may 2002 - advaita · pdf file(teachings of swami vivekananda, p. 193) vol. 107 may 2002 no....

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Traditional WisdomTHE DIVINITY WITHIN

g´tGwMt l vˆgr; gul aGqkrM vˆgr; >

;=uJ c{Ñ ÀJk rJrõ lu=k gr==bwvtm;u >>

That which cannot be perceived by the eye, but by which the eye is perceived—know Thatalone as Brahman, and not that which people here worship. (Kena Upaniøad, 1.7)

l stg;u rb{g;u Jt fU=traªttgk CqÀJt CrJ;t Jt l Cqg& >

ystu rlÀg& Nt‡J;tu~gk vwhtKtu l nàg;u nàgbtlu Nhehu >>

It is never born, nor does It ever die. Nor, having once been, will It again cease to be. Un-born, eternal, permanent and primeval, It is not killed when the body is killed. (Bhagavadgætá,2.20)

ßgtur;Mtbrv ;™tÓtur;ô;bm& vhbwåg;u >

Òttlk Òtugk Òttldögk †r= mJoôg rJr²;bT>>

That is the Light of all lights and is said to be beyond darkness. It is knowledge, knowableand the goal of knowledge. It exists in the heart of all. (Bhagavadgætá, 13.17)

The Self is not attached to anything. Pleasure, pain, sinfulness, righteousness, etc can neveraffect the Self in any way; but they can affect those who identify themselves with the body,as smoke can blacken only the wall, but not the space enclosed within it. (Sayings of Sri Rama-krishna, p. 34)

No books, no scriptures, no science can ever imagine the glory of the Self that appears asman, the most glorious God that ever was, the only God that ever existed, exists, or ever willexist. (Teachings of Swami Vivekananda, p. 193)

Vol. 107 May 2002 No. 5

� This Month �

This month’s editorial ‘Faith in God versusFaith in Oneself’ examines the apparent contra-diction between the two modes of faith.

‘Swami Vivekananda’s Idea of Vedanta’ by DrR K Dasgupta is a brilliant analysis of the specialfeatures of Swami Vivekananda’s presentation ofVedanta. Educated in Calcutta and Oxford, theauthor has been Vivekananda Professor of Indol-ogy at the Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Cul-ture, Kolkata, since April 1994.

In the second and concluding instalment ofher article ‘Why Do We Suffer?’, Pravrajika Seva-prana portrays the spiritual aspect of sufferingand discusses its transforming power.

‘Science and Spirituality’ is the 64th Founda-tion Day oration at the Ramakrishna Mission In-stitute of Culture, Kolkata, by Dr Hari Gautam,Chairman of the University Grants Commission,New Delhi. In this thought-provoking address,the author rightly emphasizes the need of spiri-tual education in this scientific age.

‘Self-identity Crisis’ by Swami Tattwavida-nanda is a logical and systematic presentation ofthe Vedantic view of the real nature of man. Theauthor is an Acharya at the Probationers’ Train-ing Centre at Belur Math, the headquarters of theRamakrishna Order.

The serial ‘Religion and Life’ concludes with

this issue. We are thankful to Smt Manju NandiMazumdar for her Bengali compilation of thespontaneous responses from Srimat Swami Bhu-teshanandaji Maharaj (twelfth President of theRamakrishna Order) to devotees’ queries anddoubts. Our thanks to Swami Sunirmalanandajifor the English translation.

‘Avadhéta Upaniøad’ is the second instalmentof the translation of this important SannyasaUpanishad by Swami Atmapriyanandaji, Princi-pal, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira, BelurMath. The notes are based on UpanishadBrahmayogin’s commentary.

Incidents from the lives of Tiruppáî Ázhwárand Kumbhandas are featured this month under‘Glimpses of Holy Lives’.

‘Culture of Peace’ is a paper presented bySwami Kritarthanandaji at a seminar on InterfaithDialogue on the Culture of Peace in Mumbai. Thepaper gives a Hindu view on the subject. The au-thor is a monk of the Ramakrishna Order from itsMumbai centre.

‘Principles of Jainism and Practical Vedanta’ isa comparative study of some principles of boththe philosophies by Swami Brahmeshanandaji, aformer editor of Vedanta Keasari. The author ispresently head of Ramakrishna Vedanta Centre,Lusaka, Zambia.

PB - MAY 2002 10

Prabuddha Bharata—100 Years Ago

NOTES ON CONCENTRATION

The Karma Yogin is asked to do whatever he does with wholeheartedness, but without attach-

ment. Being wholehearted, he learns to concentrate the mind on anything he likes and being non-at-

tached, he learns also to take the mind away from those things whenever he wills. Thus, by degrees,

he gets mastery over his mind and may hope to gain one day the power of abolishing it altogether and

become free. …

When the mind is concentrated whether internally in meditation or externally, when one does

any outside work with fully absorbed attention, one has to exert one’s utmost to make the mind

one-pointed.

—from the article by ‘S’ , May 1902

Faith in God versus Faith in Oneself

EDITORIAL

Everyone feels the necessity of God some-time or other. Problems and uncertain-ties in life, one’s pet things slipping

through one’s fingers, our carefully laid plansgoing awry—all this makes one wonderwhether there is anything more to this hum-drum life in the world. One gradually learns tocultivate faith in a superhuman power, call itGod or any other name. One begins to searchfor the Reality behind the phenomenal world.In other words, one starts thinking about spiri-tual life.

Faith in God

A childlike faith in God and His redeem-ing power is considered a prerequisite to spiri-tual life. Sri Ramakrishna’s simple story of theboy Jatila describes this childlike faith. Theboy had to walk to school through a forest.Afraid of his lonely trek in the woody stretch,he expressed his fear to his mother. She askedhim to call ‘Madhusudana’, his Elder Brother,whenever he was afraid. He would come andescort him. Next time when the boy wasafraid walking alone in the woods, he remem-bered his mother’s words and called out, ‘OBrother Madhusudana’. There was no re-sponse. He wept aloud: ‘Where are you,Brother Madhusudana? Come to me. I amafraid.’ God couldn’t resist his cry any longer.He appeared before the boy and said: ‘Here Iam. Why are you frightened?’ So saying, heled the boy to his school through the forest. Healso assured the boy that He would comewhenever he called Him. Sri Ramakrishnawould say, ‘One must have this faith of a child,this yearning.’1 He said that God certainly lis-tens to our prayer, nay, He even hears thesound of the anklets on the feet of an ant.2

Swami Adbhutananda (Latu Maharaj)was Sri Ramakrishna’s wonderful disciple. He

could not write and read even as much as hismaster did. Yet by sheer obedience to SriRamakrishna’s words and devoted service tohim, he attained heights of spiritual experi-ence. His teachings are completely free fromscriptural quotes. Born of his spiritual realiza-tions, they were simple, direct and appealing.A devotee asked him: ‘Maharaj, we have notseen God; how can we depend on Him? We donot know how to surrender to Him.’ LatuMaharaj replied:

You are asking about prayer. Well, you knowGod’s name; you can begin with his name asyour guide. Don’t you send your applicationfor a job to the manager of a company withoutever having seen him? Your interview with themanager depends upon your sending your ap-plication to him. You write the application thus:‘Sir, please appoint me for the job; I shall be ex-tremely happy to serve you; I promise my un-swerving obedience to you,’ and so on. Andyou write all this without seeing the manager,don’t you?

So, similarly, you can send an application tothe Lord. However, this application is not to bewritten on paper, but on the pages of one’smind.

3

3

Again, faith in the protecting power ofGod (rakøiøyati iti viùvásaë) is an importantmode of self-surrender to God, according toVaishnava scriptures. Thus faith in God andfaith in His name are universally emphasizedin the path of devotion.

Faith in oneself

On the other hand, Swami Vivekanan-da’s talks, conversations and letters—in short,his Complete Works—appear to be full of ex-hortations to cultivate faith in oneself. His ut-terances on the subject are as forthright as theyare inspiring: ‘He is an atheist who does notbelieve in himself. The old religions said that

11 PB - MAY 2002

he was an atheist who did not believe in God.The new religion says that he is the atheistwho does not believe in himself.’4 Apparently,Swamiji stresses faith in oneself more thanfaith in God:

Faith, faith, faith in ourselves, faith, faith inGod—this is the secret of greatness. If you havefaith in all the three hundred and thirty millionsof your mythological gods, and in all the godswhich foreigners have now and again intro-duced into your midst, and still have no faith inyourselves, there is no salvation for you. Havefaith in yourselves, and stand up on that faithand be strong; that is what we need (3.190).

Is there any contradiction between hav-ing faith in God and having faith in oneself?Are there contradictions in the teachings of SriRamakrishna and Swami Vivekananda? Doesnot faith in oneself amount to being egotistic?These important questions deserve a deeperstudy.

Ego Effacement or Ego Refinement?

To have a childlike faith in God and regu-lating one’s life accordingly is more easily saidthan done. A man fell off from a cliff and des-perately clung to a tree stump on his waydown. Gaining his breath, he shouted: ‘Is thereanyone up there to help me?’ And he heard adeep voice from the heavens: ‘Yes, my son. Iprotect you forever. I can certainly help you.But you must give up your hold first so that Ican take over.’ The man considered this for amoment and cried out: ‘Is there anyone else upthere?’

Indeed, when it is a question of one’s lifeand death, giving up all supports and depend-ing only on God is a tall order. The same holdsgood in less trying circumstances too. We feelwe are responsible for our actions. And that istrue as long as we look upon ourselves as lim-ited individuals. We need to take the whole re-

sponsibility upon our shoulders.That bringsus to the important subject of self-effort. Wesaw in the last month’s editorial the impor-tance of helping oneself to merit God’s help.

A beginner in spiritual life thinks ego tobe a great impediment and feels concernedabout how to root it out, how to live a God-centred life. He needs to remember that ego ef-facement pertains to a very advanced stage ofspiritual life. He would rather do well to try torefine his ego and strengthen it, far from wor-rying about effacing it. This refined ego, whichSri Ramakrishna referred to as the ‘ripe ego’, isa great tool in one’s spiritual struggles. In factit makes the struggle possible in the first place.Let us hear Sri Ramakrishna:

I said to Kesab, ‘You must renounce your ego.’Keshab replied, ‘If I do, how can I keep my orga-nization together?’

I said to him: ‘How slow you are to under-stand! I am not asking you to renounce the “ripe

ego”, the ego that makes a man feel he is a ser-vant of God or His devotee. Give up the “unripeego”, the ego that creates attachment to“woman and gold”. The ego that makes a manfeel he is God’s servant, His child, is the “ripeego”. It doesn’t harm one.5

Faith in Oneself a Prerequisitefor Mind Discipline

Spiritual life begins with the cultivationof buddhi, our discriminative faculty. It is withthe help of buddhi that one can hope to trainand discipline the mind—and give a new turnto its old ways. This becomes possible onlywhen one has a strong will, an attribute ofbuddhi.

The undisciplined, wayward mindmakes us more and more entangled in the sen-sory world. It acts against our spiritual inter-ests. As long as the mind does not cooperatewith us in implementing our resolutions on

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248 Prabuddha Bharata

To discipline the mind, we need to have our locus in an entitythat transcends it. Thus, identifying ourselves with a higherdimension in our personality … is the first step in facing thechallenge of befriending and disciplining the mind.

the path to perfection—which is the case withthe majority—the mind continues to be ourenemy. The challenge is to make the enemymind our friend. But that involves disciplin-ing the mind, training it in new ways. Thesame mind which acted against our interestsas our enemy, becomes our friend when con-trolled, says Sri Krishna.6

To discipline the mind, we need to haveour locus in an entity that transcends it. Thus,identifying ourselves with a higher dimensionin our personality—something beyond anddifferent from the rebelling mind—is the firststep in facing the challenge of befriending anddisciplining the mind. The more this identitygrows in us, the more developed becomes thebuddhi. Having faith in and identifying our-selves with this friendly mind helps us under-stand better the mind and its functions. It isbuddhi that steers us in our path towards per-fection.

Sri Krishna traces in the Bhagavadgætá thehierarchy of human personality from thesense organs upwards:

The (subtle) sense organs are said to be superior(to the body); the manas (mind) is superior to thesense organs; the buddhi (intellect) is superior tothe manas; the Self is superior to the buddhi.7

Thus buddhi or the friendly mind, is close tothe Atman, our real divine nature. Henceidentity with it and faith in its powers amountto tapping the spiritual reserves latent in ourreal nature.

Does not faith in ourselves make us moreegotistic? No, if we are sincere in our spiritualpractice. The apparent egotism born of faith inoneself is of a higher type and is directed to-wards obstacles to the manifestation of ourreal nature. It is cultivated with reference tothe sense objects, the body, the subtle senseorgans and the mind, with a view to develop-ing detachment from them. While adopting anapparently egotistic attitude towards his un-controlled mind, the aspirant surrenders hisstruggles and their results also to the indwell-ing Divinity. On the other hand, a mere ‘lipfaith’ in God, not preceded by faith in oneself,

can only make a person weak, making himsuccumb to the pull of the mind and thesenses. And the Atman cannot be realized byweaklings, says the Upanishad.8

Swamiji repeatedly drove home thismessage of strength from the Upanishads. Heconsidered strength as the yardstick in anytraining:

This is the one question I put to every man,woman, or child, when they are in physical,mental, or spiritual training. Are you strong?Do you feel strength?—for I know it is truthalone that gives strength. I know that truthalone gives life, and nothing but going towardsreality will make us strong, and none will reachtruth until he is strong.9

He held that brooding over weakness is notthe remedy for weakness, but thinking ofstrength, born of one’s real nature. His inspir-ing words from his wonderful lecture ‘TheOpen Secret’ are a perennial source ofstrength, which every spiritual aspirantwould do well to tap:

… whenever darkness comes, assert the realityand everything adverse must vanish. … Fearnot—it is banished. Crush it, and it vanishes.Stamp upon it, and it dies. Be not afraid. Thinknot how many times you fail. Never mind. Timeis infinite. Go forward; assert yourself againand again, and light must come. (2.403)

Elsewhere, Swamiji advocates merciless rejec-tion of any source of weakness:

And here is the test of truth—anything thatmakes you weak physically, intellectually, andspiritually, reject as poison; there is no life in it,it cannot be true. Truth is strengthening. Truthis purity, truth is all-knowledge; truth must bestrengthening, must be enlightening, must beinvigorating. (3.224-5)

Thus we see that having faith in oneselfcomes closer to having faith in God, who re-sides in the heart of all beings.10 Swamiji’s ex-hortation to have faith in oneself needs to beunderstood in this context. After giving hiscelebrated definition of an atheist—one whodoes not believe in himself—Swamiji makes itclear that ‘it is not selfish faith, because the

13 PB - MAY 2002

Faith in God versus Faith in Oneself 249

Vedanta, again, is the doctrine of oneness. Itmeans faith in all, because you are all’.11

Sri Ramakrishna on Inner Grit

Let us see how faith in oneself—based onfaith in God and His name—formed an impor-tant part of Sri Ramakrishna’s teachings too.One finds in the Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna re-peated reference to prayer. Sri Ramakrishnahimself prays to the Divine Mother for devo-tion, strength, love for God, and so on, as if toteach us, spiritual aspirants. The followingsaying of his underlines the importance of afirm resolve by a spiritual aspirant not to re-peat his sins.

Suppose a man becomes pure by chanting theholy name of God, but immediately afterwardscommits many sins. He has no strength of mind.He doesn’t take a vow not to repeat his sins. A bathin the Ganges undoubtedly absolves one of allsins; but what does it avail? They say that thesins perch on the trees along the bank of theGanges. No sooner does the man come backfrom the holy waters than the old sins jump onhis shoulders from the trees.12 [Emphasisadded.]

