseemstobe

suspendedduringthecourseoftheperformance(e.g.,Burke&Orlick,2003;Coleman&Orlick2006;

Hogg,2002).Itispossiblethatongoinglearningisusedduringperformanceinotherhighleveldomains

andhassimplynotsurfacedinpreviousinvestigations.Anotherpossibleexplanationforthisdivergence

maylieintheuniquenatureofaviationperformance:apilot’sactionsintheimmediatepastand

presentwillhaveadirectimpactonhis/herfuturecircumstances.Therefore,learningthelesson

immediatelymayberequiredtodirecthis/heractionsintheimmediatefuture.

InaninterviewwithTerryOrlick(1999),CanadianastronautChrisHadfieldrecalledusing

debriefstoprovidegroundsupporttoin‐progressspaceflights:Ifaproblemwasreported,groundcrews

conductedsimulationsfollowedbydebriefstoidentifythebestcourseofactionforthespacecrew.

Shouldaproblemariseinamilitaryaircraft,thepilotwillreceivesupportfromATCandothercrew(if

onboard),however,itisthepilotwhomustdirectandactonallproblemsolvingactivities.Thereis

simplynotenoughtimetowaitforasolutionfromgroundcrew.Withouttheabilitytoanalyzeand

immediatelylearnfromhis/herpastactionsanddecisions,apilotmaybeunabletoformulatean

appropriateplantomoveforwardwiththemission.Thistypeofrapid,in‐flightpersonaldebrief

warrantsfurtherinvestigation,asitmaybeapplicabletootherfluidperformancecontextsinwhich

performersmustanalyze,learn,andactonwhattheyarelearningduringperformance.


StressManagement

Thesecondminitourquestionofthisstudywas:Howdopilotscontendwiththerisksand

stressesimplicitinthisuniqueprofession?Animportantaspectofsuccessfulperformanceforallpilots

waseffectivestressmanagementoractivationcontrol.Orlick(2008)discussedstresscontroland

positiverecoveryfromsetbacksasacomponentofdistractioncontrol.Inthecontextofmilitary

aviation,twofactorsseemtowarrantthediscussionofstressmanagementasaseparatepsychological

skill:(a)thepresenceofpotentiallylife‐threateningrisksinbothtraininganddeployment;and(b)the

intentionalintroductionofstressorsintotheCAFtrainingenvironment(tohelpdevelopingpilotslearn

howtomanagestressorseffectively).Stressmanagementwasutilizedinallphasesofflight(pre‐flight,

missionexecution,andpost‐flight).Pilotsreportedwidelyvaryingstrategiesforstressmanagementor

reductionsuchasexercise,positiveself‐talk,meditation,timeoff,compartmentalizing,andpartying.

Somepilotsfeltthatstresswassimplyapartofthejobandshouldbeacceptedassuch.Whenstressed,

thesepilotsreportedsimplyfocusingonthetaskanddoingwhateverwasrequiredtocompletetheir

goal.Whileitispossiblethattheconsiderablevariationinstressmanagementtacticsmaybetheresult

ofalackofformaltraininginsuchtechniques,researchinsporthasindicatedthattheuseofdiverse

arousalmanagementtechniquesiscommonamongeliteperformers(e.g.,Gould,Finch,&Jackson,

1993;Lazarus&Folkman,1984;Nicholls&Polman,2007).Differentperformerspreferdifferent

strategies,dependingonthenatureofthestressor.

LazarusandFolkman(1984)suggestedthatcopingisadynamicactivitythatinvolvesinteraction

betweenanindividual’sinternalandexternalenvironments:Individualswillrespondwithcoping

strategiesspecifictothenatureoftheinternalorexternalstressor.Thismodelisknownasthe

“process”approachtocopingwithstress.Theprocessmodelhasbeensupportedinsportpsychology

researchsuchasthatofGould,FinchandJackson(1993).NichollsandPolman(2007)conducteda

reviewofcopingliteratureinsport.Havinganalyzed64studies(bothqualitativeandquantitative),the


authorsconcludedthatcopingis,asLazarusandFolkmansuggested,recursiveanddynamic.Nicholls

andPolmanstatedthatthecopingattemptsusedbyathletes“fluctuatebasedupontheirappraisalof

thesituationandpreviouscopingattempts”(p.16).Thepresentinvestigationalsosupportstheprocess

model,withsomepilotsreportingtheuseofuptosixdifferentcopingstrategiesindifferent

circumstances.Giventhatmostpilotsmentionedthenegativeeffectsofperceivedstressduringtraining,

however,itislikelythatanMSTprogramwithanactivationmanagementcomponentcouldbeof

benefitinthiscontext,especiallyforstudentpilots.

IntheirresearchwithU.S.NationalChampionfigureskaters,Gould,Finch,andJackson(1993)

notedthepresenceof“vastindividualdifferencesincopingresponses”betweenskaters(p.463).Such

diversitywasalsoevidentinthepresentstudywithmilitarypilots.Somepilotsreportedusingasmany

assixdifferentcopingstrategieswhileothersnotedtheuseofonlytwo.Itshouldbenotedherethatby

nomeansdidtheinterviewerscompileexhaustiveaccountsofthepilots’availablecopingstrategies.Itis

possiblethatthosepilotswhoreportedfewercopingstrategiespossessedinrealityabroaderskillset

whichtheydidnotdiscuss.AninterestingcomponentoftheresearchconductedbyGouldetal.wasthe

linkingofspecificcopingstrategiestospecificsourcesofstress.Theauthorsreportedthatskatersclearly

implementedcertaincopingstrategiesdependingonthetypeofstressorencountered.Suchlinks,the

authorssuggested,maybeofuseinthecreationandimplementationofMSTprograms.Moreover,

PensgaardandDuda(2003)statedthatathletesmaydifferintheirperceptionsofemotionsas

facilitativeordebilitative;thusonecannotassumethatnegativeemotionalresponsesarealways

detrimentalandpositiveemotionalresponsesalwaysbeneficialtoperformance.Thisresearchbringsto

lightseveralimportantconsiderationsformovingforwardwithatrainingprogramforstudentpilots:the

understandingofthediversityofstressorsencounteredbypilotssoastolinkthestressorswithpossible

effectivecopingtechniques;therecognitionofpossibledifferencesinperceptionsoffacilitativeor


debilitativeemotions;andthenecessityfortimeefficientcopingorrefocusingstrategies(schedulesand

demandsmaynotallowforprolongedactivitiessuchasdeeprelaxationorexercise).

Mostpilotsutilizedstressmanagementtechniquespriortoflight,especiallybeforeatestor

whentrainingasastudent.Formany,exerciseorsportwasthepreferredmethodtodispelanxietyona

regularbasisoutsideoftheflightmissioncontext,howevermostlamentedthefactthattheyhadlittle

freetimetoengageinthesepursuits.Otherspreferredtoattendsocialgatheringsatthemessorto

disassociatefromworkbyspendingtimewithfamilyortakingtimeoff.Twopilotsdiscussedtheuseof

meditationandbreathingtechniquestocontrolstressoractivationintheirpre‐flightpreparation.

Interestingly,pastresearchhasconsistentlyfocusedontheuseofstressmanagementtechniquesduring

orimmediatelypriortoperformance,withlimitedacknowledgementofusageintheextended

preparationphase(e.g.,Fletcher&Hanton,2001;Neiletal.,2006).Clearlythisisanimportant

consideration,aswithoutthepropertoolstomanagefeelingsofstressinthetimepriortoperformance,

aperformer’spreparation(andsubsequentperformance)maysuffer.