Sri Ramakrishna encouraged a positivemental attitude contrasted with that whichmakes one harp on weakness and sin. Here arehis words addressed to a Brahmo devotee:

A man is free if he constantly thinks: ‘I am a freesoul. How can I be bound, whether I live in theworld or in the forest? I am a child of God, theKing of Kings. Who can bind me?’ … by repeat-ing with grit and determination, ‘I am notbound, I am free’, one really becomes so—onereally becomes free. … The wretch who con-stantly says, ‘I am bound, I am bound’ only suc-ceeds in being bound. He who says day andnight, ‘I am a sinner, I am a sinner’ verily be-comes a sinner. (138)

His following teaching, though appar-ently advocating faith in God’s name, reallyemphasizes faith in oneself, based on faith inGod.

One should have such burning faith in God thatone can say: ‘What? I have repeated the name of

God, and can sin still cling to me? How can I be asinner any more? How can I be in bondage anymore? (138)

He advised people to have a contractwith God, as it were, not to return to their badways. Addressing Vijaykrishna Goswami, hesaid, ‘God is our Father and Mother. Tell Him,“O Lord, I have committed sins, but I won’t re-peat them.”’ (159)

��

To sum up. When God is understood tobe present within oneself—even if this is just aworking hypothesis—there is not much dif-ference between faith in God and faith in one’sreal Self. In other words, if faith in God has toeffect transformation in our personality, itneeds to be bolstered up with faith in our-selves, stemming from our divine nature.Such faith in ourselves endows us with thenecessary strength to fight and discipline theunruly mind, which on chastening will lead usfrom the unreal to the Real, from darkness toLight and from death to Immortality. �

References

1. M., The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. SwamiNikhilananda (Madras: Sri RamakrishnaMath, 1985), p. 338. [Hereafter Gospel.]

2. ibid., p. 916.3. Swami Chetanananda, Swami Adbhutananda:

Teachings and Reminiscences (St Louis: VedantaSociety of St Louis, 1980), pp. 140-1.

4. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1-8, 1989; 9,1997), vol. 2, p. 301. [Hereafter CW, followedby volume and page numbers.]

5. Gospel, p. 790.6. Bhagavadgætá, 6.6. [Hereafter Gætá.]7. ibid., 3.42.8. Náyamátmá balahænena labhyaë…, Muîõaka

Upaniøad, 3.2.4.9. CW, 2. 201.

10. Gætá, 18.61.11. CW, 2.301.12. Gospel, p. 190.


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Swami Vivekananda’s Idea of Vedanta

R K DASGUPTA

My knowledge of Vedanta, I should saymy sense of it, is how I have seen it asa dark-idol worshipping Bengali of

the lower Gangetic delta. When I call myselfan idol worshipper I don’t mean to say that Iam idolatrous in the sense that Christian mis-sionaries used to accuse all Hindus of practis-ing a gross form of idolatry. I only mean thatthere is a place for images in our family’s reli-gious life. Our family deity is the DivineMother and we have Her image at our place ofworship. I remember in our Thursday eveningsongs there were verses saying that theMother was not to be found in that image. Oneof these songs was Rámpra-sád Sen’s which said: ‘Fash-ion Her image with the stuffof mind and set it on the lo-tus-throne of your heart.’1

This made us believe thatwhile having an image of theMother you go beyond theimage and find Her in yourmind. Obviously as youngboys we had no occasion togo into the theology or thephilosophy of this idea. But Ido remember that our eldersthought that this ‘stuff of mind’ was importantin religion and worship. As we grew older weheard the word Vedanta uttered by our elders.But they were not Vedantic scholars. Our fam-ily library in those days—in the 1930s, to beprecise—did not contain a single Vedantictext, the Brahma Sétras, or its medieval com-mentaries. There were only Bengali editions ofsome Upaniøads.

What brought us a little closer to thiscommon idea of Vedanta was a song whichwe often sang without ever knowing who itsauthor was. The words were:

Ei karo hari, dænadayámoytumi ámi jeno duôi náhi hoy;

Jaleri taraïga jale karo loycidghana ùyámasundara.

O Hari, kind saviour of the lowly, see that Thouand I are not two. Let the waves of the sea dis-solve in the sea, O Ùyámasundara of our heart.

What struck us as paradoxical was that wewere addressing the Mother as a male god;secondly, even while desiring merger with theDeity and becoming one with Him we endedby invoking Him as the lord of our heart. Ob-viously these were just mild questions and wedid not press for an answer. And we never put

the question to our elders.Perhaps there was some mel-ody in the words which si-lenced all questions. Anothersong we were told about wasa Vedantic song, a song ofRámprasád’s, was: ‘Sugar Ilove to eat, but I have no wishto become sugar.’2

As a student of Englishliterature I found this verse ofthe 18th century BengaliÙákta poet in SomersetMaugham’s The Razor’s Edge

(1944) where Larry quotes it and says, by wayof commenting on it, ‘What is individualitybut an expression of our egoism? Until thesoul has shed the last trace of that, it cannot be-come one with the Absolute.’3 When I readthis novel in 1945 I had acquainted myselfwith some of the Vedantic texts and I couldtake Larry’s comment as an Advaita Vedanticstatement, or a severely monistic view of theSupreme Reality. Nevertheless, I thought thatin our younger days even if our songs wereVedantic we were worshipping a PersonalGod; we were not concerned with the

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Swami Vivekananda’s Idea of Vedanta

Vivekananda

discovered his Vedanta

in the teachings of Sri

Ramakrishna, in his

words and his silences,

in his tears and smiles, in

his very pulse-beat. And

he preached that

Vedanta abroad and at

home.

Supreme Reality. And going back to Rámpra-sád’s songs I found that while he preferred totaste sugar to being sugar he was not repudiat-ing the idea of being sugar. For him spirituallife was a question of choice between tastingsugar and being sugar, and he preferred thefirst.

Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Vedanta

I am immodestly taking you to my per-sonal and very ordinary religious sense be-cause my idea of Vedanta was rooted in thissense. It was in 1945 that I began to read whatwe today call Ramakrishna-Vivekananda lit-erature. It was from theprasthána-traya of thatliterature — the threeclassics of it — Mahe-ndranath Gupta’sKathámìta, SwamiSaradananda’s Lælá-prasaïga and the Com-plete Works of SwamiVivekananda, that I ac-quired my idea ofVedanta. What struckme in these works (andI look upon them as asumma philosophica ofthe entire Vedantic tra-dition) is that a personsitting before an imageand singing songs ofboth eating and tasting sugar could call him-self a Vedantist. I thought that though Viveka-nanda was widely and deeply read in Vedan-tic literature, his philosophy of Vedanta con-sisted of what he had learnt from his masterSri Ramakrishna. While others speak ofÙaïkara Vedanta or Rámánuja Vedanta orMadhva Vedanta, I speak of Ramakrish-na-Vivekananda Vedanta. Christopher Isher-wood (1904-1986) calls Sri Ramakrishna‘Vedanta’s greatest human exemplar.’4 Vive-kananda discovered his Vedanta in the teach-ings of Sri Ramakrishna, in his words and hissilences, in his tears and smiles, in his very

pulse-beat. And he preached that Vedantaabroad and at home.

When I reflect on this I feel happy that inmy younger days there was nothing non-Vedantic in our unenlightened religious life.We were Vedantic without being aware of it. Ishould reiterate that in our younger days wehad no knowledge of any Vedantic textsexcept Bengali editions of some Upaniøads.

The Vedantic Tradition

While summing up Swami Vivekanan-da’s ideas on Vedanta in order to arrive at hisview of the Vedanta philosophy, I ask myself a

first question: What isVedanta, what textsconstitute the Vedanticcanon? By Vedantic lit-erature we mean theentire corpus of workswritten on Vedanta inSanskrit, in our ver-naculars and in anylanguage of the world.But we should identifysome texts as the canonof Vedanta. In our tra-dition canonical textsare scriptural texts andtherefore they are rev-elations or ùruti. Theproblem is that the ÌgVeda is also a ùruti. On

the other hand, amongst the three constituentsof what we call the prasthána-traya, the Upa-niøads alone are ùruti, the Bhagavadgætá and theBrahma Sétras being smìti and nyáya texts re-spectively. And a Vedantist who is known tohave a command of all aspects of Vedanta willhave read the vast commentaries on theBrahma Sétras produced by philosophers likeÙaïkara, Rámánuja, and Madhva. In our me-dieval vernacular poetry, that is our mysticalsongs, there is an expression of a profoundlyVedantic experience. It is said that Rámánuja’sViùiøôádvaita Vedanta was inspired by TamilÁývár poetry. Surendranath Dasgupta finds

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When you examine Swami

Vivekananda’s observations on

Vedanta, the first thing you notice

is his reliance on the Upanishads

in preference to the Brahma

Sutras and its commentaries.

Secondly, you notice that he

does not favour a fragmentation

of Vedanta into different

systems—Advaita, Visishtadvaita,

and Dvaita. He knew these

systems or schools and he valued

them, but he himself took a

holistic view of Vedanta.

the Áývárs to be so important in the history ofVedanta philosophy that he devotes to themone whole chapter, Chapter XVII, in the fourthvolume of his History of Indian Philosophy. Inthis chapter Dr Dasgupta says that Rámánuja‘drew much information and food for his sys-tem of thought’ from ‘the works of theÁývárs’.5 J S M Hooper, who made a specialstudy of Áývár poetry, says: ‘The Áývárs pro-vided the soil out of which Rámánuja’s teach-ing naturally sprang, and in which later itcould bear fruit.’6

I am citing a few details of the entireVedantic tradition in India and its reflection inIndian literature because I believe that SwamiVivekananda had this long tradition in viewwhen he made known to theworld his own idea ofVedanta. He was acquaintedwith the Sanskrit sources ofthis philosophy from theUpaniøads to the medievalcommentaries. But when hespoke of his philosophy of re-ligion, which was essentiallyVedantic, he had in mind notonly the Puráîic tradition in-cluding the Bhágavata butalso the reflection of it in ourvernacular poetry. Above all,he found in Sri Ramakrishna a living embodi-ment of the true spirit of Vedanta. I know thatto say this is to take the Vedanta away from thegreat system of Vedanta philosophy with itssubtle bearings on metaphysics, logic, ethics,and psychology. There is also the question ofVedanta’s relation with Sáïkhya. There isnow a vast literature on this in the major lan-guages of the world. Swami Vivekananda wasacquainted with at least a part of it. He knewabout Schopenhauer’s response to the Upani-øads. He quotes Schopenhauer’s words on theUpaniøads in his Parerga und Paralipomena(1851) in his first public address in the Eastgiven in Colombo on 15 January 1897 (Com-plete Works, vol. 3, p. 109) and he was apprecia-tive of Max Muller and Deussen’s writings on

Vedanta philosophy. We have reason to thinkthat Vivekananda was capable of a severelyanalytical approach to philosophical ques-tions, though obviously he could not be tooanalytical and too subtle in his public ad-dresses. His style is often that of an apostolicpreacher—simple and lucid.

Vivekananda’s Holistic View

When you examine Swami Vivekanan-da’s observations on Vedanta, the first thingyou notice is his reliance on the Upaniøads inpreference to the Brahma Sétras and its com-mentaries. Secondly, you notice that he doesnot favour a fragmentation of Vedanta intodifferent systems—Advaita, Viùiøôádvaita,

and Dvaita. He knew thesesystems or schools and hevalued them, but he himselftook a holistic view of Ve-danta. ‘It would be wrong,’he said in his Lahore addressof 12 November 1897,to confine the word Vedantaonly to one system which hasarisen out of the Upanishads. Allthese are covered by the wordVedanta. The Viùiøtádvaitist hasas much right to be called aVedantist as the Advaitist.7

A statement such as this raises a question:If Advaita and Dvaita are both Vedantic sys-tems, which system is Vivekananda’s own?Vivekananda’s answer would be that all thesystems are valid and he would call them allhis own. In the broad spectrum of man’s spiri-tual life there are many shades and hues andnot one of them can be rejected. But if youwould press him to tell you if he is a Dvaitin oran Advaitin he would say that Advaita is thehighest altitude of spiritual life and Viùiøôád-vaita and Dvaita are only steps towards it.However, he would add that each step is aVedantic step and one might not reach thehighest altitude and yet have no regrets. In hisHarvard address on ‘The Vedanta Philoso-phy’ given on 25 March 1896 he said about the

17 PB - MAY 2002

Swami Vivekananda’s Idea of Vedanta 253

When he gave a new

dimension and a new

depth to Vedanta

philosophy, when he

developed his

Neo-Vedanta without in

any way distorting its

basic principles, he only

affirmed his faith in

evolution and progress.

Vedantic system thatthere have been various interpretations, and tomy mind they have been progressive, begin-ning with the dualistic or Dvaita and endingwith the non-dualistic or Advaita. (1.357)

Continuing Revelation of the SpiritActually Vivekananda had an idea of

evolution in the history of both our philoso-phy and religion. He never made any distinc-tion between the two. While he looked uponVedanta as a flowering of Indian thought, healso believed in a re-flowering of that thoughtin later ages. When he gave a new dimensionand a new depth to Vedanta philosophy,when he developed hisNeo-Vedanta withoutin any way distortingits basic principles, heonly affirmed his faithin evolution and prog-ress. In his address‘The Spirit and Influ-ence of Vedanta’ hesays:

It [Vedanta] is … thevery flower of all thespeculations and ex-periences and analy-ses … in that mass ofliterature [the Vedas]— collected andculled through centu-ries. (1. 387)

This shows how Vivekananda viewed reli-gion as a living and growing institution andhow it could have a variety of forms. The hu-man spirit ascends towards its fulfilmentthrough various forms and stages. Even non-Vedantic rituals and ceremonies are steps to-wards the Vedantic goal. In his address ‘ThePractice of Religion’ given at Alameda, Cali-fornia, on 18 April 1900, Vivekananda said:‘Prayers, ceremonials and all the other formsof worship are simply kindergartens of medi-tation.’ (4.249)

What gave Swami Vivekananda his con-fident sense of freedom in interpreting

Vedanta was his idea of a continuing revela-tion by which he meant the endless creativityof the human spirit. In his address ‘The Way tothe Realization of a Universal Religion’ givenat the Universalist Church, Pasadena, Califor-nia, on 28 January 1900, Vivekananda said:

… I shall keep my heart open for all that maycome in the future. Is God’s book finished? Or isit still a continuous revelation going on? It is amarvellous book—these spiritual revelations ofthe world. The Bible, the Vedas, the Koran, andall other sacred books are so many pages, andan infinite number of pages remain yet to be un-folded. (2.374)

Obviously, by theVedas Vivekanandameant Vedanta (theUpaniøads) also. Thisidea of a continuousrevelation is rooted inthe Vedantic idea ofthe infinitude of theAtman.

His Method ofInterpretation

Let us now con-sider Swami Viveka-nanda’s method of in-terpreting Vedanta, orthe logic of his philoso-phy of Vedanta. AVedantist is necessar-ily a mystic—a person

who understands that his knowledge is anir-vacanæya, or ineffable, inexpressible. Still in hu-man discourse there is a method of explainingone’s viewpoint. I think, on the whole,Vivekananda’s idea of the nature of philoso-phy resembles Bertrand Russell’s analysis ofthought. In his essay ‘Mysticism and Logic’Russell says:

Instinct, intuition or insight is what first leads tothe beliefs which subsequent reason confirmsand confutes. … Reason is a harmonizing, con-trolling force than a creative one.8

Russell relates this idea of the primacy of intu-

PB - MAY 2002 18


Vivekananda felt free to develop

his Vedanta from the Upanishads,

free from the dialectical and

sectarian constraints of the

Vedanta of the commentators.

Reflecting on the teachings of his

master Ramakrishna and

keeping in view the Vedantic

foundation of the religious ideas

and sensibilities of his people he

took a comprehensive, catholic

view of the philosophy which he

found to be the philosophical

base of even popular religion.

ition in philosophy in his Our Knowledge of theExternal World (1914), where he says that evenin the ‘most purely logical realms, it is insightthat first arrives at what is new’.9 I don’t meanto suggest that Russell was a mystic or aBergsonian intuitionist. Russell would dis-miss as nonsense whatever is not sustained byreason. What I wish to say is that Russell be-lieves that intuition is the beginning of philos-ophy, and that is Vivekananda’s view also.Vivekananda knows that the insights, intu-itions or visions of the Upaniøadic sages arenecessarily sustainable by reason. He thinksthat Vedantic intuition may be explained logi-cally. And when you say thatthe Advaitic experience orstate cannot be explainedverbally, you don’t simplytake leave of reason; you mayonly say that you are reason-ably taking leave of reason.Vivekananda rejects the Kan-tian idea of reason as the onlyinstrument of human knowl-edge. He thinks it is irrationalto so exalt reason as a faculty.

Dualistic Schools AlsoBelong to Vedanta

When I say that Viveka-nanda gives us a new view ofVedanta as a Neo-Vedantist,I stress two important fea-tures of his Vedanta philosophy. The first isthat all forms of Vedanta—Advaita, Viùiøôá-dvaita, Dvaita or Dvaitádvaita—may be giventhe status of Vedanta. The medieval Vedanticphilosophers would not have agreed to this.Ùaïkara, an exponent of non-duality or mo-nism, would not accept Dvaita as Vedanta,and a Dvaitin would not accept Advaita astrue Vedanta. Vivekananda even said that me-dieval Vedantists could be accused of text-tor-turing in establishing their view of Vedanta asthe true Vedanta. For the essence of Vedanta,Vivekananda turns to the Upaniøads—whichoffer a variety of Vedantic ideas—and not

Bádaráyaîa’s Brahma Sétras or its many com-mentators. There is a notion that the wordVedanta was first used by the commentators.Actually the word occurs in the Upaniøads, forexample, ‘Vedánte paramaó guhyaó purákalpepracoditam’ in the Ùvetáùvatara Upaniøad (6.22)and ‘Vedánta-vijñána-suniùcitártháë’ in theMuîõaka Upaniøad (3.2.6). Vivekananda feltfree to develop his Vedanta from the Upani-øads, free from the dialectical and sectarianconstraints of the Vedanta of the commenta-tors. Reflecting on the teachings of his masterRamakrishna and keeping in view the Veda-ntic foundation of the religious ideas and sen-

sibilities of his people, hetook a comprehensive, catho-lic view of the philosophy,which he found to be thephilosophical base of evenpopular religion.

The Basis of a UniversalReligion

The second importantfeature of Vivekananda’sNeo-Vedanta is his idea thatit could be the philosophicalfoundation of a UniversalReligion. What he meant byUniversal Religion he ex-plains at many places in hisworks, and particularly in histwo addresses, ‘The Way to

the Realization of a Universal Religion’ and‘The Ideal of a Universal Religion’, both in-cluded in the second volume of his CompleteWorks. By Universal Religion he does notmean a new eclectic theology. The underlyingprinciple of his religion is that ‘unity in varietyis the plan of the universe.’10 He makes it clearthat by Universal Religion he does not mean‘any one universal philosophy, or any one uni-versal mythology, or any one universal ritualheld alike by all.’11 A follower of the ideal of aUniversal Religion is not expected to renouncehis faith: he will remain a Christian, a Muslim,a Hindu or a Buddhist. But he will have a

19 PB - MAY 2002

Swami Vivekananda’s Idea of Vedanta 255

A follower of the ideal of

a Universal Religion is

not expected to

renounce his faith: he

will remain a Christian, a

Muslim, a Hindu or a

Buddhist. But he will

have a sense of the

universality of the

human spirit, of the

infinitude of the human

soul in its divine

essence, which is a

Vedantic idea.

sense of the universality of the human spirit,of the infinitude of the human soul in its di-vine essence, which is a Vedantic idea. Viveka-nanda did not look upon Vedanta as a dogmaor a doctrine: it is a sensibility, a spiritual tem-per that gives one’s religion its universality.Vedanta takes a man above sect and dogmaand enables him to breathe the ampler andfresher air of the upper skies of his faith fromwhere he can realize his freedom. I think Vive-kananda would agree with Deussen who saysabout the Vedantic Atman that ‘it is the meta-physical unity which is manifested in all em-pirical plurality.’12

His View on His Advaita Vedanta

One question, however, remains. What isVivekananda’s view of his own Advaita Ve-danta? In his Harvard address on ‘The Veda-nta Philosophy’ Vivekananda says that themajority of the Indian people are Dvaitists andonly a few are Advaitists.13 The Advaita expe-rience or state is inexpressible. Actually the ex-pression ‘Advaita experience’ may not be alogical expression. ‘Tat tvam asi, Ùvetaketo’14

and ‘Iyam aham asmi’15 are not expressions ofexperiences, they are not sentences in the in-dicative mood. They only express an aspira-tion. When the individual or the personal At-man is merged in Brahman, who will commu-nicate the event! We can state the idea of theAtman dissolving in the Paramátman. Wecan’t report the event. Vivekananda has thisidea in mind when he does not speak about hisown Advaita. Let us remember that whenRabindranath Tagore speaks of Advaita in hispoem included in Janmadine he only speaks ofa future and desired experience:

Ámár ámær dhárá miùe jábe krameparipérîa caitanyer ságar saïgama.

The stream of my personal self will gradually

mix with the fullness of the Supreme Con-sciousness.

He is not communicating an experience: he isonly speaking of an aspiration.

Vivekananda does not speak at length onAdvaita though Advaita is the basis of hiscatholic view of Vedanta and his idea of a Uni-versal Religion. �

References

1. Ùákta Padávalæ (Bengali), ed. AmarendranathRay (1942), p. 162; Bengali Religious Lyrics,trans. and ed. Edward J Thompson and Ar-thur Marshman Spencer (1923).

2. ibid., p. 222.3. Somerset Maugham, The Razor’s Edge (Pen-

guin, 1963), p. 269.4. Vedanta for the Western World, ed. Christopher

Isherwood (Viking Compass, 1960), p. 15.5. Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian

Philosophy (Cambridge, 1940), vol. 3, p. 80.6. J S M Hooper, Hymns of the Alvars (1929), p. 6.7. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9

vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1-8, 1989; 9,1997), vol. 3, p. 396. [Hereafter CW, followedby volume and page numbers.]

8. Bertrand Russell, Mysticism and Logic (GeorgeAllen & Unwin, 1963), p. 17. The said essaywas first published in the Hibbert Journal, July1914.

9. Bertrand Russell, Our Knowledge of the ExternalWorld (George Allen & Unwin, 1914), p. 31.

10. CW, 2.381.11. ibid., p. 382.12. Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads,

trans. A S Geden (Dover, 1966), p. 404.13. CW, 1.359.14. Chándogya Upaniøad, 6.8.7.15. ibid., 6.10.1.

PB - MAY 2002 20


Man is to become divine by realizing the divine; idols or temples or churches or books are only the sup-

ports, the helps, of his spiritual childhood; but on and on he must progress.

—Swami Vivekananda, CW, 1.16

Why Do We Suffer?

PRAVRAJIKA SEVAPRANA

(continued from the previous issue)

There is the famous prayer of Kunti, themother of the Pandava brothers, whichyou find in the Mahabharata. When Sri

Krishna granted her a boon, she prayed thatshe would always have adversity. When heasked her why she asked for this strange boon,she replied, ‘O Krishna, whenever I am in ad-versity I always remember you. You are thefirst one I turn to, the first thought in my mind.Therefore let me always remain in adversity.’We can actually use suffering to turn towardsGod. And if we do that, it can help us when wemeet problems in life. I am not advocatingseeking suffering. We will get plenty withoutthat. We all have our own hair shirts handedout to us tailor-made. But whenever we havepain or encounter a painful situation of anysort, we can try to remember to call on God, orassert our own higher nature.

Suffering, a Tool for Inner Transformation

Swamiji tells us, ‘But it is a tremendoustruth that if there be real worth in you, themore are circumstances against you, the morewill that inner power manifest itself.’1 So suf-fering certainly can be turned into a spiritualadvantage for a true aspirant. If the body suf-fers we can tell ourselves, ‘I am not the body.’We can make that our spiritual practice. Everytwinge can be a reminder. When something iswrenching our heart we can analyse it and tryto understand where we are sticking to it,what is causing us pain. It is said that the treewhich is shaken in a storm develops strongroots. Storms and stresses in life can actuallystrengthen our resolve. So they say, ‘If old agecomes, disease comes, difficulties, externaland internal, arise, if we have the power of en-durance to remain calm and bear our burden

without being bowed down by it, then wehave really achieved something.’2

Even the little things in everyday life canbe used to build up our inner strength. StTheresa said one must ‘die by pin stabs’3 andoften it is just that. Nothing big and showy tobe done, just the little things, when we are al-ready tired or busy or too rushed to take thetime. Things that nobody notices, but oneknows inside, can be done in a better way.These are the hard things. So often we fail. Thisis where the struggle takes place. We some-times feel, ‘Yes, Lord, I do want to be purified.’We desire some heroic noble sacrifice that ev-eryone will notice. It is humbling to realizethat it is these little things that are being asked.We feel, ‘O God, does it have to be like this? DoI really have to get along with this difficultperson? Do I really have to give up my resent-ment? Do I really have to curb my tongue?You mean this is what you want from menow?’ Unfortunately the answer often is, ‘Yes.This is it.’ They say, ‘Do it now.’ How true it is.The path, the opportunities, are right here forevery one of us, in our families, in our work, inour convents and monasteries, in our homes.This doesn’t mean doing things with a sighand a martyred attitude. No, it really meansdoing with love and therefore with joy.

Does the way we face suffering also affecthow others view us? Here is a quote from Ma-hatma Gandhi�s autobiography:

The conviction has been growing upon me, thatthings of fundamental importance to the peopleare not secured by reason alone but have to bepurchased with their suffering. Suffering is thelaw of human beings; war is the law of the jun-gle. But suffering is infinitely more powerfulthan the law of the jungle for converting the op-

21 PB - MAY 2002

ponent and opening his ears, which are other-wise shut, to the voice of reason. … I have cometo this fundamental conclusion that if you wantsomething really important to be done youmust not merely satisfy the reason. You mustmove the heart also. The appeal to reason ismore to the head but the penetration of theheart comes from suffering. It opens up the in-ner understanding in man.

What does this mean? It means that suf-fering can transform a person and thosearound him. Things borne with patience andforbearance yield great inner strength to one-self and also have an effect on others. Some-how suffering can open the human heart tocompassion. When a person truly sacrificeshimself with joy and love, all hearts respond tohim. A truly compassionate person under-stands the suffering of another and the otherperson feels this even if it is not overtly ex-pressed. Sri Ramakrishna tells us that as mayaexists so also does daya or compassion. Our at-tachment to our relatives brings sorrow whenwe want something in return. This is calledmaya by Sri Ramakrishna.

Maya is love for one’s relatives, one’s wife, chil-dren, brother, sister, nephew, father andmother. But Daya is the same love for all createdbeings without any distinction. Maya entanglesa man, turns him away from God. But throughDaya one realizes God.4

There is only one love manifesting in var-ious ways. It is ‘me’ and ‘myness’ that is theproblem. There is a practice where one tries tosee all women as mothers or sisters and allmen as fathers or brothers. In Buddhism onepractice is to realize that all beings have beenour mothers and fathers at some time in ourevolution. We need to broaden our love. Wemust turn our love towards all, towards Godin all, in our relatives and friends yes, but alsoeven in our enemies. And we should nourishthe feeling of compassion towards all. ‘As Iam, so are they.’

Suffering can broaden the heart. One cansympathize and understand the suffering ofothers. It not only gives strength, as heat tem-

pers iron into steel, but also polishes off thecorners and gives depth to the soul. We allmust have seen sometime or other a piece ofold wood which has become so smooth andmellow that it almost seems to glow with age.It has become this way by being repeatedlytouched and used. Drift wood buffeted bywaves and bleached by the sun is white andsmooth. A river stone can become polishedand almost luminous because of continuousfriction with other stones. It shines. Sometimesthe faces of the old and sick are like this—al-most translucent, where the light behindseems very close to the surface, ready to burstthrough at any moment.

Suffering versus Sacrifice

The whole life can be viewed as a greatsacrifice, or yajna. The Chandogya Upanishadsays, ‘A man indeed is a sacrifice.’5 Every ac-tion offers us an opportunity to sacrifice our-selves. Swami Vivekananda says,

It is easier to reconcile one’s fate as a sacrifice.We are all sacrifices—each in his own way. Thegreat worship is going on—no one can see itsmeaning except that it is a great sacrifice. Thosethat are willing, escape a lot of pain. Those whoresist are broken into submission and suffermore. I am now determined to be a willing one.6

When Brother Lawrence was goingthrough a difficult period he found that he didnot get relief until he stopped struggling.

When I thought of nothing but to end my daysin those troubles I found myself changed all atonce; and my soul, which till that time was introuble, felt a profound inward peace, as if shewere in her centre and place of rest.7

But this sacrifice should be a joyful one.Remember, we are all seeking happiness. Canwe offer ourselves joyfully? Can our lives be ajoyful offering—whether the circumstancesare easy or difficult? If there is love, life be-comes joyful like a song. All things can befaced with joy by a truly advanced spiritualseeker because there is love in all his actionsand no fear.

PB - MAY 2002 22


How much fear do we still have in us?Just ask yourselves, ‘If I knew I was going todie the next day, what would I do? Whatwould I feel?’ Be honest. Would we panic?Would fear rise in us? Can we really say, ‘Yea,though I walk through the valley of theshadow of death, I will fear no evil, for Thouart with me’?8 Most of us have a way to goabout this. This is the question of clinging tolife. But what about a painful illness?

St Francis says: ‘Suffering, if you accept itlovingly, can give intensity to one’s prayerwhich nothing else can give.’ St Theresa says,‘Love lives only on sacrifice; so, if one is com-pletely dedicated to loving, one must expect tobe sacrificed unreservedly.’

Wait a minute. Are we back to some sortof pain-hugging religious idea? No. I want tostress this. Sacrifice does not necessarily meanpain. If it is done with love it will bring joy.This is the great key. Listen to these wordsfrom a conversation with the Dalai Lama:

Questioner: Your Holiness always says that suf-fering increases your inner strength.Dalai Lama: That is right.Questioner: But some people might think: Wellthen, I should seek more suffering in order tobecome stronger.Dalai Lama (laughing): This I don’t mean.Questioner: But voluntary suffering in a way,isn’t that what it is? Don’t bodhisattvas some-times seek suffering on purpose?Dalai Lama: Oh yes, they do. ‘I want to take onmyself all the sufferings of living beings.’ Theydirectly enter into suffering that way. But inthat case, you see, actually the suffering doesn’tcome!Questioner: Ah! Is that so? When they seek thesuffering, they don’t get any?Dalai Lama: No. Never. The wishing for suffer-ing makes the suffering disappear.

That is it. The wishing for suffering, thewilling sacrifice, makes the suffering itself dis-appear. It seems that suffering is really just ourresistance to something. If we are asked togive and we resist, we suffer. If we are asked tosacrifice and we are unwilling, we suffer. If weare asked to give and we give willingly, it is a

joy. Swamiji in his poem ‘To a Friend’ says,‘Give, give away.’9 That’s the one thing. Weare constantly being asked to give ourselves. Ifwe give without being asked it is even more ofa joy. I ask you again to look at your own mindand see it. Often when we suffer, this unwill-ingness to give is the cause of it. Something inus is resisting, grabbing and holding. If that re-sistance goes, the suffering goes with it. Theysay that clinging to life itself is a source of suf-fering.