Gouldetal.(1993)notedthat65%oftheathletesinterviewedfortheirstudycitedpre‐

competitivementalpreparationandanxietymanagementasacopingstrategy.Incomparison,almost

everypilotinterviewedforthepresentinvestigationreportedusingstressandanxietymanagementasa

pre‐performancecopingtool.Itispossiblethatmilitarypilotsutilizestressmanagementtoagreater

degreepriortoperformancebecausetheyexperienceanexceptionalelevationinthelevelofperceived

anxietyoractivation(especiallyasstudents);thismaybeduetotheheavyworkload,technicalmaterial

andadditionaldutiestheyarerequiredtocomplete.Thisresearchhasdemonstratedwaysinwhich

sportandaviationareverysimilar,howeverinsomeways,thepreparationrequiredforanimportant

flightcanbequitedifferentfromthepreparationrequiredforasportingcompetition.Regardlessofthe

pre‐performancerequirementsortaskdemands,however,ongoingstressmanagementbeforea

performanceremainsveryimportant.


AsGouldetal.(1993)identifiedcopingstrategiesemployedbySeniorU.S.NationalChampion

figureskaters,Park(2000)alsoinvestigatedthissamethemewithKoreannationalathletes.Both

investigationsencompassedcopingstrategiesusedthroughtheparticipants’entireathleticcareers.

Athletesinbothinvestigationsrevealedanimpressivearrayofcopingstrategies,themostcommon

beingpsychologicaltraining(e.g.,self‐talk,positivefocus),training/strategies(e.g.,traininghardand

smart),somaticrelaxation,socialsupport,andincertaincases,substanceuse.Militarypilotsinthe

currentstudyreferredtoeachofthesecopingstrategies,tovaryingdegrees,inreferencetotheirpre‐

flightpreparation.ParkalsonotedtheuseofprayerandhobbyactivitiesascopingstrategiesbyKorean

nationalathletes.Thepilotsinterviewedforthisinvestigationreliedheavilyonhobbyactivities(e.g.,

sport),buttheuseofprayerinthiscapacitywasnotreportedatanyphaseofflight.

Duringroutineflights,pilotsgenerallydidnotexperienceanxietyorfear.Intherareeventthata

pilotfeltanxiousinthetimeleadinguptoaflight,thesefeelingsweredispelledinthemomentspriorto

take‐offwhenthepilotnarrowedhis/herattentiontothenecessarychecksandroutines.Similar

patternsofactivationhavebeenidentifiedinOlympicgymnasts(Mahoney&Avener,1977)andsport

parachutists(Fenz&Jones,1972):Theeliteperformersrecordedelevatedlevelsofanxiety

(physiologicalindicators)uptosometriggerpointatthecommencementoftheperformance(e.g.,for

sportparachutists,thistriggerwasthestartingoftheplaneengine).Afterthetriggerpoint,anxiety

levelsdecreasedsubstantiallyandremainedsoforthedurationoftheperformance.Formanypilots,

thistriggerpointappearedtobetheactofstrappinginortakingtheirseatinthecockpit.Researchers

seemtoagreethatintheseperformancecircumstancesathletesexertsometypeofcontrolovertheir

arousallevelspriortoperformance;however,thenatureofthiscontrolhasbeenrelativelyunexplored.

FenzandJones(1972)arguedthatthedecreaseinarousalpriortoperformanceexecutionwas

duetoanticipatorycontrolbyjumpers,butnoelaborationwasofferedregardingtheproposedcontrol

mechanisms.ColemanandOrlick(2006)offeredsomeinsightintothisoccurrencewithbigmountain


freeskiers,reportingthattheskiersattemptedtocontroltheirpre‐performanceactivationby

deliberatelycalmingthemselvesandclearingtheirmindsbeforeexecutingtherun.Mahoneyand

Avener(1977)suggestedthatathletesusedtheirelevatedanxietylevelsasastimulanttoenhance

performance,butalsorefrainedfromofferinganyexplanationastohowthiswasachieved.Pilotsdid

notreportanypurposefuluseoftheiractivationlevelstoenhanceperformance,howeversomedid

acknowledgethatacertainlevelofactivationwasgoodforoptimalperformance.Pilotscontrolledtheir

activationandachievedacalmandfullyconnectedfocusbeforeaflightbyimmersingthemselvesin

theirtake‐offroutines.Formostpilots,thisshiftinfocusoccurrednaturally,withouteffort.Somealso

tooktimetorecallthemanyhourstheyhaddedicatedtotheirpreparation.Theonlyinstanceswhen

distractingthoughtsorunwantedanxietyremainedwiththepilotsduringflightwaswhentheyfeltthey

hadnotpreparedsufficiently(anextremelyrareoccurrence)or,attimes,whilebeingtested.

Atestcanbeanintimidatingexperienceinanyperformancedomain.Whilepilotsgenerally

foundflighttestexperiencestobemuchmorestressfulasstudents,manystillexperiencedelevated

levelsofanxietyduringimportanttests(suchasforadvancedinstructorqualifications).Keoghand

French(2001)statedthattestanxietyisatraittendency“whichisassociatedwithanincreasedanxiety

andstressspecificallyrelatedtotesttaking”(p.124).Researchinthisareahasdemonstratedthat

individualshighintestanxietyaremoresusceptibletothreat‐relateddistractorsthanindividualslowin

testanxiety,whenbeingevaluated(Eysencketal.,2007).Pilotsinthepresentstudywhoexpressed

higherlevelsofperceivedanxietyinflighttestsituationswerealsomorelikelytoreportatendencyto

becomedistractedbytheexaminer,bypersonalerrorsmadeduringtheflight,orbytheirownattempts

tocontrolautomaticskillexecutions.Tocopewithfeelingsofincreasedarousalandstressduringtests,

somepilotshadlearnedtocontrolandshifttheirfocustosomethingmoreconstructivethatwaswithin

theircontrol.Byshiftingtheirfocustosomethingpositive,suchasincreasingtheirpreparationefforts,

thesepilotswereabletocontroltheirarousalandperformtotheircapabilities.Pilotsalsoreported


usingself‐talktorefocusorreframethesituation,tellingthemselvesthatthiswasjustanothernormal

flightorthatafailureorsmallsetbackwouldnotbetheendoftheworld.Itisworthnotingthatpilots

variedwidelyintheirpsychologicalskillusagewhencopingwithtestanxiety.Intheend,refocusingon

thetaskathand–somethingthatwaswithintheircontrol–seemedtoworkwellformostpilots.

Pilotscitedthreemainsourcesoftheirtestrelatedanxiety:adesiretodoaswellaspossible,a

fearoffailure,andafearofnegativepeerevaluationorlossofface.Fearoflossoffaceisauniversally

recognizedphenomenon,howeversomeresearchersbelievethatitsnegativeconsequencesmaybe

especiallycriticalwithintheaviationcommunity(Murray,1999).Murray(1999)suggestedthatfearof

lossoffacebeincorporatedintoaviation’sfivehazardousattitudesconcept.Thisconceptwasoriginally

developedattheEmbry‐RiddleAeronauticalUniversityinanefforttoreduceaccidentsassociatedwith

poorpilotdecision‐making(Diehl,1990).Thefivehazardousattitudescurrentlyconsistofthefollowing:

antiauthority(resistancetocommandsororders);impulsivity(aneedtodothingsimmediately);

invulnerability(thebeliefthataccidentshappenonlytoothers);macho(tryingtodemonstratesuperior

ability);andresignation(nofeelingofcontroloverone’sownfate).Murraysuggestedthatfearoflossof

facebeincludedinthefutureasacomponentofthemachoattitude.

ThepresentstudydoesnotsupportMurray’s(1999)proposedadjustmenttothefivehazardous

attitudesconcept.Inthepresentstudy,militarypilotswhoexpressedafearoflossoffacedidnot

necessarilyexhibitotheridentifyingcharacteristicsofthemachoattitude,suchasareluctancetoseek

assistanceoradmitshortcomings.Inemergencysituationsinvolvingcrewaircraft,somepilotsfeltthatit

wasnecessarytodemonstratetothecrewthattheywerecomposedandincontrol.Onthesurfacethis

mayseemtobeanattempttosaveface,howeversuchdisplaysofconfidencefunctionedalsoasa

safetymeasuretoensurethatthecrewremainedcalmandconfidentaswell.Itispossible,however,

thatfearofnegativepeerevaluationisawidespreadconcernamongstudentandprofessionalpilots.If

thisisthecase,anMSTprogramthathelpspilotslearntofocusonwhattheycontrol(inthepresent,in


andaroundtheaircraft)andtoletgoofdistractingthoughts(suchasworriesofevaluationandfailure)

wouldbeofvalueinenhancingthequalityandconsistencyofperformance.