Pavahari Baba, a great saint, was bittenby a cobra. He fell down unconscious. He sur-vived the poison. When he came back to con-sciousness, and was asked what had hap-pened, he said, ‘A messenger came from myBeloved.’

Love and Suffering

St Theresa, who was actually dying of tu-berculosis, said to her sisters:

Oh! Don’t be troubled about me, for I havecome to a point where I cannot suffer any lon-ger, because all suffering is sweet to me. What-ever is God’s will pleases me. I love everythingGod in his goodness sends me.10

What a wonderful state of mind! How free, tosee that everything is God�s will and to feelthat anything that God wills is sweet!

What is the significance of Christ on thecross? That he overcame death. Who can re-ally answer this question? Was he human aswell as divine? Christ was denied by his closedisciples and friends, publicly humiliated,and crucified. Surely, any human being wouldhave suffered in that situation. What does thismean to us? What do the words ‘Take up yourcross and follow me’ really mean? This greatmystery is something one needs to meditateon deeply to even begin to understand. Onecan only understand a little from within as theheart opens. But surely we are being asked togive up, to sacrifice our little small egos.Surely the small ego is the reason we are suf-fering.

It is one thing to face our own sufferingand try to rise above it, but how about the suf-

23 PB - MAY 2002

Why Do We Suffer? 259

ferings of others? A loved one suffers a greatloss or is completely immobilized by a mentalillness. We feel helpless. How can we under-stand such a thing? I don’t say we can reallyunderstand it, but we can open our hearts forother people and try to reduce their suffering.‘As I am, so are they. As they are, so am I.’ Wecan try to see God in them and serve.

On a larger scale, what about things suchas the worldwide tremendous social and eco-nomic imbalance? What about wars or atroci-ties such as the Holocaust or what is going onin Tibet or in the Middle East right now? Whatabout diseases that wipe out millions of peo-ple?

A Spiritual Perspective

One view is to try to step back, see thewhole picture as a great cosmic sacrifice.Somebody said recently that in an epic such asthe Mahabharata one gets a cosmic view likethis. Everything is interconnected and meetson the great battlefield. Good and evil aremixed up in the cosmic conflict. And one mustfight in the midst of it all. People being bornand dying, wars and joyous celebrations,good and evil, always together in a cosmicdance. Even the birth and death of theuniverse is just part of this Divine Play. Thisexistence of ours is as transient as autumnclouds. To watch the birth and death of beingsis like looking at the movements of a dance. Alifetime is like a flash of lightning in the sky,rushing by like a torrent down a steep moun-tain. From one standpoint it is just the play ofConsciousness—the divine, blissful play ofMother Kali, who holds both joy and sorrow,birth and death, in her hands, and who isdancing the dance of creation as well as de-struction.

It is true that worldwide calamities canalso arouse the feeling of compassion in manypeople. To a greater or lesser degree it canopen our eyes to see that even the perpetratorsof such violence are suffering, perhaps evenmore than the victims because they are caughtin a hell of anger, hatred and violence. Violent

actions frighten us so much because we allcarry the seeds of violence within us. Remem-ber, we are very much the same, imprisonedby our own anger, resentments and fear. Arewe non-violent within ourselves? Have weovercome anger?

What about the suffering of those whoappear to be completely innocent? This quota-tion from a conversation with Mother Teresaof Kolkata gives us one viewpoint:

At one point towards the end of the journey, Iasked her how she or anyone could explain whychildren needed to suffer. She thought momen-tarily and said, ‘Our Lord�s suffering was a de-vice chosen by him to show to the world thepath out of affliction. Similarly, when childrensuffer, their suffering is possibly meant to com-pel humanity to act on their behalf, and thus toserve as its own saviour.’

What an interesting thought! By giving uponeself for others, one saves oneself.

This selfless service is one of the ways toovercome our own suffering. Swami Viveka-nanda says,

First root out this idea of helping, and then go toworship. … Serve the living God! God comes toyou in the blind, in the halt, in the poor, in theweak, in the diabolical.11

It is not the receiver that is blessed, but it is thegiver. Be thankful that you are allowed to exer-cise your power of benevolence and mercy inthe world, and thus become pure and perfect.12

In our own time, Sri Ramakrishna died ofthroat cancer. Did he really suffer? Some feelhe never suffered; that he was always aware ofhis true divine nature. Yet look at the pictureof his body taken at the time of his death. Hisbody was emaciated till it was just skin andbones. Anyone who has been near a cancer pa-tient knows that there can be a great deal ofpain and suffering there. Yet those who werenear Sri Ramakrishna say that he was all bliss.How wonderful! What a message! These greatones show us how to overcome body con-sciousness, even disease and death. Yes, evena lingering, painful illness like cancer can beovercome. A person can live free even while

PB - MAY 2002 24


living in a body. There can be an end to sor-row. An incarnation comes. God takes on ahuman form in order to show mankind theway to overcome suffering and death. There issomething that does not die and never suffers.

To be an embodied being means to takeon suffering. Even incarnations do this. Butour suffering itself, if properly turned, canlead us back to our own true nature. Why dowe suffer? Because we are ignorant, becausewe are confused, and because we still havesomething to learn. We are still thinking ofourselves as bodies, something small, individ-ual, incomplete. We feel we need to get some-thing, to do something. We feel we are sepa-rated and need to be whole. This is painful, sowe suffer. But perhaps there is a reason for itall. Perhaps the individual soul or jiva learnsthrough suffering and begins to really searchfor a way out. Or perhaps we should say hesearches and turns inward, for it is only fromwithin that the real answers come. Sufferingitself may be the teacher that wakes us up,makes us struggle to be free. A sage said,‘Compassion is the foundation of earnestness.Compassion for yourselves and others, bornof suffering, your own and others.’13 And re-member, we are not alone. There are greatsouls like Swami Vivekananda who, out ofcompassion, have vowed to be born again andagain to help mankind reach freedom.

We come here to learn, to be free. Accord-ing to Advaita philosophy there is only realityin the universe, which it calls Brahman; every-thing else is unreal, manifested and manufac-tured out Brahman by the power of maya. Toreach back to that Brahman is our goal. Evensuffering may lead us to that goal. Throughspiritual disciplines, voluntary self-sacrificeand complete self-abnegation the soul can be-come pure and perfect, free from suffering it-

self. The Bhagavadgita calls this state ‘the end ofsorrow.’14 This is the goal we are all seeking.

Let me end with a prayer. A swami toldme when he first heard this it changed hiswhole life.

Ko nu syádupáyo’trayenáhaó sarvadehinám.

Antaë praviùya satataóbhaveyaó duëkhabhárabhák.

O Lord, is there any way by which I can enterinto the heart of every being and carry the bur-den of their suffering all the time? Is there anyway?15

�

References1. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9

vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1-8,1989; 9,1997), vol. 7, p. 249. [Hereafter CW, followedby volume and page numbers.]

2. Excerpt from class notes on Isa Upanishad bySwami Asokananda.

3. St Theresa of Lisieux: Her Last Conversations,trans. Clarke. [Hereafter St Theresa.]

4. M., The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. SwamiNikhilananda (Madras: Sri RamakrishnaMath, 1985), p. 267.

5. Chandogya Upanishad, 3.16.1.6. CW, 6.422-3.7. Brother Lawrence, Practice of the Presence of

God.8. Bible, Psalm 23.9. CW, 4.496.

10. St Theresa, pp. 52-65.11. CW, 1.442.12. ibid., 1.76.13. Nisargadatta Maharaj, I am That, trans.

Maurice Frydman (Bombay: Chetana, 1976),vol. 2, p. 196.

14. Bhagavadgita, 6.23.15. Quote from a letter of Swami Chetanananda.

25 PB - MAY 2002

Why Do We Suffer? 261

I am responsible for my fate, I am the bringer of good unto myself, I am the bringer of evil. I am the Pure

and Blessed One. We must reject all thoughts that assert to the contrary.


Science and Spirituality

DR HARI GAUTAM

I am indeed grateful for having been in-vited to deliver the 64th Foundation Day ora-tion of the Ramakrishna Mission Institute ofCulture—an institution established on 29 Jan-uary 1938 to commemorate the birth cente-nary of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. TheInstitute of Culture, a branch of the Ramakri-shna Mission—having 192 centres and subcentres in India and abroad—is dedicated topropagating the teachings Sri Ramakrishnaand his able disciple Swami Vivekananda; thecore of India’s oldest philosophy, Indian cul-ture and Vedanta; the study of other culturesand civilizations to ensure an all-round devel-opment of mankind; the equal validity of allreligions, the potential divinity of man andservice to man as a way of worshipping God.

On this solemn occasion, I bow with rev-erence to Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekanan-da, and with utmost respect and humility paytributes to the enormous commitment anddedication of the distinguished swamis of theRamakrishna Order, who have ceaselesslycontributed to transforming our society andsustaining an order of mankind with Indianvalues and culture.

For me it is a very special day in my life tostand before you in this historic VivekanandaHall of the Ramakrishna Mission Institute ofCulture. I am quite aware that I am intellectu-ally ill equipped, inadequate in the requiredknowledge and spirit, and unequal to the taskof delivering such a coveted, high-profile andmost esteemed oration. Nevertheless, I con-sider it my privilege to have been chosen forthis honour and request His Excellency theGovernor, revered swamis and the audiencenot to measure me with those tall and eminentstalwarts who have earlier delivered this ora-tion.

The subject of science and spiritual-

ity—though important, interesting and intri-cate—is thought-provoking and not an easyone to dwell upon particularly in the contextof what today’s scientists define as science,and their apathy towards the spirituality theyrefuse to understand. What is science? Is spiri-tuality a science? Is there what we call westernscience in contrast with the Indian one? Canwe achieve a synthesis of western science andspirituality? What approach do we propose tofollow and how relevant should be our educa-tion? These are some important issues thatneed to be examined and worked upon. In thisoration I may have borrowed at places certainphrases, statements and versions from thewritings of great and eminent men, which Igratefully acknowledge.

This address has given me a unique priv-ilege to vent my feelings, more so as a medicalscientist, on the sensitive subject of science andspirituality, which might be a criticism, sug-gestion or recommendation. My observationsare my own personal thoughts and in no wayrepresent any official view in this context.

Since the dawn of civilization human be-ings have made tremendous efforts to miti-gate suffering through various ways, includ-ing the use of science and technology. But wecannot call it progress in the real sense of theterm. Have science and technology taught uslove, sympathy and humility? Certainly not.We do not want nuclear bombs. We requirefood, shelter and clothing for everyone. We donot need hatred and racial discrimination butlove, sympathy and universal brotherhood ofmankind.

Science has become a dominant way ofexploring the world not only because of itslogical and empirical nature but also becausescience and technology have established theWest as the supreme colonizer. Science has be-

PB - MAY 2002 26

Science and Spirituality

come the language of the victors who havesuppressed not only the industry but also thespiritual languages of India and other cul-tures.

It is true that Western science, because ofits immense material resources, has come todominate the world. One needs billions of dol-lars nowadays for research. India doesn’t havethem, nor can it remunerate honourably itsscientists and engineers. Hence many of ourtop scientists have exported themselves to theWest. But it may also be true that Western sci-ence, however brilliant, is like a blind man, be-cause it dissociated itself from the Spirit asearly as the 17th century.

Today’s science is rudderless, driven bytechnology and is not clear about humangoals. It therefore conduces to greed and vio-lence. This is mainly because humanity haslost religion. Science is partly responsible forthe decline of religion as well. Our scientificpower has outrun our spiritual power. Wehave guided missiles and unguided men.Spiritual power is exogenous to scientificpower. But the reality is the other way round.Our spiritual superstructure is solidlyfounded on scientific substructure.

Science becomes dangerous only when itimagines that it has reached its goal. That sci-ence and the scientific outlook have takenmankind forwards in the last one hundredand odd years is the tall claim scientists make.Anyone who questions the above rhetoric isdubbed superstitious or downright illogical,in addition to being unscientific.

Science, if anything, has taken mankindbackwards pushing man to the brink of self-destruction. Is not the threat of nuclear warfrom the terrorists based on scientific data? Isnot the anthrax fever in the USA born out ofcomplicated scientific research to get resistantgerms to fight wars? Is not the ever-presentthreat of chemical warfare based on science?

Like any other human activity, sciencehas its limitations. It would be foolhardy to be-lieve that science is the be all and end all of hu-man wisdom. What we know is probably a

very small fraction of what is to be known.Only he who understands science very wellrealizes the depth of his ignorance. Positivesciences, at best, could answer questions like‘how’ or ‘how much’. They will never be ableto say ‘why’.

Rational thinking and scientific outlookhave enormous limitations. When you lookbeyond reason you get an insight into nature’sfunctioning better. Nature has its reasons al-ways, but reason cannot explore them many atime. How else can one feel love, hatred, jeal-ously and the like? None of them can be mea-sured in scientific terms. One could experi-ence love but cannot see love and measure itsdimensions. If science is measurement andmeasurement is science as defined by MarieCurie, love as an emotion does not exist at all.No one has seen the wind but when treesdance and bend, it can be felt. Similarly thereare many things that can only be felt but notseen and measured. The problem with man-kind today is intolerance of other’s views.

Recently, when doctors went on strike inIsrael the death rate and morbidity fell signifi-cantly there—only to bounce back to the origi-nal levels when there was peace between thestriking doctors and the government. This wasvery interesting as the gathered scientific evi-dence did not have any linear relationship towhat must have happened inside the humanbody. The human body is run by the humanmind, which is scientifically unfathomable.There are so many imponderables in nature

27 PB - MAY 2002

Science and Spirituality 263

Have science and technology

taught us love, sympathy and

humility? Certainly not. We do

not want nuclear bombs. We

require food, shelter and

clothing for everyone. We do

not need hatred and racial

discrimination but love,

sympathy and universal

brotherhood of mankind.

that one cannot answer all the questions withthe help of science alone. There are manythings outside the realm of science which arebeyond its explanatory capacity.

Years ago Leonard Leibovici showedthat remote, retroactive, intercessory prayercould do wonders for patient recovery in hos-pitals. A positivist that he was, he went a stepfurther to urge doctors to include prayer intheir armamentarium. The prayer theme wastaken to great scientific heights by a recentstudy in an American university hospital in awell-controlled, randomized, triple-blind (thepatient, his treating doctor and the relativeswere kept in the dark) prospective study ofheart attack patients. The prayed-for group re-corded a very significant fall in all parametersof the illness in a coronary care set-up. Eventhe death rate was significantly lower in theprayed-for group. This was replicated in pa-tients who had severe infective fevers, in an-other milestone study.

These episodes are only examples of themany paranormal phenomena that one ob-serves in day-to-day medical practice, whichcannot as yet be explained by modern science.Albert Einstein wrote during his last days: ‘Ido not believe that this world is a wonder; Ithink it is a wonderful wonder.’

Among all nations—during the course ofcenturies and throughout the passage oftime—India was known as a mine of wisdomand the fountainhead of justice and good gov-ernment. And Indians were credited with ex-

cellent intellect, exalted ideas, universal max-ims, rare inventions and wonderful talents.

Western science could not develop as ascience of values. Throughout its long history,India, on the other hand, has fostered under-standing and tolerance—with respect to bothphysical sciences, and intra-religious andinter-religious relations. India did not createand uphold the whole host of those conflictsthat have plagued the West: faith against rea-son, religion against religion, religion againstscience, mind against matter, and the naturalagainst the supernatural.

One dogma that is stifling the spirit ofmodern physical science and seriously dis-torting the human psyche and the social situa-tion—in this otherwise amazing modernspace age—is materialism and its reductionistapproach while dealing with inconvenientfacts of human experience. Distinguished sci-entists themselves have protested and warnedagainst this dogma.

Experience is the only source of knowl-edge. In the world, religion is the only sciencewhere there is no surety, because it is nottaught as a science of empirical experience.Religion deals with the truths of the meta-physical world, just as chemistry and the othernatural sciences deal with the truths of thephysical world. The book one must read tolearn chemistry is the book of nature. Thebook from which to learn religion is your ownmind and heart. The sage is often ignorant ofphysical science because he reads the wrongbook: the book within. And the scientist is toooften ignorant of religion, because he tooreads the wrong book: the book without.

Religion has to be reinvented as spiritual-ity to suit the contemporary mind. It has to bescientific, modern, rational, universal andcommon to the whole of mankind.

Unfortunately, Indian science today isvery westernized because the scientificknowledge taught in the universities lacks aconnection with the spiritual and our goldenpast. It never mentions India’s ancient tradi-tion of scientific inquiry. Major discoveries in

PB - MAY 2002 28


If you know your own mind, you

can fathom all other minds; if

you know one particle of the

world, you know all the particles

of the world. This is the truth

India has been preaching and

practising for millenniums. It was

because there was always in

India a profound and

everlasting quest for the Spirit.

Indian science such as the positions of stars,the calculation of solar eclipses or the conceptof zero were made at the time when there wereno instruments. Egyptians built their pyra-mids by means of Indian arithmetic. Eigh-teenth century French astronomers were us-ing Hindu calculations for the positions ofstars and solar eclipses. A genius like Rama-nujan was able to devise stupendous mathe-matical theorems without sophisticatedmeans. Modern scientific and technologicalaccomplishments find mention in our ancienttexts, which at one time seemed figments ofimagination and storytelling.

Buddha was able to say long before Ein-stein that everything in our universe is consti-tuted of atoms, constantly changing, dyingand being reborn at each moment. ‘Know thymind, know thy self.’ If you know your ownmind, you can fathom all other minds; if youknow one particle of the world, you know allthe particles of the world. This is the truth In-dia has been preaching and practising for mil-lenniums. It was because there was always inIndia a profound and everlasting quest for theSpirit. Unfortunately, this has not been wellappreciated by many of our scientists with awestern bent of mind.

Modern science has given man intellec-tual energy and the command of immensephysical energy resources. Both these energiesare unfortunately digesting him and makinghim alienated, frustrated, bored, anxious,tense and cynical, since he is ignorant of howto control the horse of his mind. His horse ridehas turned into the tragedy of the horse’s en-joying the ride and his becoming a helplessvictim of that ride.

India today is a pale shadow of what sheshould have been. Instead of leading theworld in life-nurturing ideas, she is being ledby materialistic forces. Her economy shouldhave reflected the care and culture of her peo-ple; instead it has been dehumanized byneo-materialism. She should have recreatedand strengthened her tradition of upholdingunity in diversity. Instead, the country has

been torn by conflict and confusion.The world is in the midst of moral chaos.

With all the material means of pleasure, peo-ple in affluent societies are unhappy and thereis no peace of mind. Family bonds are break-ing, and under the pressures of modern living,people feel that they are chasing a mirage.

In spite of our strength and unshakablecultural heritage, the winds of change haveripped our society and changed it into onewith conflicts, artificiality and paradoxes. Theparadox of our time in history is that we havebigger buildings but smaller temples; widerfreeways but narrower viewpoints. We spendmore but have less; we buy more but enjoy itless. We have bigger houses and smaller fami-lies; more conveniences but less time. We havemore degrees but less sense; more knowledgebut less judgement; more experts but less solu-tions; more medicine but less wellness. Wehave multiplied our possessions, but reducedour values. We talk too much, love too sel-dom, and hate too. We have added years tolife, not life to years. We’ve been all the way tothe moon and back, but have trouble crossingthe street to meet the new neighbour. We haveconquered outer space but not inner space;we’ve split the atom but not our prejudice. Wehave higher incomes but lower morals; wehave become long on quantity but short onquality. These are the times of tall men andshort character; steep profits and shallow rela-tionships. These are the times of world peacebut domestic warfare; more leisure but lessfun; more kinds of food but less nutrition.These are days of two incomes but more di-vorce; of fancier houses but broken homes. It isa time when there is much in the show win-dow and nothing in the stock-room.

29 PB - MAY 2002


Science should realize that it

can only deal with the means.

But means have to be

subservient to ends. And ends

can only be discovered by

philosophy and spirituality.

This is the tragic state of man in an other-wise amazing, modern scientific civilization.A turning of human interest and seeking in thespiritual direction alone can save modern civi-lization. This alone will help modern man tohandle and enjoy the world and its delights asa free person, as a master, instead of remainingits helpless victim. This is the eternal messageof the science of spirituality.

Here is the same India whose soil hasbeen trodden by the feet of the greatest sagesthat ever lived. Here first arose the doctrines ofthe immortality of the soul, the existence of anall-merciful God, a God immanent in natureand man. We are the children of such a coun-try.

The greatest challenge the world is facingtoday is the crisis of confidence and character,mental and moral decay and the breakdownof traditional discipline. If any nation attemptsto throw off its national vitality, that nationdies. In India, religious life forms the centre.But other than occasional lip service, nothinghas been done to construct the nation fromwithin. The decision-makers paid no heed toSwami Vivekananda’s sane advice that for In-dia to become great, we must have the unionof hearts which beat to the same spiritual tune.

Religion and religion alone is the life ofIndia, and when that goes, India will die. Reli-gion is essentially a science of being and be-coming, something that concerns man’s innernature. In this land religion and spiritualityare still the fountains which will have to over-flow and flood the world, to bring in new lifeand new vitality. That is the one great truth In-dia has to teach to the world. This is spiritual-ity—the science of the Soul.

We are at the crossroads of destiny; wemust take the road that leads to comple-mentarity of destiny; we must take the roadthat leads to complementarity, not competi-tion; harmony, not discord; and holism, nothedonism.

The world today needs to practise spiri-tuality. A peep into history provides glaringexamples of how the most horrible and shock-

ing crimes were committed against humanityby men of outstandingly sharp intellect andwide knowledge. But for want of spiritualstrength, they could not take on the beastwithin. Spirituality frees the mind from ten-sion and can lead to the creation of a strife-freeworld.

Being an inner search, the science of spiri-tuality is the science of meaning and value.Values do not derive from physical naturestudied by the physical sciences and machinesfabricated by its technology. They derive fromthe depth of the human spirit. If values are notmechanical and, consequently, do not derivefrom external physical nature, they must bespiritual and must be sought for in the depthof human nature itself.

‘You see many stars in the sky at night,but not when the sun rises. Can you thereforesay that there are no stars in the heaven duringthe day? O man, because you cannot find Godin the days of your ignorance, say not there isno God,’ says Sri Ramakrishna.

The aim of the science of spirituality is tolead man from wretchedness to blessedness,from creatureliness and helplessness to free-dom and fearlessness. Nobel laureate physi-cist Brian Josephson has stated that, in order togo beyond quantum mechanics, scientists willhave to meditate and experience the deeperrealities already known to mystics.

We live in a shrinking world in which themalign heritage of conflict and competitionand the growing gap between the developedand the developing world will have to makeway for a new culture of convergence and co-operation. Science should be a part of a largerphilosophy. Scientific truths should no longerbe opposed to spiritual truths. Science shouldrealize that it can only deal with the means.But means have to be subservient to ends. Andends can only be discovered by philosophyand spirituality.

Science can solve the ultimate mystery ofthe universe, so many scientists believe, de-spite the paradoxes of quantum behaviourstaring at them. Spiritualists believe that they

PB - MAY 2002 30


solved that mystery long ago despite their in-ability to explain it and connect it with thephysical world. Obviously a synthesis of sci-ence and spirituality, though having been at-tempted half-heartedly many a time, is nowoverdue.

Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, theso-called father of Indian nationalism, lookedforward to the fusion of European sciencewith Indian spirituality way back in the 19thcentury as he recognized that, although highlydeveloped in the material aspects of culture,the modern West had not developed the spiri-tual aspects, while Indian spirituality wasmore advanced.

As there is no conflict between knowl-edge and wisdom, India sees no conflict be-tween physical sciences and the science ofspirituality. With this impressive and inspir-ing thought, background and experience, sci-entists and intellectuals in India should be do-ing their historically conditioned service tohumanity in India and abroad by living anddisseminating this synoptic vision of the unityand harmony of the physical sciences and thescience of spirituality. All vidyas, as much sec-ular as sacred, are presided over, according toIndian tradition, by one and the same god-dess, Sarasvati.

The spiritual dimension will have to beonce again given importance in our new edu-cational thinking. The principal goal of educa-tion is to create men who are capable of doingnew things, not simply of repeating whatother generations have done—people who arecreative and inventive. The whole purpose ofeducation is to turn mirrors into windows. Ed-ucation has to aim at not only imparting rele-vant skills, but also at inculcating a sense of re-sponsibility, dedication, patriotism, characterand moral values.

Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan said thatthree things—vital dynamism, intellectual ef-ficiency and spiritual direction—together con-stitute the proper aim of education. Moral andspiritual training is an essential part of educa-

tion. Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore had a vi-sion of such an education: education must aimat the development of moral, spiritual and eth-ical values and we should seek them in ourown heritage as well as in other cultures andcivilizations. It is high time that the discoveryof the Soul became the glory of education.From the primary to the university stage, oureducational system should impart spiritualtechniques.

We wish we had taught our children In-dian wisdom, though it may not be acceptableto some intellectuals who do not want any-thing Indian in this country.

Indians ought to shake off the inferioritycomplex developed under colonialism andtheir western bent of mind, which denigratesIndia’s indigenous knowledge system andcopies the West in accepting only certainmethods of study as true systems of knowl-edge. If India is to show the world the validityof its knowledge systems, it has to speak in thelanguage of modern discourse which is im-bued with scientific knowledge. It should beable to convince the scientifically educatedthat this knowledge is based on evidence andreason.

Changing times demand a new concept,an innovative approach to reform and updateour educational system and to create institu-tions with more meaningful contact with soci-ety at large. The real question is not whethereducation will be transformed. The question israther how and by whom. We need a leader ineducation. Swami Vivekananda said that witha hundred motivated young men he would re-form the whole society. Today, it may not bedifficult to find a hundred motivated men butit is very difficult to find a Swami Vivekanan-da.

Ladies and gentlemen, I am immenselygrateful to you for your patient hearing andfeel deeply honoured to have been given thisunique opportunity to deliver this prestigiousoration. Thank you. �

31 PB - MAY 2002


Self-identity Crisis

SWAMI TATTWAVIDANANDA

Agentleman is leafing through his fam-ily photo album. After some momentsof delight followed by some of pain, he

gently closes the album. His countenance as-sumes an abstracted look while reminiscencesfill him. When he is partially out of the reverie,his eyes happen to fall on a nearby mirror thathas caught his reflection. Focusing on his fea-tures he ponders, ‘How much I have changed.’The gentleman is hardly aware that behindthis thought—like any other thought—flashes simultaneously the subjective ideaof identity. This is why none ever doubts him-self or herself. ‘Na hi játu kaùcid atra sandigdheahaó vá náhaó vá iti, no one doubts whether heis or is not.’1 This idea of identity is very imme-diate, is a fact, hence is never questioned. Andon this depend all experiences of life, both in-ternal and external. And on this obviously isthe great search of philosophy, psychologyand a host of other disciplines.

Having got into a philosophic frame ofmind, the gentleman closes his eyes in intro-spection, trying to feel the source of this idea ofidentity. The only thing he comes up with,even after a lot of effort, is a general awarenessof himself as constituted of a body. Partiallyopening his eyes he casts a glance at his body,for all purposes his self. But the body is noth-ing but a product of genetic factors and evolu-tion. It is subject not only to genetic laws butalso to the physical laws that govern matter.Shutting his eyes once more he notices variousthoughts flitting in his mind, all rooted in andrevolving round his identity, his ‘I’. He re-flects, ‘I am Devadatta’. The identification ofthe name with his body is fast and it is as old ashis memory can go. As a matter of course then,he continues: ‘I am fat, bald, short’—all per-taining to his physical configuration. After apause he then adds his incidental distinguish-

ing features, ‘I am an Indian, a brahmin, achemical engineer, an executive … .’ All thismeans much to him, for these have becomepart of his self, his identity. This identity issignificant to social philosophers, for theyurge that the ‘self’ is constructed by social pro-cesses and interactions. So Devadatta’s ‘self’ isdependent on many factors and is specific cul-turally, historically, economically, even politi-cally. Is there then no determined nature, noessence of Devadatta? Is he only a product ofgenetic factors, and is a social construct—bothof which are subject to constant flux?

As Devadatta’s philosophic mood per-sists, he tries to reflect on his essence, the iden-tity which must be trans-social and trans-ge-netic. What he feels and means when he says‘I’ are different from what someone else, sayYajnadatta, feels and means by Devadatta’s‘I’. That is because to Yajnadatta, Devadatta isan object. Apart from this, in his busy worldDevadatta himself is not totally aware of hisidentity, its full implications, even when heuses the personal pronoun, except perhapswhen he is emotionally excited. Its use has be-come automatic, almost casual. One thing heis sure of is that though he feels he is just thebody, there is still an indubitable experience ofstability—a subjective anchor, an unchangingsomething which stands all genetic and socialchanges.

Somehow or other we have got a convictionthat there is a reality underlying the phenome-nal world…. There is also in us an irrepressibleurge to know the reality beyond the sensiblephenomena. But there can be no knowledge ofanything unless we have some experience of it.To know a thing is to understand how we expe-rience it, and to understand our experience is toknow what other experiences are implied by it.If this be so, then the desire to know reality asagainst appearances must be based on someprimary experience of it.2

PB - MAY 2002 32

Devadatta is a product of the modern ed-ucational system and knows something aboutthe brain and its functions. He tries to visual-ize the grey matter inside his skull, crisscross-ing a billion times with billions of nerves, withits neurons actively firing chemical messagesover synapses with the help of neuro-transmitters. Somewhere in this bewilderingneuro-psychological or neuro-biological me-chanism—with its centres of language, rea-soning, perceptions, emotions, memory banksand instincts—a distinct personality is cre-ated. As he is reflecting on the identity thatseethes in the chemical and electrical soup, heis a bit pleased at being interrupted by athought that his being a chemical engineer hasmade understanding things easy for him. Ashe is congratulating himself, it suddenlystrikes him that this ‘self’, this identity of his,

would not properly be trans-genetic. Facedwith this ambiguity he recalls philosophersand psychologists saying that there is an ego,the essential self, which is a constant consciousprinciple in a person, which knows and con-solidates all empirical experiences. Theoriesregarding the dualism of mind and body arelost to him but modern ideas grip his thinking,which say that the workings of the brain giverise to the semblance of an entity calledmind/psyche/ego or the ‘I’.

This has thrown our philosophical Deva-datta into a philosophical quandary. Is theidentity created in and by the brain presentedto the ego or the mind? Or is it just a matter ofusing different terms to mean the same thing?He has no doubt that the Devadatta who was athin small boy is the same who is now portlyand middle-aged. How and where has thisidea of identity persisted? Not in the body, in-cluding the brain, for it has changed consider-ably.

If the ego is a product, or dependent onneural mechanisms, then it should be some-

thing subject to change. Are there subjectiveand objective sides to the ego? Physical matteris something out of which everything is com-posed. Yet matter is configured individuallyin particular bodies. Is the ego also somethinglike that —particular yet general? So this pos-sible another aspect of the ego needs to be in-vestigated. Secondly, I (Devadatta) am notconscious of my brain but my ego.