Thepilotsinterviewedforthisstudydemonstratedanabilitytotakeresponsibilityfortheir

errorsandtoseekassistanceinthepost‐flightdebriefs.Duringadebrief,anyerrorsmadeduringthe

flightarereviewedandanalyzed,withtheinstructorprovidingtoolsorsuggestionstofixtheissuesand

improveperformanceforfutureflights.Thiscanbeahumblingexperienceformanypilots.Duetothe

dangerthatevenasmallmistakeinflightcansometimesbring,studentpilotsreceivefrequentand

sometimesruthlesscritiquesoftheiractions.Theexperiencedpilotsinterviewedforthisstudyreceived

thistypeofcriticismmostlyduringtests,importantmissions,orwhenflyingwiththeSnowbirds

(formationaerobaticflying).AnshelandGregory(1990)suggestedthatskilledathletescopewithacute

stress(e.g.,criticism)byblockingoutnegativeorharmfulelementsandassimilatingandimplementing

informationthatwillbenefitfutureperformances.Thepresentresearchsupportsthisfinding:Tocope

withthepotentialnegativeeffectsofreceivingcriticism(e.g.,distraction,decreasedself‐confidence)

manypilotsmadeaconsciousefforttoadoptapositiveperspective.Pilotsreportedtakingownershipof

theirmistakes,lookingfortipstheycoulduse,blockingthenegativecomponents,stayingfocusedon

theirgoal(ofbecominganexcellentpilot),andputtingtheexperienceinperspective.

AnshelandGregory(1990)conductedanintervention‐basedstudytoexaminetheeffectiveness

oftheCOPEmodel(Anshel,1986)fordealingwithcriticisminthecontextofintercollegiateathletics.

TheCOPEmodelconsistsoffoursteps:(1)controlemotionsandacknowledgeresponsibilityandcause

ofperformance;(2)organizeinputbyselectingandfilteringoutunimportantmessagesfromimportant

messages;(3)planresponse(theobjectiveistoattendtosubsequenttaskdemandsandavoidself‐

reflection)and;(4)executeresponseandeliminateunpleasantthoughts(Anshel&Gregory).Results

showedthatincomparisontocontrolandplacebogroups,athleteswhoreceivedtrainingintheCOPE

programgenerallyshowedadecreasedreactivitytonegativefeedbackandsustainedself‐confidence


andself‐esteem.Suchaprogrammaybeusefulinthedevelopmentofpilots’psychologicalskills,

especiallyfordealingwithcriticismfromaninstructorduringatrainingflight.

Itisevidentthatpilotsaresubjectedtoavarietyofstressorsduringthepre‐flight,mission

execution,andpost‐flightphasesofperformance.Similartomanyeliteathletes,mostpilotscommanda

widerangeofcopingresources,whichgenerallyallowthemtorespondeffectivelytovariousstressors.

IntheCAF,however,thereisnosuchthingasgoodenoughandtherearecertainlyopportunitiesfor

growthandimprovementofstressmanagementstrategies,informedbyresearch.Researchhas

demonstratedtheeffectivenessofsucharousalmanagementtechniquesastheCOPEmodel(Anshel&

Gregory,1990)aswellassuggestedtheimportanceoflinkingspecificstressorstocopingtechniques

(Gouldetal.,1993).Thislastconsiderationmayprovetobeespeciallyvaluableformilitarypilotswho

canabruptlyfindthemselvesinthemidstofawarzonefeelinganxiousandunprepared.Inadditionto

thecopingtechniquestheyhavelearnedandreliedonathome,pilotscouldbenefitgreatlyfrom

additionalcopingstrategiesspecifictodeploymentcontexts.Suchstrategiesmayhelppilotscopeand

performtotheircapacitywhentheyaresuddenlyfacingnewandextremestressors.

ThompsonandMcCreary(2006)suggestedthatstressmanagementtechniquesshouldnotbe

taughtasuniqueordissimilarfromothertypicalresponsestomilitarysituations(i.e.,tobeusedonlyin

specialcircumstancesinvolvingstress).Rather,thesementalskillsshouldbethoroughly“integratedinto

allrelevanttrainingopportunitiessothattheybecomereflexiveinthesamewaythattechnical

proficienciesarereflexive”(p.3).Interestingly,thepilotswhoreportedexperiencinglittleornostress

onaday‐to‐daybasiswerethosewhosawstressmanagementtechniquesasnaturalandautomatic.

Whileothersmightconsiderthesetechniquestobespecifictoolstocopewithstress,thesepilotssaw

themasnormalreactionstonormal(stressenhancing)situations.Thus,thestrategyproposedby

ThompsonandMcCrearyissupportedbythisresearchandmaybeaneffectivewayfortheCAFtobegin

introducingandsustainingstressmanagementtraining.


Deployment

Everyaspectofapilot’strainingismeanttopreparehim/herforpossibledeployment.Allofthe

nightsspentstudying,everyhourspentchairflying,theendlessflowoftasks,andeverysinglecritical

remarkhasthepotentialtoempowerandenablepilotstorealizetheirfullaviationcapabilitiessothey

willbereadytoservewellwhencalledupon.Noamountoftraining,however,canfullyprepareapilot

forhis/herfirstexperiencesinregionsofsevereinternationalconflict.Forthosepilotswhohadbeen

deployedtoareasofheavyfighting,suchasAfghanistan,thedeploymentseemedtoconstituteatypeof

parallelexistence,atemporarydeparturefromreallifeinCanada.Theuseofpsychologicalskillsin

relationtodeploymentisanissuethatdeservesfargreaterattentionthanwhatwasfeasiblethrough

thisinvestigation.Thechallengesandatrocitiestheseindividualsmayfaceareextreme.Somemayenter

thedeploymentreality(ortheirreturnhome)unpreparedtodealwiththepsychologicalramificationsof

theirexperiences.Amentalskillstrainingprogramcouldatleastcontributesomepositivepsychological

skillstohelppilotsmanagethestressorsofdeploymentinahealthier,moreadaptivemanner.

Whileondeployment,pilotsdescribedtheirfocusasbeinginthemomentandtaskoriented,

similartotheirbestfocususedintraining,tests,andsimulations.However,theyalsonotedadistinct

increaseintheintensityoftheirfocusduringdeployment.Theexactnatureofthisintensitywasnotfully

exploredinthisstudy,howeversomepilotsdescribedtheirexperiencesasiftheywerelivinginabubble

orwereimpervioustodistractionsduringmuchoftheirdeployment.Thismayhavebeenrelatedtoa

heightenedsalienceorawarenessoftaskconsequences.Interestingly,theconnectednessoftheirfocus

didnotappeartobedisturbedbytheelevatedlevelsofanxietyinducedbythecombatenvironment.