In this line of Devadatta’s logic, anotherwould argue with equal emphasis, about whois the knower of this ego. In Sanskrit it is re-ferred to as the jðátá aham, the ‘knower I’,which cognizes the jðeya aham, the ‘known I’.If in order to know the jðeya aham, there is ajðátá aham, then the first jðátá aham would re-quire another jðátá aham to know it and so on.This will lead to infinite regress, anavasthádoøa. Devadatta’s first foray into understand-

ing himself was met by the revelation of hisown colossal ignorance. His loud thought‘who and what am I?’ falls softly into obscuresilence.

Now that discursive thought has failedhim, Devadatta tries and uses picture forms inhis search. He is met only with a series ofDevadattas in his mental space. He is an un-changing conscious subject while thoughtsand actions like eating, growing, studying andworking flow before him like a sequence. SaysSwami Vivekananda:

… the argument of self-identity—‘I am I’—thatthe I of yesterday is the I of today, and that the Iof today will be the I of tomorrow, that in spiteof all the changes that are happening to thebody, I yet believe that I am the same I. … This,though apparently very convincing and clear, isbased upon the mere play on words. The ‘I’ andthe doing, going and dreaming may be separatein black and white, but no one can separatethem in his mind. When I eat, I think of myselfas eating—I am identified with eating. When Irun, I and the running are not two separatethings. Thus the argument from personal iden-

33 PB - MAY 2002

Self-identity Crisis 269

By closing his eyes to further inquiry Devadatta hasmetaphorically joined Virocana’s ranks.

tity does not seem to be very strong. The otherargument from memory is also weak. If theidentity of my being is represented by my mem-ory, many things which I have forgotten are lostfrom that identity.3

Devadatta gives out a loud sigh and sinksdeeper into the sofa, thinking that these prob-lems are meant for philosophers, not for him.I, Devadatta, am happy and successful—hehas now identified himself with happinessand success.

He reaches for the nearby remote controland turns the television on, trying to cut him-self off from all confusing thoughts about per-sonal identity. This reminds us of a story in theChándogya Upaniøad.4 Indra, the king of thegods and Virocana, the king of the demons,unknown to each other, approach their fatherPrajápati to know about the Atman. Both ofthem misunderstand the mystical teaching be-hind ‘The Person that is seen in the eye is this

Atman.’ Virocana goes away and on his re-turn, tells his fellow demons that according totheir father the body is the Atman; so tendyour body and keep it trim. Indra too leaves,but on his way back has misgivings about theteaching and returns for clarification. Twicemore he receives further instruction, misun-derstands and returns. But each time he un-derstands deeper aspects of the Atman. On thefourth visit he finally realizes the Atman, theimmortal and fearless Reality. By closing hiseyes to further inquiry Devadatta has meta-phorically joined Virocana’s ranks.

However, Devadatta’s attention has notglued itself to the television either. It is as-sailed by intermittent disquieting thoughtsabout his deceased parents, whose photo-graphs he has just seen. What has happened tothem? After a while he becomes aware of theremote control still in his palm, switches off

the set, and sees the pictures disappear intothe flat dark screen. He ponders, ‘Is a person’sidentity too switched off likewise at death?’Devadatta is left with these interrogationmarks floating across his head. It is not hisfault, for sensory knowledge cannot plumbinto these deeper realms. He commenced hisinquiry all right, but he was circumscribed bythe constraints of ordinary human ignorance.If only he had taken some time to go throughthe philosophical books of his father, aVedantist!

The waking state of living beings is domi-nated by the ego or ‘I’. This consciousness iswithdrawn in deep sleep. Apart from sleep,this phenomena of withdrawal is also seenconsequent to any serious injury to the body, ablow to the head, swoon, effects of narcotics,emotional shock or anaesthesia. In contrast,there is trance brought about by práîáyámaand deep spiritual moods, besides samadhi. In

these cases, all trace of identity is wiped outtemporarily, only to re-emerge later. Of coursethe merger of identity in trance and samadhicannot be categorized with the rest, as thosewho have experienced it say that they hadopened themselves to higher states of con-sciousness in which new knowledge was ac-quired. We will not go into this as it is a differ-ent subject matter. Consciousness can and ismeasured according to the levels of alertnessthat is correlated with electrical activity (likealpha waves and delta waves) observablewith the help of an electroencephalogram(EEG). But even during diminished workingsof the brain, a trace of identity is felt. This istrue even in hypnotized subjects and personswho are dreaming. If consciousness were theproperty of the brain, why should it lose or letit diminish at times? This, in spite of the brainworking continuously to keep the organism

PB - MAY 2002 34


Every microscopic organic cell has intelligence andself-consciousness in a rudimentary form. This is alsocorroborated by modern science, according to whichthe cell is endowed with a distinct individuality.

alive. The brain being physical matter, itsderivative—the mind or psyche—has also tobe matter, for like produces like. We generallylook at it from this angle. But people believingin reincarnation say that the mind producesthe body. The first view is called materialistic,and the proponents of this view were calledCárvákas in India. Swami Vivekananda ob-serves:

Modern physiology at every step has identifiedmind with the brain. But we in India haveknown that always. That is the first propositionthat the Hindu boy learns, that the mind is mat-ter, only finer, the body is gross.5

The ancient Sáïkhya philosophy in itscosmology states that prakìti, nature in its un-differentiated state, first evolves into mahat,universal intelligence, then to asmitá, univer-sal self-consciousness, the universal ‘I’. This in

turn evolves into all matter, gross and subtle,including the sensory and nervous systems—in fact everything. Sáïkhyans also posit sat-káryaváda, the doctrine that the cause is alwayspresent in, and modified into, the effect. Thismeans that right down to the simple organiccell is present intelligence and self-conscious-ness, the ‘I-sense’. In other words, every mi-croscopic organic cell has intelligence andself-consciousness in a rudimentary form.This is also corroborated by modern science,according to which the cell is endowed with adistinct individuality. Thus intelligence andself-consciousness pervade not only the wholebody—which is nothing but a conglomerationof cells—of an individual, but all bodies, fromgods to demigods, humans, animals, reptiles,insects to simple-celled life forms, in factdown to a blade of grass.

Advaita Vedanta, however, not goingfully with Sáïkhya,6 brings in God (hiraîya-

garbha, the cosmic person) in place of mahat,universal intelligence, to complete the picture,against the self-evolving prakìti. And in placeof asmitá, Vedanta brings in God’s ‘I shall be-come many, I shall be born….’7 What Deva-datta thinks as his ‘I am’, asmi/aham, is but aninfinitesimal individualized reflection ofGod’s ‘I’, which has covered and interpen-etrated everything. Sri Ramakrishna says,

Try to seek this ‘I’. Is this ‘I’ the bones or flesh orintestines? Seeking the ‘I’ you discover ‘Thou’.In other words, nothing exists inside you butthe power of God. There is no ‘I’ but only He.8

This is not the end, however. There issomething more that Advaita Vedanta posits:the Absolute, the infinite existence calledBrahman. This ‘I’, though of cosmic propor-tion and belonging to God, is yet conditioned

by name and form, and is relative. And whatmakes this cosmic self-consciousness individ-ualized into that of Devadatta and the rest ofcreation? We will come to this presently.

Giving a psychological explanation ofidentity, Vedanta states that the antaëkaraîa(the inner instrument) is a part of the subtlebody, and is called manas, buddhi, ahaïkára andcitta according to its different functions.’9 Themind is called the manas, the citta is vìtti or vi-brating, the unsettled state. If you throw astone in a lake, first there will be vibration, andthen resistance. For a moment the water willvibrate and then it will react on the stone. Sowhen any impression comes on the citta, it firstvibrates a little. That is called the manas. Themind carries the impression farther in, andpresents it to the buddhi, the determinative fac-ulty, which reacts. Behind the buddhi isahaïkára, egoism (the asmitá seen earlier), theself-consciousness which says, ‘I am.’ Behind

35 PB - MAY 2002

Self-identity Crisis 271

Each identity then, is conjured up by avidya whichbrings in its train desires and karma. … Yet, this veryDevadatta’s identity when purified through vidya …becomes a doorway to the highest realms of existence.

ahaïkára is mahat, intelligence, the highestform of nature’s existence. Each one is the ef-fect of the succeeding one. In the case of thelake, every blow that comes to it is from the ex-ternal world, while in the case of the mind, theblow may come either from the external orfrom the internal world. Behind the intelli-gence is the Self of man, the Puruøa, the Atman,the pure, the perfect, who alone is the seer, andfor whom is all this change. In the words ofSwami Vivekananda,

Man looks on all these changes; he himself isnever impure; but through what the Vedantistscall adhyása, by reflection, by implication, heseems to be impure.’10

Adhyása, the superimposition SwamiVivekananda refers to, is an important con-cept in Advaita Vedanta.11 Let us see what thissuperimposition is. When a picture, say x, issuperimposed on a larger picture, say y, athird picture—a combination of the two—xyseems to materialize. Similarly, when prakìti,conditioned existence (nature), is apparentlysuperimposed upon Brahman, the AbsoluteExistence-Consciousness-Bliss, a third differ-ent entity arises, known as the individual self.Advaita Vedanta says, this superimposition isdue to the incomprehensible avidyá, non-knowledge, nescience or ignorance. Thismakes the one Reality appear as many. Thisone Reality, however, shines through themany as the content of the concept ‘I’.12 In thewords of Ùaïkarácárya,

this infinite Atman/Brahman—which is de-void of the ideas of cause and effect, which is theReality beyond all imaginations, homogeneous,matchless, beyond the range of proofs, estab-lished by the pronouncements of the Vedas—isever familiar to us as the sense of ‘I’.13

Each identity then, is conjured up byavidyá which brings in its train desires andkarma—avidyá-káma-karma. This complexchain of cause and effect, this bondage, is whatconstitutes Devadatta’s identity of genetic andsocial factors. For on karma depends towhom, where and how we are born. Yet, thisvery Devadatta’s identity, when purified

through vidyá, knowledge, becomes a door-way to the highest realms of existence. But thisis more easily said than done. How this lim-ited identity deludes us is best summed up bySri Ramakrishna. One day at Dakshineswar,an old indigent man who had received per-mission from the authorities to cut and carryaway grass for free was hard at his task. Hisavarice had made him cut so much as to be un-able to lift the bundled load onto his head. Thepoor man refused to acknowledge it, and re-peatedly tried and failed. While looking at thiscomical scene Sri Ramakrishna was inspiredwith spiritual emotion and thought, ‘Ah! TheAtman, the knowledge infinite, abides within,and yet so much foolishness and ignorancewithout!’ Then he exclaimed, ‘O Rama, inscru-table is Thy play!’ and went into ecstasy.14

�

References1. Vácaspati Miùra’s commentary on Ùaïkará-

cárya’s Brahma Sétra Bháøya.2. S C Chatterjee, Problems of Philosophy (Cal-

cutta: Calcutta University), Chapter 2.3. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9

vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1-8, 1989; 9,1997), vol. 2, pp. 341-3. [Hereafter CW, fol-lowed by volume and page numbers.]

4. Chándogya Upaniøad, 8.7.2 onwards.5. CW, 3.401.6. Brahma Sétras, 1.1.5.7. Chándogya Upaniøad, 6.2.3.8. M., The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. Swami

Nikhilananda (Madras: Sri RamakrishnaMath, 1985), p. 819.

9. Ùaïkarácárya, Vivekacéõámaîi, 93.10. CW, 2.438-9.11. For a full treatment on the subject see Ùaïkará-

cárya’s ‘Adhyása-bháøya’ on the BrahmaSétras.

12. ibid.13. Vivekacéõámaîi, 409.14. See Swami Saradananda, Sri Ramakrishna the

Great Master, trans. Swami Jagadananda (Ma-dras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1978), vol. 1,p. 301.

PB - MAY 2002 36


37 PB - MAY 2002

RELIGION AND LIFESwami Bhuteshanandaji’s Answers to Questions

How to know that God is both immanent aswell as transcendent?

If He is all-pervading, He is both withinand without. See ákáùa, space: it is both withinand without. The ether of the science of yester-years, for instance, is all-pervasive. Now, thisákáùa is where you are. Where there is an ob-ject, there is ákáùa within and without. Allthese are relative concepts.

What is the difference between a siddha andan avatara?

The siddha, or a perfected being, attainsperfection through sadhana. The avatara,however, is born perfect. The perfected beinghad to overcome maya, but the avatara isnever bound by it, though He may use it forhis purposes.

Maharaj, fear arises in the mind often. Whatshall I do?

Think and understand that fear is base-less. And if there is something you can do toovercome fear, do that. Once, accompanied bya monk, I was going along a lonely Himalayanpath towards Gangotri. On the way to Gan-gotri, there is a halting place, a hut, calledDhanoti. We were going from Dhanoti to an-other hut called Kotli. If we did not reach Kotlion time, we would not be able to get a place ofstay. So my companion went away as fast ashe could. I was walking alone on that Himala-yan path. It was evening. I had walked somenine miles from the first hut and had to walkmuch more to reach the next. I realized thatnight would soon descend in the wilderness. Icould neither return to the place from which Ihad started, nor was I close to the next one.Suddenly fear gripped me. My body was get-ting heated up because of fear, and I began tosweat profusely. The darkness of the Himala-

yas of those days is something which is be-yond description: you don’t know whetheryour eyes are shut or open. So when I thoughtthat it would soon be dark, I became terrified.How would I proceed? The jungle was knownto be frequented by many wild animals. Thepath was so steep that a small slip would meanfalling into the abyss. My mouth dried up andI began to shiver. I realized that slowly I wasbecoming panicky. I felt so helpless. In such astate, after a few moments my instincts beganto recover. I told my mind that it wouldn’thelp to be afraid. That would be counterpro-ductive. I had a stick in my hand. I struck thestick on the road in front of me noisily andstood firmly. When I stood firmly thus, all myfear was gone. I held the stick firmly and con-trolled my mind. When once I told my mind tobe calm, it became calm, resigning itself towhatever was to happen. I began to walkslowly, with firm steps, towards the Kotli hut.While I was walking thus, it became totallydark. Because of the peaks around, even thelittle light of the sun that should fall on theground did not. So the stick became my onlyrefuge. I would test the area in front of me tosee if it was really ground or gorge, and putmy step forward. Thus, I managed to coverseveral miles to reach the hut by early nextmorning! On the way, one more thing hap-pened. Just as I was walking slowly,something huge crossed the path in front ofme and ran down. It was a big bear.

Listen to a story. A little prince is sleepingin his mother’s arms in the palace. He is weep-ing in sleep. Why? Because he sees in a dreamthat he is walking in a forest, and a tiger isabout to attack him. So he has become scaredand is weeping for fear. His mother shakeshim up and awakes him. When his eyes open,the little prince gapes in wonder: where have

PB - MAY 2002 38


the forest and the tiger gone? He is safe in hismother’s protective arms. He becomes freefrom fear.

We too are princes. The Divine Mother isprotecting us always, and we too are in theMother’s arms, completely safe. What shouldwe fear? If we think thus, we will be rid of fear.

How to overcome attachment, despair andsadness?

Attachment (ásakti) is in your mind. Youmust convince your mind—there is no betterway. Everyone’s mind has such weaknessesand we must struggle to shrug them off.Uddharedátmanátmánaó nátmánamavasádayet.You yourself are responsible for your good.There is no point in thinking that you areweak. You should uplift yourself with the helpof discrimination (viveka). The strength toachieve this is in you; all strength is withinyou. If you think of God constantly, Hisstrength will manifest in you.

What is sin?That which keeps us away from purity is

sin.

What is a good action? What is a bad action?And which is our natural action?

That which brings good is good action;that which harms is bad; and that whichbrings neither good nor bad is natural action.

Maharaj, what am I to do when colleagues inthe office taunt me, criticize me, and try to harmme?

Bear all that silently. Avoid them as far aspossible.

When they insult me?Do what Swamiji did in such a situation.

While he was sailing to America, two Chris-tian missionaries went on criticizing and in-sulting Swamiji. Swamiji tolerated them for awhile. When he could not anymore, he roared

like a lion: ‘You see, one more word, and I shallthrow both of you overboard.’ Seeing Swa-miji’s personality, the missionaries must haveunderstood that Swamiji meant what he said.So they kept quiet after that. Sri Ramakrishnahas said that you must hiss. But hissing maycost you a fortune.

What shall I do then?Quit the spot, not the job.

The behaviour of some people is not to my lik-ing. What shall I do?

Please beware of your own conduct; bealert. If you are sincere to yourself, work withalertness and dedication, you will not be dis-turbed by others’ shortcomings.

We have work to do, don’t we, Maharaj?You have to exhaust your karma. By

karma, duties are meant.

Maharaj, how to know if my karmas have ex-hausted?

Where is the necessity to know? Whenthe idea ‘I am the doer’ vanishes, you will un-derstand that you have exhausted yourkarma.

Maharaj, God is ever present within us. Butwhy does he not forewarn us before we commit evildeeds?

He does forewarn you! The problem is,you do not listen to His warnings. Those whoare calm by nature, understand His wordsspoken in signs. Parents warn their children somuch, but how many listen? Do all childrenobey their parents?

Be calm. Keep your mind tranquil andpure. Only then can you do the right thing atthe right time. Only then will His signs be in-telligible to you.

(concluded)—Compiled by Smt Manju Nandi Mazumdar

39 PB - MAY 2002

Avadhéta Upaniøad

TRANSLATED BY SWAMI ATMAPRIYANANDA

State or condition of an avadhéta

rŒgtr=J]útu& vrGÀJul JKolbT

;ôg rŒgk rNh& f]UÀJt btu=tu =rGKvGfU& >

Œbtu= Wúth& vG ytlà=tu dtuív=tg;u >>4>>

4. His joy (priya) is [to be envisaged as] the head; delight (moda) the right wing [as in the caseof a bird]; great [ecstatic] delight (pramoda) the left wing; and bliss (ánanda) [the very Self]; he[thus] assumes a fourfold condition, like the [four] feet of a cow.1

dtuJtÖtm=]Nk NeMuo ltrv bÆgu l atËgÆt& >

c{Ñ vwåAk Œr;²ur; vwåAtfUthuK fUthgu;T >

YJk a;wív=k f]UÀJt ;u gtrà; vhbtk dr;bT >>5>>

5. Brahman, which is similar to the tail of a cow,2 is not [to be envisaged] as either the head,or the middle portion, or the bottom portion. But It (Brahman) is [to be envisaged as what re-mains, that is as] the tail, [on account of the Upaniøadic statement] that ‘Brahman is the tail, be-ing the substratum (or support).’3 Those who so envisage (contemplate) this four-footed divi-sion [as described above], attain the supreme goal.

Importance of Knowledge

Òttlôg WÀfUMo&

l fUboKt l Œsgt Ætlul ÀgtdulifuU yb];ÀJbtlNw& >>6>>

6. Not by work (rituals), not by progeny, not by wealth, but by renunciation [alone] somehave attained immortality.

How an avadhéta moves about in the world (description of his conduct)

yJÆtq;agtolwf{HbKbT

ôJihk ôJihrJnhKk ;ÀmkmhKbT > mtöcht Jt r=döcht Jt > l ;uMtk ÆtbtoÆtbtio l buÆgtbuÆgti > m=t

mtkd{nãgu³Ót‡JbuÆtbà;gtodk gs;u > m bntbFtu bntgtud& >>7>>

7. His (an avadhéta’s) unfettered existence (life) in the world consists in his moving aboutfreely (spontaneously, independently), either clad or unclad.4 For them (the avadhétas), there isnothing righteous or unrighteous; nothing holy or unholy (sacred or profane).5 Through [a spe-cial oblation called] saïgrahaîyeøôi [which, in the case of an avadhéta, consists in his all-encom-passing divine wisdom], he performs the inner sacrifice of aùvamedha [within his own conscious-ness]. That is the great sacrifice and the great yoga.6

PB - MAY 2002 40


The great vow

bntJ{;bT

f]UÀïtbu;r”tºtk fUbo ôJihk l rJdtgu;T > ;àbntJ{;bT > l m bqZJr¨Ëg;u >>8>>

8. His strange, wonderful actions are total, complete [fully charged with his own inner real-ization]. One should not criticize or condemn him for his free and unrestrained behaviour.7 Thatis the great vow (mahávrata). He is not tainted [by any of his actions] like the deluded (ignorant)persons.

Notes and References1. This mantra is based on the analysis of the ánandamaya-átman in the Taittiræya Upaniøad (’Brahmá-

nanda-vallæ’). Priya is the joy derived from the attainment of the sádhana-catuøôaya: discrimination be-tween the Real and the unreal, dispassion from worldly objects, self-control, fortitude, faith, medita-tive awareness, and intense longing for liberation. Moda is the delight experienced in deep contem-plation, when the mind is absorbed within. Pramoda is the ecstatic joy arising out of the akhaîõá-kára-vìtti, experienced in highly intensified and profound meditation when the avadhéta’s mind takesthe form of the Indivisible, Infinite Brahman. Ánanda is the bliss of nirvikalpa samádhi, which is Brah-man—Upanishad Brahmayogin’s commentary.

2. The cow analogy is continued here and hence the invoking of a cow’s tail to draw a parallel to Brah-man. The Taittiræya Upaniøad, on the other hand, uses the bird imagery.

3. Brahma-pucchaó pratiøôhá is the statement in the Taittiræya Upaniøad, meaning that Brahman is like thetail in this bird imagery, serving as the support.

4. Upanishad Brahmayogin, in his commentary on this verse, points out that moving about unre-strained does not mean that an avadhéta’s conduct would contradict the scripture. He moves aboutfreely, without contradicting the ùruti, smìti or ùiøôácára (conduct of wise and disciplined people). Thestrength of his blazing jðána (spiritual wisdom) does not allow him to go contradictory to the scrip-tures. Although not preceded by his conscious effort, all his actions are governed and guided by theDivine Will. ‘An expert dancer does not take a false step,’ as Sri Ramakrishna said.

5. Because he sees only Brahman everywhere.6. In the aùvamedha sacrifice, many iøôis (offerings of oblations to the fire) have to be performed in order

to propitiate the deity Savitì. These offerings are symbolic of universal conquest by the king who per-forms the sacrifice. In the case of an avadhéta, the saïgrahaîyeøôi is his all-consuming knowledge(jðána), by which he comes to perceive Brahman in everything and realizes that there is nothing elsebesides Brahman.

7. His apparent lack of self-discipline is because he has transcended the concept of discipline, eitherself-imposed or society-imposed. Like a pure and innocent child, he moves about carefree and joy-ous, absorbed in his own Self. All his actions spring from this spontaneous and natural absorption inGod-consciousness so that he never falters.

He who is prepared to renounce all, who amid the strong current of the duality of good and evil, happi-

ness and misery, is calm, steady, balanced, and awake to his Ideal, alone endeavours to attain to Self-knowl-

edge.


� Glimpses of Holy Lives �

The Untouchable whom God Loved!

Sri Ramakrishna said that devotees ofGod formed a caste by themselves. Differ-ences based on caste are not applicable tothem. But social conventions die hard even inthis 21st century, what to speak of the 7th and9th centuries, when the following incident oc-curred!

This devoted sage hailed from an un-touchable caste. He would stand at a distanceon the banks of River Kaveri and pray to LordRanganatha of Srirangam. People like himwere then denied entry to the temple. He wasknown later as kavisvara (’lord of poets’), anappellation pertaining to poets of excellence.

There was one Lokasaranga Muni in thetemple, who fetched water from the river ev-ery day to bathe the iconic form of the deityduring worship. One day he found the sageabsorbed in the Lord near the place fromwhere he had to fill his pot with water. It washis custom not to speak to anyone while in ser-vice of the Lord, which included this occasion.So he threw a small stone on the devotee to at-tract his attention. The stone struck the sagedrawing blood from the wound. Awakenedfrom trance, the sage quickly moved awayfrom the spot. He felt sorry that he had com-mitted a serious offence in standing at thatplace from where water was fetched for theLord. After performing his ablutions andbath, Muni filled his vessel with water andproceeded to the temple.

That night Lord Ranganatha appeared toMuni in a dream and reprimanded him for thehurt and insult inflicted on His devotee. He or-dered him to carry the devotee on his shoul-ders into His presence in the shrine. Nextmorning, Muni respectfully approached thesage and told him of his dream. The sagerefused to be carried on his shoulders. Munitold him that since it was the Lord’s commandthere would be no pollution on that count.

On entering the shrine, the sage went intoraptures at the Lord’s beauty. He beheld thethe auspicious form from feet up to crown. Heburst into ten hymns in the Lord’s praise, de-scribing the beatitude of the revelation. Part ofthe Divyaprabandham, these hymns are knownfor their adoration and poetic beauty. Thetenth verse runs thus:

The cloud-hued cowherd with his mouth full ofbutter has truly stolen my heart! These eyes ofmine, which have beheld Him—the transcen-dent Lord, my ambrosia, residing now inSrirangam—cannot see anything else!

Those were the sage’s last words and hemerged into the image of the Lord! The sagewas Tiruppáî Ázhwár—one of the twelveÁzhwárs. He was also known as Muniváhana(’one who was carried by a Muni’). �

Lucre Could Not Lure Him

An ideal and upright householder, Kum-bhandas was greatly devoted to God and en-dowed with detachment and contentment.

He was born in a village called Jamuna-wat near Govardhan in 1469. His was a bigfamily, with agriculture as the only support.Though in straitened circumstances all his life,Kumbhandas never sought others’ help. Heheld God’s grace as supreme.

Kumbhandas was initiated into thepushti marga (‘religion of grace’) by none otherthan Vallabhacharya, the founder of the tradi-tion, when the latter was on a pilgrimage toGovardhan in 1494. As instructed by his guru,Kumbhandas composed new songs and sangthem before the deity, Lord Srinathji, in thetemple every day. Vallabhacharya was espe-cially fond of his disciple’s compositions glori-fying the divine love of Radha and Krishna.

After the death of Vallabhacharya in1531, Kumbhandas lived under the guidanceof Goswami Vitthalnath, who was famous forhis commentary on the pushti marga. Vitthal-

41 PB - MAY 2002

nath loved Kumbhandas dearly and had greatadmiration for his life of supreme content-ment. By 1546 Kumbhandas became famousfor his divine compositions and was countedamong the ashtachap (‘eight die-stamps’ pro-ducing coins in the shape of poems) poets.Kings considered themselves blessed to havehis darshan. Devotees and pundits ofVrindaban craved his holy company. YetKumbhandas never allowed his devotion andspiritual life to be tainted by worldly consider-ations.

Once Vitthalnath wanted to take Kum-bhandas on a pilgrimage to Dwarka; it was hisidea that if Kumbhandas met some wealthydevotees of the place, his poverty might be al-leviated. Although Kumbhandas could notbear even a moment’s separation from LordSrinathji, he obeyed his mentor’s request.Scarcely had they left Vrindaban when Kum-bhandas was overpowered by a vision of theLord. In a song full of pathos he gave vent tohis pain of separation from his beloved Lord.Deeply touched by Kumbhandas’s devotion,Vitthalnath sent him back to his place, to hisgreat relief.

Once, greatly charmed by a Kumbhan-das’s composition, Akbar sent for him toFatehpur Sikri. Kumbhandas reluctantlyagreed. To Kumbhandas, who consideredhimself a courtier of Lord Srinathji, the splen-dour of Akbar’s court appeared like dirt. Histurban was tattered, his shirt soiled, and hewas immersed in sorrow wondering what sinhe had committed as a result of which he hadbeen brought to the king’s palace. Akbar re-ceived him with great honour, but Kumbhan-das felt as if he was in hell. How could Akbar’scourt compare with Vrindaban, where theLord Himself sported! In a moving song Kum-bhandas gave vent to his feelings bemoaninghis fate which brought him to this uselessplace, making him forget God. Akbar had amagnanimous and understanding heart. Hehad Kumbhandas escorted back to Jamuna-wat.

In 1564 King Mansingh visited Vrinda-

ban, when he also made a pilgrimage to Go-vardhan to have darshan of Lord Srinathji.When the king arrived at the temple, Kum-bhandas was immersed in singing devotionalsongs. His singing had a profound effect onMansingh. Later he went to Jamunawat tomeet him. Kumbhandas was at that timedeeply absorbed in meditation. When heopened his eyes, he asked his daughter-in-lawto bring him his seat and mirror; it was time towear tilak (sacred mark on the forehead). Thegirl said the horse had ‘eaten up the seat anddrunk the mirror’! Mansingh understood thatthe seat was grass and the mirror, a bowl ofwater! He was greatly pained to see Kum-bhandas’ abject poverty. He presented himwith a golden mirror and a purse of goldcoins, but Kumbhandas declined to acceptthem. Then Mansingh offered to make overthe entire village of Jamunawat to Kumbhan-das. A horrified Kumbhandas told him that allhis hunger was satisfied by wild fruits, and hedid not need anything more. The king coulddo nothing but admire the devotee’s renuncia-tion and detachment. He said, ‘I’ve seen manypeople who are devotees of Maya. But todayI’ve seen a real devotee of God.’

Even in his old age Kumbhandas walkeddaily from Jamunawat to Govardhan to haveLord Srinathji’s darshan. One day in 1582,when he was 113 years old, on his way back tothe village from the temple, he stopped to restby the wayside at a place called Anyore nearShyamkund. He was accompanied by thewell-known poet Chaturbhujdas and hisyoung son. Kumbhandas said all of a sudden,‘There is no point in returning home now. I seethat my end is near.’ Word was sent toJamunawat, and Vitthalnath arrived. Heasked Kumbhandas: ‘Now that your end isnear, what is your mind occupied with?’ In re-ply Kumbhandas said, ‘O Lord, Your divinesmile has cast a spell on my mind.’ He sang asong which described the divine sport ofRadha-Krishna. With the song on his lipsKumbhandas breathed his last. �

PB - MAY 2002 42


Culture of Peace

SWAMI KRITARTHANANDA

The phrase ‘culture of peace’ has a two-fold meaning. One is how to cultivatepeace. On several occasions in our lives,

peace seems to elude us despite our frantic ef-forts to retain it. None of us, even for a mo-ment, likes to be in a peaceless, chaotic condi-tion. Yet peace remains a far cry to many. Likethe will-o’-the-wisp it appears one moment,only to disappear the next, leaving us in ahelpless plight. We must learn the secret ofcultivating peace, being in peace.

The second meaning is that peace itself isa culture. A culture is that which an individualor a group of people develop after years of rig-orous practice of certain higher values. Thosevalues are then handed down to posterity ei-ther through biological lineage or through ateacher-student tradition. This way the cumu-lative effects of a particular culture lie dor-mant in every member belonging to it, and intimes of crisis guard him like an affectionatemother.

The above two interpretations of thephrase ‘culture of peace’ may be apparentlydifferent. But a little careful study will revealthat they are not two different explanations,but are complementary to each other. The firstgradually leads to the next. To be explicit, wefirst cultivate the habit of being in peace withourselves, with others, with the surroundingworld; then in course of time peace itself be-comes a higher value—it becomes trans-formed to culture.