Eysencketal.(2007)statedthatresearchhasshownanxietytobeadverselyrelatedto

attention:

Anxietydisruptsthefunctioningofthegoal‐directedattentionalsystem,producingseveral

effectsincludingthefollowing:(a)reducedabilitytoinhibitincorrectprepotent[i.e.,dominant]


responses,(b)increasedsusceptibilitytodistraction,(c)impairedperformanceonsecondary

tasksindual‐tasksituations,and(d)impairedtask‐switchingperformance.(p.348)

Whilepilotsclearlydescribedexperiencingsymptomsofheightenedfeelingsofintensityoranxiety

duringdeployment,theydidnotreportanyassociateddeficienciesintheirfocusorperformance.In

fact,pilotsseemedtoexperiencetheoppositeofaperformancedecrement,notingthehigherperceived

intensityandconnectednessoftheirfocus.Thiscontrastswiththeincreaseddistractibilitysomeof

thesepilotsexperiencedduringtestflights,whichwerealsoasourceofelevatedstress.Thisabilityto

maintainaveryhighqualityfocusduringdeploymentmaybefacilitatedbyanumberoffactors,suchas

furtherdevelopmentoffocusing,refocusing,orcopingskills;furthertrainingwithanemphasison

calmnessinthecockpit;anincreasedleveloftrustintheircapabilities;oreventheabsenceofan

examinerwhoevaluatestheireverymove.Thesepilotsweresimplydoingwhattheyhadbeentrained

todo,withoutallowinganyinterferingthoughtstocloudtheirmindsordisrupttheirfocus.

MahoneyandAvener(1977)suggestedthatsomeathletesutilizetheiranxietysymptomstofuel

performanceimprovements.Pilotsdidnotreportanyconsciousattemptstoutilizetheirheightened

activationorfeelingsofanxietyinthiswayduringdeployment.Instead,theirfocusseemedtointensify

naturallyinaccordancewiththeincreasedintensityoftheirenvironment.Whatmakesanelitepilot’s

abilitytofocusduringdeploymentsointerestingisthatthefocusismaintaineddespiteprolonged

exposuretostressors.Duringdeployment,pilotscannotremovethemselvesfromthestressful

environment,norcantheyexertcontrolovertheirsurroundings.Duringdeployment,pilotsdisplayedan

incredibleabilitytomaintainahighleveloffocus,understress,foraprotractedlengthoftime.Dueto

thenaturalelevationoffocuslevelsandconstantsourcesofpotentialstressorsinthiscontext,itwould

bevaluabletoexploremorethoroughlyhowpilotsmaintainthisfocuswithoutbecomingemotionally

andphysicallyexhausted.


Solberg,Laberg,Johnsen,andEid(2005)statedthathighlevelsofself‐efficacyareassociated

with“reducedlevelsofanxietyandarousal[when]confrontedwithstressfulsituationsandincreased

abilitytoadapttochangingcircumstances”.Pilotsdemonstratedhighlevelsofself‐confidenceandbelief

intheircapacities,whichseemedtobemaintainedthroughoutdeploymentexperiences.Theanxiety

experiencedbythesepilotsduringdeployment,whilenoticeable,didnotappeartoinduceany

catastrophicdetrimentsintheirpsychologicalstateorphysicalabilities.Thus,thecurrentresearch

wouldseemtosupporttheclaimthatself‐efficacyisassociatedwithreducedarousalinstressful

conditions.Self‐efficacyandtrustinone’sabilitiesareintegralcomponentsofapilot’ssuccessduring

deployment,butarenottheonlymeansbywhichlevelsofperceivedanxietycanbereduced.

TheGermanAirForce(GAF)employsapsychologicaltrainingprograminanattempttoprevent

severeposttraumaticstressreactions;thisprogramisdeliveredpriorto,during,andafterdeployment

(Willkomm,2006).Priortodeployment,flyingunitsreceivea16‐hourtrainingcourseeveryfouryears

thatfocusesonaviationpsychologyandstressmanagement.Shortlybeforedeployment,anadditional

20‐hourpsychologicaldeploymenttrainingcourseisprovided.Oncetheflyingunithasdeployed,an

aviationpsychologistremainsonstandby.Shouldthispsychologistberequestedtodeploy,he/shewill

provideservicessuchasadvisingcommandingofficers,mentalpreparationforchangingconditions,and

preventativecounselingonstress.Theunitcommander,flightsurgeon,andpsychologistwillalso

identifysuitablepersonneltobetrainedas“peers”toassistinthedeliveryofCriticalIncidentStress

Management(CISM)followingcriticalincidents.Oncethedeploymenthasended,flightunitleadersand

flightsurgeonsevaluateanypersistingsymptomsofacutestressresponsesforreferraltoprofessional

care(e.g.,neurological/psychiatricdiagnostics).Asstressisanunavoidablecomponentofany

deployment,itmaybeworthwhilefortheCAFtoinvestigatetheeffectsofasimilarpreparatory

programforCanadianmilitaryaviators.Currently,pilotsseemtorelymostlyonself‐taughtcoping

strategiesorinformalsharingwithpeersandinstructors.


Participantsreportedusingsimilarstressmanagementstrategiesduringdeploymentastheyhad

usedthroughouttraining.Thesestrategiesincludedcompartmentalizingorblockingoutmaladaptive

emotionsandthoughts,exercising,andseekingsocialsupport.Whilethesestrategiesseemedeffective

andsustainableforsomepilotsduringthedeployment,someparticipantsexperiencedgreatdifficulty

reintegratingintotheirformerlivesoncethedeploymenthadended.Solbergetal.(2005)statedthat

studieswithNorwegianmilitaryandcivilianpopulationshavedemonstratedthatanavoidantcoping

stylepredictsposttraumaticstressdisorderseverityandisnegativelyrelatedtowellbeing.Conversely,

emotion‐focusedandtask‐focusedcopingstylesseemtobufferstressreactions(Emotion‐focusedwould

involveregulatingemotionswhiletask‐focusedwouldbeactingonthestressor).PensgaardandDuda

(2003)alsonotedthatemotion‐focusedstrategiesareoftenlabeledinliteratureasmaladaptive,

howeverstudiesofcopingwithacutestressincompetitivesporthaveshownotherwise.Byrelying

primarilyonanavoidancebasedstressmanagementstyle,participantsreturnedhomewithunanswered

questionsandunresolvedemotions.Intheinstanceswhenpilotsutilizedemotion‐focusedcoping,such

asseekingsocialsupport,theyseemedtoexperiencesignificantrelieffromtheiranxietysymptoms.

Throughconsultationwithpilotsbefore,during,andafterdeployments,itispossiblethatmore

viableskillsandstrategiesmaybeidentifiedtoreducetheafter‐effectsofthesedifficultdeployment

experiences.Pilotscommentedthatduringtheirdeploymentsanystrongemotionalexperiences(e.g.,

fear,sadness)wereeventuallycompartmentalizedorblockedout.Thusitmaybeachallengetostrikea

balancebetweentheinclusionofmoreemotion‐focusedcopingskillsandthemaintenanceofthis

seeminglyadaptive,emotionallydetachedmindsetusedduringdeployment.Forthisreason,the

developmentofappropriate,practicalstrategiesmightrequireconsiderableamountsofcommunication

before,during,andafterthedeployment.PensgaardandDuda(2003)stated,“whetherornotacoping

strategyisdeemedadaptiveormaladaptivemustalwaysbeconsideredinrelationtothecontextandin

termsofitsperceivedeffectiveness”(p.255).Assuch,anyattemptstomodifyorimprovethecurrent


copingstrategiesofpilotsmustconsiderthecontext‐specificfactorsandtheperceptionsofpilots

themselves.Deploymentcanbealifechangingexperience,exertingatollonpilotsbothphysicallyand

mentally.Abalancedpreparationaddressingbothphysicalandpsychologicalelementsrelevanttothe

deploymentcontextisthereforerequired,tomeetthechallengesofthechaosthatmaylieahead.

Limitations

Thisstudyexploredthepsychologicalskillsutilizedbymilitarypilotsintheirpursuitof

performanceexcellence.Theinterviewdatacollectedreliedonretrospectivedescriptionsofflight

relatedexperiences.Insomeinstances,asignificantamountoftimehadlapsedsinceaparticular

incidenthadoccurredwhileinotherinstancesthetimelapsewasverysmall.Retrospectivedescriptions

oflivedexperienceshavebeenutilizedextensivelyinsportpsychologyliteraturetoprovidepersonal

accountsofimportanteventsandpatternsrelatedtooptimalperformance(e.g.,Cohn,1991;Gouldet

al.,1992;Orlick&Partington,1988;Werthner,2002).Therelianceonsuchdescriptionsassumesthat

participantsarecapableofaccuraterecallofimportanteventsevenafterasignificantpassageoftime.

NichollsandPolman(2007)suggestedthatwithretrospectivedescriptionshavebeenunreliable

insportcopingliterature;someindividualsprovidelessaccuratedescriptionsastimepassesandothers

showevidenceofbias(i.e.,theirknowledgeoftheoutcomehasaffectedtheirrecall).Miller,Cardinal

andGlick(1997)investigatedtheuseofretrospectivereportswithinorganizationalresearchand

concludedthatretrospectivedatamaybeusedwhen“reasonableeffortstodemonstratereliabilityand

validitycanbereported”(p.200).Milleretal.suggestedseveralmeasurestoenhancevalidity:useof

freereports(i.e.,participantsencouragedtostatewhentheydonotremember);useofmultiple

knowledgeableinformants;focusonfactsandconcreteevidence(ratherthanopinionsandbeliefs);and

motivationofparticipantstoprovideaccuratereports(e.g.,ensureconfidentiality,discussvalueofthe

research).Mostofthesestrategiestowereincludedinthemethodologyofthecurrentstudy.The

natureandpurposeofthisresearch,however,requiredtheinvestigationofpersonalaviation


experiencesandopinionsrelatedtopreparationroutines,executionofcomplexmissions,andpost‐flight

reflections.Thisstudymovedfarbeyondsimple“factsandconcreteevidence”tothesharingof

personalchallengesandlessonslearnedaboutwhatittakestoexcelinthishighlydemandingcontext.

Thesepilotsprovidedclearandpreciseaccountsofimportantevents.Atthispointintime,thereseems

tobenobetterwaytounderstandanindividual’sexperiencethanforthatpersontosharethedetails.

Anotherpossiblelimitationofthisstudymaybethecompositionofthepopulationsample.The

sampleconsistedof14malepilotsandonefemalepilot(andoneadditionalmalepilotwhoseinterview

wasnotfullyanalyzed).Inmanypopulationssuchasamplewouldbegrosslymisrepresentative,

however,thisdisproportionseemstorepresentthecurrentdemographicsoftheCAFpilotpopulation

fairlyaccurately.Whileitmayhavebeenbeneficialtoincludemorewomeninthesample,thiswas

simplynotpossiblegiventhecriteriaforparticipationandthesmallpoolofparticipantsfromwhichto

drawon.Moreover,onlyfouroftheparticipantsinthisstudyhadbeendeployedtocombatzones.

Whiletheaimofthisstudywasnotspecifictoexploringpsychologicalskillsusedindeployment,in

futurestudiesitmaybebeneficialtoincludemoreparticipantswithdeploymentexperience.Once

again,however,thenatureoftheelitemilitaryaviationpopulationdoesimposesomelimitationsinthis

regard(e.g.,pilotscanbestationedacrossthecountryandoverseas).Thisfocusondeployment

experienceisthereforesuggestedasaconsiderationforfutureresearch.

DirectionsforFutureResearch

Severalpossibilitiesforfutureresearchhavebeensuggestedthroughouttheresultsand

discussionsectionsofthiswork.Animportantpossibilityforfutureinquiryistofurtherexplorethe

strategiesusedbypilotstobuildtheirmentalcapacity,ortheirabilitytoattendtomultiplestimuli,prior

toflight.Manypilotsdiscussedengaginginasecondaryactivity,suchasthrowingaball,whilereviewing

flightchecksorchairflying(mentallyrunningthrough)amaneuver.Thepilotsfeltthatthisstrategy

enhancedtheirmentalcapacityandtheirskillsrelatedtomultitasking.Thisisasimpleconcept,


however,suchastrategyhasyettobeassessedinperformancepsychologyresearch.Furtherresearch

mightbeconductedinthisareatodeterminewhetherthereisamoreeffectivewaytobuildcapacity

(e.g.,modificationtothesecondarytask,inclusionofbackgroundnoise)andtodetermineifthisstrategy

showsrealresultsinnewaviationpopulationstested.Thisstrategymaybemorerelevantindomains

outsideofsport,suchasspaceflight,surgery,orothermilitaryoccupationswhereperformersare

constantlyattendingtoandintegratingmultiplesourcesofinformation.

AfutureinvestigationwiththepilotsoftheCAFmightalsolimittheparameterstopsychological

skillusageindeploymentcontextsonly.Fromapracticalstandpointonecanappreciatethevalueofan

investigationthatfocusesspecificallyondeploymentperformanceissues:Thefundamentalaimofevery

class,test,andtrainingmissionispreparationforthepossibilityofdeployment.Theuseofpsychological

skillsduringdeploymentwasaddressedbrieflyinthepresentexamination,howevertheaimofthis

researchwastoexaminetheuseofpsychologicalskillsingeneral;thus,pilots’experiencesin

deploymentcomprisedarelativelysmallportionoftheresearchdata.Amorethoroughinvestigationof

psychologicalskillsindeploymentmayrevealsubtledifferencesintheskillsusedandpossibleareasfor

improvement.Forexample,manypilotsinthisinvestigationdiscussedtheimportanceofinformal

communicationwithfellowpilotswhentrainingandpreparingfortestsandmissions.Ondeployment,

communicationseemedtotakeonanewimportancewithpre‐flightbriefsbeingoftheutmost

importance.Peerdiscussionandsocialsupportwerealsodeemedessentialtocopingeffectivelywith

thepsychologicaleffectsofwar.Similarsubtletiesmaysurfacewithregardstoskillssuchasfocus(noted

asmoreintenseincombatzones)andstressmanagement(perhapsmoreavoidancebased).

Thepresentstudyprovidesasolidfoundationonwhichtomoveforwardwithamentalskills

trainingprogramforCAFstudentpilots.Thisresearchhasidentifiedareasofimportanceforskilled

pilots,suchasfocusingandrefocusingabilitiesaswellasdetaileddebriefsfromwhichonecandraw

lessonsandtoolsforongoingimprovement.Thisresearchhasalsoidentifiedareasthatcouldsee


improvementfromstructuredtraining,suchasmentalimageryandstressoractivationmanagement.It

wouldbeworthwhiletoinvestigatetheuseofamoreformalizedtrainingprogram,suchastheonein

usebytheGermanAirForce(Willkomm,2006)aswellastheintegrationofperformancepsychology

principlesintotheeverydaylanguageandtrainingoftheUPTS,asrecommendedbyThompsonand

McCreary(2006).AnMSTprogramwithintheCAFmayfinditbeneficialtodevelopandimplementa

hybridapproachofthesetwotrainingproposalswhilealsoincorporatingthebestpracticesfromelite

high‐performanceathletes.Byensuringthatstressmanagementispartofthenormaltrainingroutine,

pilotsmaybebetterequippedtoperforminavarietyofcontextsandmoreopentoapre‐deployment

specificstressmanagementbriefing.

Psychologicalskillsresearchshouldalsocontinuetomoveforwardinnoveldomainssuchas

high‐risksportandotheroccupationalgroupssuchaspolice,firefightersandairtrafficcontrollers.These

groupsfaceuniquechallengesandperformancerequirements,andmaythereforehavedevelopednovel

applicationsofpsychologicalskillsorstrategiestoelevatetheirperformanceonaconsistentbasis.

Takingintoconsiderationthefindingsofthepresentstudy,futureresearchinhigh‐riskorhigh‐stress

sportandoccupationcouldfocusonarousalmanagementfornewandinnovativetechniques.

Conclusion

Theprinciplesofsportpsychologyhavebeenvalidatedoverdecadesofresearchandpractical

application(e.g.,Gould,EklundandJackson,1992;Mahoney,Gabriel,andPerkins,1987;Orlick&

Partington,1988).Asourworldconstantlychangesandevolves,sotoomustourattemptsto

understandandadaptthroughappliedresearch,inordertokeeppacewithwhatisrelevantand

meaningfulnow.Leadersinappliedsportpsychologyresearchhavealreadybeguntobroadenthescope

ofinvestigation,whichnowencompassesperformancedomainssuchasmusic(Talbot‐Honeck&Orlick,

1998),surgery(McDonaldetal.,1995;Yuleetal.,2006),spaceflight(Manzey&Schiewe,1992;Orlick,

2008),andhigh‐risksport(Burke&Orlick,2003;Coleman&Orlick,2006).Eachsuccessiveexpansionof


knowledge,contributedbyadifferenthighperformancedomain,signaledafurtheradvancementinour

understandingofsportpsychologyanditsapplicationsforperformersinotherdomains.Giventhe

fragilestateoftheglobaleconomicandpoliticalenvironment,itseemsthatnow,morethanever,there

isaneedfortheapplicationofsportandperformancepsychologyprinciplesinotheruncharted

domains,includingCanada’sDepartmentofNationalDefense.

ThepurposeofthisinvestigationwastogainanunderstandingofhoweliteCanadianmilitary

pilotsusepsychologicalskillstoperformsuccessfullyinthishighlydemandingoccupation.Throughout

thisresearch,theobjectivewasandcontinuestobethecontributionofnewandvaluableinformation

tothefieldofsportandperformancepsychology,butalsotolaythegroundworkforthecreationofan

MSTprogram,specifictotheCAF’sneeds.Throughtheuseofsemi‐structured,indepthinterviews,the

psychologicalskillsofelitemilitarypilotswereexploredandinvestigatedwithintheframeworkof

Orlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellence.Interviewswereanalyzedinductivelyanddeductivelytoallowfor

theemergenceofanyneworuniquedata.

ResultsshowedthatOrlick’s(2008)WheelofExcellenceisapplicableasamodelofperformance

psychologyformilitarypilots.Pilotsusedelementsofthemodelinthreetemporalphasesofflight:pre‐

flight,missionexecution,andpost‐flight.Commitmentwasanintegralelementofsuccessful

performanceforallpilotsandwasevidentthroughallstagesofflightand,inmanycases,priorto

enrollmentintheUPTS.Thepre‐flightphasewascharacterizedbythefollowingpsychologicalskills:

mentalreadiness,mentalimagery,focus,distractioncontrol,andstressmanagement.Themission

executionphasewascomprisedoffocus,distractioncontrol,confidence,ongoinglearning,andstress

management.Finally,thepost‐flightphaseinvolvedongoinglearningandstressmanagement.During

deployment,pilotsspecificallynotedtheuseofmentalreadiness,focus,andstressmanagement.

Anoteworthyfindingfromthisresearchwastheuseofchairflying,ormentalimagery,byall

pilotsandstudentpilots.Chairflyingwasregardedasanimportantpartofthetrainingprocess,however


noformalinstructionappearedtobeprovidedforstudentpilots.Pilotsintervieweddescribedarangeof

imagerytechniques,withsomeemployingsimplevisualimagesandothersincorporatingthecomplete

sensationofgravitational(G)forcesoraudiocues.Anotherareaofinterestthatwasdiscussedwasthe

useof“capacitybuilding”techniques.Somepilotsbelievedthatbyengaginginasecondaryactivity,

suchasbouncingatennisball,whilestudyingflightrelatedmaterialsorperformingmentalimagery,

theycouldenhancetheirabilitytoattendtomultipleinputsinflight.Thisfindingisdeservingoffurther

inquirytodeterminetheeffectivenessofthetechniqueaswellasitspotentialapplicabilityinother

performancedomains.Moreover,pilotsmadefrequentmentionofthestressorsinvolvedinthis

occupationandtheirattemptstocopewith,manage,orreducestressrepsonsesinflightandonthe

ground.Pilotsdescribedmakinguseofawiderangeofcopingstrategies,suchasexercise,meditation,

compartmentalization,andcognitiverestructuringtechniquesorrefocusingtechniques.Indeployment

experiences,however,thesecopingtechniquesseemedtobemostlyavoidancebased.Thus,the

presentinvestigationhasidentifiedareasofstrength,areasforfurtherresearch,andareasfor

improvementwithintheCAFenvironment.

Lookingtowardsthefuture,thisresearchhashighlightedseveralimportantelementsthatcould

beeffectiveinanMSTprogramwithintheCAF.Participant16,apilotinatopcommandposition,

expressedhisthoughtsonthevaluethatsuchaprogramcouldbringtotheCAF:

Idon’twanttobedoingselectionhere.We’vealreadyputalotofeffortintoselectingthebest

candidates.Whentheygethere,Iwanttoputwingsonthem.SoifIget130folkscoming

throughthedoornextyear,Iwanttopin130wingsonthoseguys.Andthereasonwe’regonna

pushthemhereisnottoaffecttheirself‐confidenceoranythinglikethat,it’sactuallytoshow

themhowcapabletheyareatdoingthingsandbuildtheirself‐confidence.Soif,outofthis

project,Icansalvagetwopilots,three,five,one,Idon’tcare,itwillhavebeenworthittome.

AndIwantthekidstotakeitseriouslybecauseitworks.


Withinsuchaprogram,afocusonstressmanagementcouldprovidepilotswithalternative,time‐

effectivestrategiesforrelaxationandrecoveryduringbusydays.Thedeploymentexperiencesofpilots

couldalsobeusefultotrainstudentpilotsandthosepreparingfordeploymentwithrespecttothetypes

ofstressmanagementskillstheymayrequirewhenoverseas.Avisualizationcomponentcouldbuildon

thestrengthsalreadyevident(e.g.,consistentpractice,useofprops,realisticdetail)bysupportingpilots

astheyworktoenhancetherealisticdetailoftheirimagesandthevarietyofmodalitiesemployed(e.g.,

visual,auditory,kinesthetic).Also,eventhoughthepilotsintervieweddemonstratedakeenself‐

awarenessandexceptionalanalyticalabilities,itislikelythatmanypilots,bothcurrentandfuture,could

benefitfromtheinclusionofrelevantpsychologicalskills(suchasfocusandrefocusing)andrelated

emotionalexperiencesorthoughtsascontentofpersonalperformancedebriefs.Thegoalalways

remainstofocusandperformtoone’scapacityonaconsistentbasis.

ThepilotsofCanada’sAirForcewhoparticipatedinthisresearchareauniquegroupofmenand

womenwhopossessincredibletalentsandaninspiringlevelofcommitment.Thesepilotstrainwitha

leveloffocusandcommitmentthat,tomany,mayseemunsustainable.Drivenbyaloveofflyinganda

desiretoachievepersonalexcellence,pilotsknowthathighqualitytrainingleadstohighquality

performances,andwhenthesepilotsarecalledtotrulyperform,therearenosecondtries.Aswemove

forward,negotiatingourpositionintheglobalcommunityandlearningtoworktogetherwiththose

withwhomweshareourearthlyresources,wewillcontinuetorelyonthesecurityandsovereignty

protectedbyourCAF.TheeliteperformersoftheCAFpossessmanypsychologicalskillsthatenable

themtoperformconsistentlyintheirhighlydemandingroles.Inanenvironmentwherecircumstances

canchangeatamoment’snotice,wheredecisionsmustbemadeinstantly,andwhereeveryactionhas

aconsequence,effectivepsychologicalskillscanempowerpilotstogaintheirwings,executemissions,

recoveraircraft,andsavelives.


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AppendixA

InformationLetter

DearParticipant,IamaprofessorinsportpsychologyandperformanceenhancementconsultantattheUniversityofOttawa.Aspartofmyongoingresearchandinterestinthefieldofperformanceexcellence,Iwillbeconductinganin‐depthinterviewstudywithintheCanadianAirForce.ThepurposeofthisstudyistoexaminethementalstrategiesusedbyCanada’stopmilitarypilots,specificallyincludingthecharacteristicsofabestfocusexperience,themeaningoffocus,andtheemotionalexperiencesassociatedwiththisoccupation.Youhavebeenidentifiedasarecognized,respected,andaccomplishedhigh‐levelperformerinyourfield.Iwouldliketoprovideyouwiththeopportunitytoparticipateinthisstudybecauseyourinsightsandexperiencesrelatedtomilitaryaviationarehighlyrelevanttothisstudyandcanprovidevaluableinformation.Ifyouareinterestedintakingpartinthisstudy,youwillbeaskedtoparticipateinthefollowingactivities:

- Aone‐on‐oneface‐to‐faceinterview,lastingapproximately60minutes.

- Potentiallyafollow‐upinterview(viaphoneoremail),lastingbetween15and30minutes

- Anindividualreviewofyourinterviewtranscripttoverifythattheinformationyouprovidedisaccurateandtomakeanynecessarychanges,clarifications,orcorrections.

IwillbetravelingtoyourBaseinthecomingweeks,withmyresearchassistantandgraduatestudentMayaHohmann,tobeginconductinginterviews.Interviewswillbeaudiotapedandtranscribed.Theaudiotapesandtranscriptswillbestoredinalockedfilingcabinetinmyofficeforaperiodoffiveyearsuponcompletionofthestudy.Ifyouchoosetoparticipateinthisstudy,theinformationyousharemaybeusedforthepurposeofpublicationinacademicjournalsand/oraMaster’sthesis.Youmaybequotedinpresentationsorpublicationsprovidedyourconsentisgiven,butIwilltakeallpossiblestepstoensureyouranonymity.Theanonymityofallparticipantswillbeprotectedthroughtheuseofpseudonymsandthemodificationofidentifyinginformationinthepublicationoffindings.However,ifyouprefertohaveyournameassociatedwithyourcomments,youwillbegiventheoptionofrefusingapseudonym;thiswouldallowthelinkingofyournamewithyourinterviewresponses.IwillaskyoutoprovideapersonalmailingaddresssothatIcansendyouacopyofyourinterviewtranscriptforverification.Asaparticipant,itisarequirementthatyouareabletoreadandspeakEnglish,aseachinterviewwillbeconductedinEnglishonly,andtranscriptswillbeprovidedinEnglishonly.Therewillbenocompensationforyourparticipationinthisstudy.Therisksassociatedwithparticipationinthisstudyareminimal.Risksmayincludefeelingsofdiscomfortwhendiscussingcertainaspectsofyourexperiencesasamilitarypilot.Asaparticipant,youarefreetodiscussonlyasmuchasyouarecomfortablewith.Youarefreetorefusetoanswerquestionsortowithdrawfromthestudycompletelyatanypointwithoutconsequence.


Uponcompletionofthisresearchproject,thefollowingwillbesubmittedtotheSocialScienceResearchReviewBoardofDND:electroniccopiesoftheresearchreport(s)arisingfromthisprojectandelectroniccopiesofthedatausedtoproducethereportedresults.Duetothesmallscaleofthisresearchproject,theresearcherscannotfullyguaranteeanonymityandconfidentialityinthisprocess.If,havingreadtheaboveinformation,youareinterestedinparticipatinginthisstudyorhaveanyquestionsregardingtheresearch,pleasecontactmeattheemailaddressorthetelephonenumberbelow.Youwillbeaskedtoprovideapersonal(i.e.,notDND)emailaddressforpossiblefuturecommunication.Thank‐youinadvanceforyourtimeandconsideration.Sincerely,Dr.TerryOrlickSchoolofHumanKineticsFacultyofHealthSciencesUniversityofOttawa


AppendixB

ConsentForm

INTERVIEWCONSENTFORM

PsychologicalExperiencesofCanadianMilitaryPilotsPrincipalResearcher:TerryOrlick,Ph.D.FacultyofHealthSciencesUniversityofOttawa

ResearchAssistant:MayaHohmann,MACandidateFacultyofHealthSciencesUniversityofOttawa

I, ,aminvitedtoparticipateintheabovementionedresearchprojectconductedbyDr.TerryOrlickandresearchassistantMayaHohmannoftheFacultyofHealthSciencesintheUniversityofOttawa.IunderstandthatthepurposeofthisstudyistoexplorethementalstrategiesusedbyCanadianmilitarypilotstoensuresuccessfulperformanceinahigh‐riskoccupation.Theattainmentofthisobjectivewillentailexplorationofthefollowingrelatedissues:(a)howsuccessfulpilotsmanagethechallengesandstressesoftheoccupation;(b)themeaningoftheterm‘focus’inthiscontextandfortheseindividuals;and(c)thecomparisonofbestandlessthanbestflightexperiences.Myparticipationwillconsistof(1)takingpartinaninterview/conversationtodiscusspersonalperformanceenhancementtechniquesaswellasideasandexperiencesrelatingtoperformanceexcellence.Theinterviewwilllastapproximatelyonehour.(2)Ifnecessary,myparticipationwillalsoconsistoftakingpartinafollow‐upinterview/conversation.Thisfollow‐upsessionwilltakeplaceifadditionalinformationand/orclarificationisrequired.Thesessionwilltakeplaceviaemailortelephone;viatelephonethissessionwilllastapproximately20minutes.(3)IunderstandthatIwillhavetheopportunitytoverifyand/ormakealterationstoanypartofmyinterviewtranscriptsandifIwishtoreceiveasummaryofthefinalresultstheywillbesenttomypersonalmailingaddress.(4)Ialsounderstandthattheoverallresultsgeneratedfromthisresearchmaybepresentedatconferencesand/orpublishedinacademicjournalsandMaster’sthesisdocuments.Igrantpermissionfordigitalaudiorecordingdevicestobeusedduringthecourseoftheinterview(s)/conversation(s)forthepurposeofthisstudy.Iunderstandthattherisksinvolvedinparticipationinthisstudyareminimal.Duetothenatureoftheresearch,myparticipationinthisstudywillrequirethatIvolunteerorsharepersonalexperiencesandinformationrelatedtomypursuitofexcellenceinmyprofessionasamilitarypilot;inrarecircumstancesthismaycausesomeslightdiscomfort.Ihavereceivedassurancefromtheresearcherthatallpossiblemeasureswillbetakentominimizeanydiscomfort.IwillnotberequiredtorespondtoanyquestionthatIfeelmaycausediscomfortand,shouldIchoosenottorespondtoanyquestions,therewillbeabsolutelynonegativeconsequencesforme.


IunderstandthatwhiletheresearcherwilltakeeverysteppossibletoensurethatanyinformationthatIsharewillremainconfidential,thisconfidentialitycannotbeabsolutelyguaranteed.Thecontentswillbeusedstrictlyforresearchpurposes,andtheywillbeavailableonlytoDr.TerryOrlickandMayaHohmann.Myconfidentialitywillbeprotectedbytheuseofapseudonym,whichtheresearcherwillassigntome;thisfakenamewillbeusedintheinterviewtranscripts.Shouldtheresearcherdecidetocitemyinterviewinhisstudy,mypseudonymwillbeusedandanyinformationthatmayrevealmyidentitywillbedeleted.Iamawarethatinordertoensuremyanonymity,themasterlistlinkingparticipantstopseudonymswillbekeptinaseparatelockedfilingcabinet(separatefromthedata)inDr.Orlick’sofficesothatnoassociationbetweenaparticipant’sidentityandpseudonymwillbepossible.IfIchoosetohavemynameassociatedwithmyinterviewcomments,Iwillbegiventheoptionofrefusingapseudonym;thisdecisionwillberespectedbytheresearcher.Ihavebeeninformedthatuponcompletionofthisresearchproject,electroniccopiesofthedatausedtoproducethereportedresultswillbeforwardedtotheSocialScienceResearchReviewBoardofDND.Iunderstandthattheresearcherscannotfullyguaranteeanonymityinthisprocess.Iunderstandthatthedatacollected(electronicdata,interviewtranscripts,interviewnotes)willbekeptinasecuremanner.ThedigitalaudiotapeandinterviewtranscriptswillbestoredinalockedfilingcabinetintheofficeofDr.OrlickattheUniversityofOttawa.Audiotapes,transcripts,andotherpapersorelectronicfiles(e.g.,emailcorrespondence,electroniccopiesofinterviewtranscripts)willbekeptforfiveyears,asrequiredbyethicalstandards,afterwhichtimetheywillbedestroyed.IunderstandthatIamfreetowithdrawfromthestudyatanytime,beforeorduringtheinterview,withoutconsequence.ShouldIchoosetowithdrawmyparticipationfromthestudy,allrecordingsofmyparticipationtodatewillbeerasedwithoutanynegativeconsequence.IunderstandthatIwillreceivenomonetarycompensationformyparticipationinthisstudy.IamawarethatImaybenefitfromdiscussingmyexperiencesandsuccesselementsinmilitaryaviation,asparticipantsinsimilarstudieshaveexperiencedpositivebenefits.Imayalsobenefitfromviewingtheresearchconclusions,whichwillpresentsuccesselementsusedbyothermilitarypilots.Myparticipationinthisstudywillalsoenhancetheresearchbodyconcerningexcellenceinmilitaryaviation.I, ,freelyandvoluntarilyagreetoparticipateintheaboveresearchstudyconductedbyDr.TerryOrlickandMayaHohmannoftheFacultyofHealthSciencesoftheUniversityofOttawa.ShouldIhaveanyquestionsorrequireanyadditionalinformationregardingthestudy,IhavebeeninformedthatImaycontactDr.TerryOrlickorMayaHohmannatanytime.ShouldIhaveanyquestionsregardingtheethicalconductofthisstudy,ImaycontacttheProtocolOfficerforEthicsinResearch.Therearetwocopiesoftheconsentform,oneofwhichisminetokeep(theotherwillbekeptinalockedfilingcabinetintheofficeofDr.TerryOrlick).Participant: Signature DateResearcher: Signature Date


Pleaseinitialbelowifyouwouldlikeyournametobeassociatedwithyourinterviewcomments:

Pleasesendasummaryoftheresultsto:


AppendixC

PilotInterviewGuide

LifeExperiencesA.Generala.Whatwasitthatmadeyoudecidetopursuethisparticularcareer(asamilitarypilot)?b.Whendidyoufirstwanttobecomeamilitarypilot?Howimportantwasthisgoalforyou?c.Thinkingbacktothetimewhenyoudecidedtopursuethiscareer,whatwasyourjourneylikegettingtowhereyouarenow?

d.Didyoueverdoubtthatyoucouldachieveyourgoals?e.Whatweresomeofthemajorchallengesandobstaclesyoufacedinthisjourneyandwhatkeptyougoingthroughthoseobstacles?

BeingaMilitaryPilotA.Generala.Whatdoyouloveaboutbeingamilitarypilot?b.Howdoyoufeelwhenyouareflying?Whatareyouawareoforconnectedtowhenyouareflying?Doyouexperiencethisfeelingatanyothertimeorduringanyotheractivities?

c.Howdoyouthinkyoudevelopedyourconfidenceinyourskillsandabilitiestofly(orperform)aswellasyoudorightnow?

B.PsychologicalSkillsa.Whatdoyoudomentallythatallowsyoutobeasuccessfulmilitarypilot?b.Howdoyouprepareyourselfeachtimebeforeyougoonaflightormission?c.Canyoutellmeaboutoneofyourbesteverexperiencesorperformancesasamilitarypilot,atimethatyoufeelyouperformedtothebestofyourability?

d.Duringyourbestflightsorbestperformances,whatdoyouthinkaboutorconnectto?Areyouconsciouslythinkingordoyourelymoreoninstinctandautomaticreactions?

e.Canyoutellmeaboutalessthanbestflyingexperienceorperformanceyouhavehadasamilitarypilotwhenyoufeelyouperformedbelowyourabilityorcapacity?

f.Whatdoesthetermsituationalawarenessmeantoyou?Whatroledoesitplayinyourperformanceasapilot?(Whatkindsofthingsdoyouneedtobeawareofwhenflying?)

g.Doyouoftenhavetomakedecisionsinflightwithverylittletimetothink?Ifyes,howdoyoumakethosesplitseconddecisions?Whatgoesthroughyourmindatthesetimes?

h.Howoftendoyoudocomputerizedsimulations?Howmuchpracticeorpreparationdoyoudooutsideofactuallyflying?Isthisdifferentnowfromwhenyouwerelearningtobeapilotorwerearookieorlessexperiencedpilot?

i.Canyousharesomeofyourthoughtsandfeelingsaboutchairflying?Cantellusaboutsomeofyourearlierexperienceswithchairflying?Doyoucontinuetodoorpracticechairflyingnow?Canyouexplainabitabouthowyouusethistechniqueandwhatyoufeelmakesitmosteffective?

j.Doyoudebriefaftereverymission/trainingflight?Canyougiveaspecificexampleofarecentdebriefordebriefearlierinyourcareer.Whatdoyoudebriefandabouthowlongdoesthedebrieftake?Howusefuldoyoufeelthesedebriefsare?

k.Doyou(andothers)actuallyactonwhatcomesoutofthedebriefonyournextflightormission?Doyou,yourself,everdebriefonyourfocusortheeffectivenessorconnectednessofyourfocus


duringaflightdebrief?Ifyes,exploredetails.Ifno,explorewhetheryouthinkthismightbeofvalueforyouoryoungerpilots.[Effectivepost‐debriefhabits]

RisksandChallengesA.Challengesa.Thisoccupationhasarelativelyhighattritionratebothduringand,morerecently,aftertraining.Whatdoyoufeelhashelpedyoutoremaininthisoccupationforaslongasyouhavewhenmanyothershavenotdoneso?[Explorepossibilitiesbothduringtrainingandaftertraining]

b.Whathasbeenyourbiggestchallengeinthisoccupationoverthecourseofyourcareer?c.Inwhatways,positiveornegative,doyoufeelthatthemilitaryenvironmenthasinfluencedyourflying(oryourflyingcareer)?Doyouhaveanythoughtsonhowthemilitaryenvironmentforpilotsmightbeimprovedtoenhanceperformanceorretainpilotsforlongerperiodsoftime?

B.Risksa.Howdoyoufeel(emotionallyandphysically)inthetimeleadinguptoflightsandduringflights,fortraining/combat/competition?

b.Howdidyoulearntoadapttoorcopewithfear/anxietyorturnfearorexcitementintofocusinyouroccupation?

c.Canyougiveanexampleofasituationwhenanunexpectedissueorchallengearoseduringaflight?d.Haveyoueverbeeninanadversesituationthatinvolvedflying?Canyoudescribethisexperience?[Exploreanydebriefing/repercussions,thoughts/actionsinthemoment,plansforfutureimprovement/change]

TrainingA.Generala.Whatwerethemostimportantspecificskills/lessonsyoulearnedinyourtrainingandflyingexperiencesthathavehelpedyoutobecomeanaccomplished(successful)militarypilot?

b.Whatwasthepilottrainingexperiencelikeforyou?[Explorespecificsofpilotbackground–QFI,fighter,rotarywing,multi‐engine]Whatdoyoufeelhelpedyoumostandleastinachievingyourwingsasamilitarypilot?Whatsortsofchallengesdidyoufaceatthattime?

c.Isthereanythingthatyoubelievecouldhelpyoutocontinuetoimproveorenhancethequalityand/orconsistencyofyourperformances?

d.Whatadvicewouldyougivetonewtraineeswithregardtobecomingasuccessfulmilitarypilot?

Conclusiona. Isthereanythingyouwouldliketoaddthatyoufeelisimportanttothisstudy?Howdidyoufeelwhenyouwerecontactedtoparticipateinthisstudy?DoyoufeelthatthistypeofresearchcouldprovideavaluablecontributiontothetrainingprogramsintheCAF?

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