The Meaning of Peace

There is none on earth who does not wantpeace. Everyone would, if possible, get rid ofthe misery around and have peace. But peoplehave different notions of peace. For example,every war is followed by peace. But that is thepeace of the graveyard, which none desires.

That sort of peace is called támasika (inert type)in Vedanta.

Then there is another kind of peace. Manis a social creature. Social relationships forman important aspect of his life. Instances arenot lacking where we compromise truth or thehigher ideal of our life, just to please our domi-nant friends or to meet the exacting demandsof the people we love. We cannot say no totheir importunate demands in the name oflove. And we reason it out saying that we doso just to be at peace with the world. This typeof peace can be called rájasika (active, passion-ate type).

And far above all this worldly pettifog-ging lies a totally different type of peace thattranscends worldly relationships. Anyonewho crosses the bounds of social obligationsand practises spiritual disciplines, reaches thisstate of peace that is so rare—though not outof reach—in human life. When one attains thisstate of peace one is said to be a realized soul,‘liberated-in-life’ (jævanmukta). Down the ages,innumerable aspirants have attained to thislofty state. We should seek that abiding peacewhich ‘passeth all understanding’, in thewords of St Paul.1

Thus the concept of peace varies fromperson to person depending upon his outlookon life.

43 PB - MAY 2002

True and lasting reform can only

be brought about through

peaceful initiatives, not

‘diplomatic’ ones. When Swami

Vivekananda spoke of a ‘root

and branch reform’, he meant a

patient, peaceful reform from

the grassroot level upwards.

Why Do We Seek Peace?

A question that naturally follows theabove description of peace is: If peace is so dif-ficult to get, why do we seek it at all? Vedantasays it is because our inherent nature is bliss.Peace is its manifestation, and misery its nega-tion. Our real nature, the Atman, is ever bliss-ful. Whenever this natural state of our real Selfis suppressed, it cries out for expression fromwithin. Paradoxically, in its journey towardspeace and happiness, the soul does get into theclutches of such adverse conditions. The ef-fects of such suppression and the soul’s conse-quent suffering are clearly visible in negativemental phenomena like listlessness, monot-ony, melancholy, and fear of loneliness. It islike a five-year-old who, when he does not getwhat he wants, expresses his frustration andanger by crying. It is his way of drawing oth-ers’ attention and communicating his feelings.So also does the Atman within try to expressitself in various ways.

We want peace so that we can overcomemisery. Most Hindu prayers, especially thosebelonging to the Vedic period, conclude withthe word ùántië uttered three times. What doesthe repetition signify? Ancient Hindu seersclassified misery into three types. The firstone, called ádhidaivika duëkha, arises from nat-ural calamities like earthquakes, floods andfamines. They are nature’s angry frown on us,over which we hardly have any control. Thesecond type is known as ádhibhautika duëkha,meaning misery caused by other beings, saywild animals, cruel humans or evil spirits. Anoverbearing boss, neighbours’ jealousy—

these are some examples of this kind of mis-ery. Then comes the third type, ádháytmikaduëkha, or misery due to physical and mentalillnesses. It also includes the misery inflictedby one’s own self. Ironical as it may seem, weoften impede our growth by our own foolish-ness and immaturity. So in order to get rid ofthese three kinds of misery, we repeat theword peace three times. When uttered in allsincerity and earnestness, it enhances peaceand harmony, both within and without.

Peace Has to be Cultivated

It is common experience that when facedwith problems man tries to get help from out-side, even if that leads to enslavement.Scarcely do we come across people who try tosolve their problems by themselves. The vastmajority of people labour under the mistakennotion that all their troubles can be settled byworldly means. The Bhágavata throws coldwater on this delusion in two significantverses:

Duëkheøvekatareîápidaivabhétátmahetuøu;

Jævasya na vyavacchedahsyáccettattat pratikriyá.

Yathá hi puruøo bháraóùirasá gurumudvahan;

Taó skandhena sa ádhattetathá sarváë pratikriyáë.

For living beings there is no permanent relieffrom the threefold misery of the world; even ifthere seems to be some solution, it is only tem-porary—like a man tired of carrying a heavyload on his head for a long time, shifts it fromthe head to the shoulder (but carry it he must).2

From these telling verses it becomes clearthat there is no permanent solution to ourworldly problems, technically termed duëkha.In youthful pride we imagine that we can in-fluence other people and change our environ-ment. But facts are stranger than fiction. How-ever much we may boast of our brainpower,we find it hard to even change ourselves, letalone changing the world. A boss gets crosswith his subordinate and sacks him, only to in-

PB - MAY 2002 44


We have to be at peace with

ourselves first. To achieve that,

we must learn to study our own

mind and its propensities, and

then find out what is really

beneficial to us in the march

towards our immediate goal in

life.

duct someone else who may be worse. We seeour political leaders advancing reform afterreform. Each reform itself becomes a problemafter a time. This is an apt example of the boo-merang effect of their so-called improvementmeasures. The ills that afflict our world arelike chronic rheumatism in the human body.Drive it from one place and you will find it inanother making more trouble there. True andlasting reform can only be brought aboutthrough peaceful initiatives, not ‘diplomatic’ones. When Swami Vivekananda spoke of a‘root and branch reform’, he meant a patient,peaceful reform from the grassroot level up-wards. This is possible, he said, by impartingtrue education that gives one self-confidence,that does not sideline other contenders to meetthe goals of life. Proceeding in this way mangradually realizes the real meaning of the term‘vasudhaiva kuôumbakam’. He will embrace allin his perennial march to the goal of humanlife. Whoever comes in contact with such aperson will feel at ease and at home under allcircumstances. These are the real mature ones,and they are truly peaceful. Even though thenumber of such people is very few, yet they‘are the salt of the earth’3—and it is due tothem that there is still some peace on earth.Only this spirit of tolerance can direct the cul-tivation of peace in the world. Needless to say,family culture plays a significant role in theprocess of spreading peace.

India, the Land of Peaceful Coexistence

On the face of it, the idea of creating a‘global family’ may seem to be just a meaning-less intellectual speculation, or at best a uto-pian dream. Indeed, how are we to get alongpeacefully with millions of people who differfrom one another in almost everything—havedifferent preferences, follow different tradi-tions, believe in different faiths, owe alle-giance to different religions? But anybodywho has studied India’s history will admitthat the feat is quite possible—at least in India.So many invasions have swept across ourcountry down the ages. All the invaders found

here a mine of wealth, culture and spirituality,which they themselves lacked. They fell inlove with India. In the words of Swami Vive-kananda, these foreigners felt a deep fascina-tion for India and her people. It was mostly be-cause Indians, keeping in tune with that greatsaying, vasudhaiva kuôumbakam, not only wel-comed them but made them their own. Whenthe Israelites were driven out of their ownland by the Roman cohorts, they sought shel-ter in India. Same with the Parsis. In additionto being sheltered, they were fostered and, intime, were absorbed into the mainstream ofIndian society. It is not for nothing thatSwamiji proclaimed in his maiden speech atthe Parliament of Religions in Chicago:

I am proud to belong to a nation which has shel-tered the persecuted and the refugees of all reli-gions and all nations of the earth. I am proud tobelong to the religion which has sheltered and isstill fostering the remnant of the grand Zoroas-trian nation.4

Recently, the Bhagavadgætá was translatedinto Urdu by Dr Khalifa Abdul Hakeem, aMuslim scholar who is a resident of Lahore,Pakistan. The book is being read with rever-ence by many Muslims. This is but an echo ofwhat is an age-old practice in India. Centuriesago, Dara Shukoh, a learned son of Shahjahan,translated some Upanishads into Persian, inwhich language they called it Oupanikhat. Thisbook was later translated by a Frenchman intoLatin. Schopenhauer, the German philoso-pher, read this Latin translation. He was socharmed by the ideas that his adoration foundexpression in the words: ‘In the whole worldthere is no study so beneficial and so elevatingas that of the Upanishads. It has been the so-

45 PB - MAY 2002

Culture of Peace 281

To live in harmonious

relationship with other members

of the society, one needs to

cultivate not only love and

understanding but also a deep

feeling for them and a readiness

to help out when needed.

lace of my life, it will be the solace of mydeath.’

Three Dimensions of Peaceful Living

We were discussing the possibility ofpeaceful coexistence. It is said that charity be-gins at home. So too peace; nay, more: we haveto be at peace with ourselves first. To achievethat, we must learn to study our own mindand its propensities, and then find out what isreally beneficial to us in the march towardsour immediate goal in life. In doing so, we willfind western psychology of great use, since thesubject delves deep into the unconscious partof the human personality. This unconsciousneeds to be known, educated and trained.

Next comes the question of living inpeace with our family. Each individual is adistinct psychological entity in his family. Themembers of a family are held together only bythe bond of love. One thing should be borne inmind, though. Love, in order to be lasting,must be based on a good understanding ofone’s own capacities and limitations and thatof the person loved. The discovery may seemstrange, but it is a psychological truth that themore we understand ourselves, the deeper be-comes our love for others. We become moretolerant, detached and accommodative of oth-ers. All this presupposes a high degree of sac-rifice, especially on the part of the older mem-bers of the family.

When there is peace within our own fam-ily, we can look beyond and think of lovingour neighbours. The present-day nuclear fam-ily may have its advantages, but speakingfrom a larger perspective, by focusing toomuch on the well-being of four or five individ-

uals who comprise the family—too often to aninordinate extent—it actually ignores thoseoutside. ‘No man is an island.’ We are all partsof the social mainland and have social obliga-tions to fulfil. Our very existence is supportedby the society we live in, to which we must re-pay our dues. Otherwise, as Swami Viveka-nanda says, ‘nature puts a hand on your throatand makes your hands open’ (2.5). The ideahas been graphically illustrated in the thirdchapter of the Bhagavadgætá, from verses 11through 16. Society is only a larger representa-tion of the individual. If the individual isfound deficient, it is society which suffers inthe end, though the fact is seldom recognized.You only get back what you give. Therefore, tolive in harmonious relationship with othermembers of the society, one needs to cultivatenot only love and understanding but also adeep feeling for them and a readiness to helpout when needed.

Thus we extend the bounds of our lovebeyond the individual, social and even the na-tional level by becoming more and morefriendly and accommodative. It is this particu-lar trait that foreigners seem to admire most inIndians.

But our day-to-day life does not alwayscorroborate this. These days there are manysuccessful managers well trained in businessmanagement, personnel management andwhatnot. We see that even they fail to makeothers their own. Why? Because in dealingwith others, it will not do to have ‘fair facesand false hearts … howling righteousness onthe surface and utter hollowness be-neath’––phrases from an inspiring letter ofSwami Vivekananda’s (5.73). The man whowould lead others has to first become spiritualhimself, because it is only spirit that can influ-ence spirit. But how does spirituality bringabout lasting peace and harmony in theworld? Spirituality helps us recognize the im-manent God in all beings. It is only when allour duties and dealings are subordinated toGod that we gain a clearer outlook and someinsight into the workings of the Cosmic Mind,

PB - MAY 2002 46


Behind all our dealings with

people one idea needs to reign

supreme: that they are divine.

Man can—and does—make

mistakes; still he is divine. This

idea can never afford to be lost

sight of.

which is really controllingour world. We then becomehumble.

Behind all our dealingswith people one idea needsto reign supreme: that theyare divine. Man can—anddoes—make mistakes; stillhe is divine. This idea cannever afford to be lost sightof. When friendships fail andrelationships break, still weare all God, human manifestations of Divinityon earth. In Swami Vivekananda’s matchlessdepiction:

Not two or many, ‘tis but one,And thus in me all me’s I have;I cannot hate, I cannot shunMyself from me, I can but love. (8.164)

Conclusion

In the foregoing paragraphs the wordspirituality occurred several times. When weare spiritual, we radiate peace and harmony,love and understanding. So spirituality is theprime requisite. But isn’t it difficult to be spiri-tual? The answer is an emphatic no. Spiritual-ity is our birthright. Each one of us is divine,despite our apparent deficiencies. Our onlytask is to assert this inherent divinity alwaysand under all circumstances. We can bringabout lasting peace if we unearth and bring tolight this hidden spiritual treasure which nowlies buried under the debris of our false per-sonality. And in that task, Holy Mother SriSarada Devi’s life and teachings are a great in-spiration to us. Just before her mahásamádhi, in

what has now come to be re-garded as her parting mes-sage, she gave an invaluablepiece of advice to one of herwomen disciples:

Let me tell you something. Mychild, if you want peace, then donot look into anybody’s faults.Look into your own faults.Learn to make the whole worldyour own. No one is a stranger;the world is your own.5

After this great teaching, all remarks seem su-perfluous.

Let us pray wholeheartedly to the DivineMother, who resides in all beings as the em-bodiment of peace, to shower Her infinitegrace on us all:

Yá devæ sarvabhéteøuùántirépeîa saósthitá;

Namastasyai namastasyainamastasyai namo namaë.6 �

References

1. Bible, New Testament, Philippian, 4.7.2. Bhágavata, 4.29.32-3.3. Bible, New Testament, St Matthew, 5.13.4. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9

vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1-9, 1989; 9,1997), vol. 1, p. 3.

5. Swami Nikhilananda, Holy Mother (NewYork: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center,1962), p. 319.

6. Durgá Saptaùatæ, 5.47-49.

47 PB - MAY 2002

Culture of Peace 283

We first cultivate the

habit of being in peace

with ourselves, with

others, with the

surrounding world; then

in course of time peace

itself becomes a higher

value—it becomes

transformed to culture.

The Grammar of Right Living

Get your grammar right! Live in the active voice rather than in the passive, thinking more about what

you do than what happens to you. Live in the indicative mood rather than in the subjunctive, concerned with

things as they are rather than as they might be. Live in the present, without regret for the past or worry about

the future. Live In the first person, criticizing yourself rather than finding fault with others. Live in the sin-

gular number, caring more for the approval of your own conscience than for the applause of the crowd. If

you want a verb to conjugate, you can’t do better than use ‘love’.

Principles of Jainism and Practical Vedanta

SWAMI BRAHMESHANANDA

Jainism is one of the major ancient religionsof the world. Scholars believe that it origi-nated as a reaction to the cumbersome ritu-

alism (karma káîõa) and as a revolt against ani-mal sacrifices in the name of religion, whichwere prevalent in Hinduism. We get evidenceof this protest against killing animals in sacri-fices (yajðas) in the mythological stories ofJainism. Other Jainologists, however, considerJainism as old as Hinduism, if not older. It wasprevalent then as one of the popular religions.These scholars believe that in India, fromtimes immemorial, there were two parallelstreams of culture: the Vedic or brahman cul-ture, and the shramana or Magadhana cul-ture. The former originated and flourished inthe Indus valley or Sarasvati Valley accordingto modern scholars, and the latter had its birthand growth in Magadha, the present state ofBihar, India. There are certain fundamentaldifferences between these two cultures, whichhave persisted in some form or other till today.

Some Basic Differences

The Vedic culture emphasizes the con-cept of a brahmana or brahmanahood,whereas the shramana culture has its basis inthe concept of an all-renouncing monk, abhikkhu or shramana. TheVedic culture sets before usthe concept of a jævanmukta, aperson liberated in life. Ajævanmukta can even be ahouseholder. He is alsocalled a rishi (mantra-draøôá),a person who has realizedthe scriptural truths. Thereare many references to suchhouseholder rishis in theHindu scriptures. KingJanaka and the sages

Yájðavalkya, Vasiøôha, Atri and many otherrishis were all householders.

Shramana culture, on the other hand,considers formal sannyasa or total renuncia-tion of all possessions, desires and even activi-ties essential for attaining liberation. The wordarhat refers to a person who has gained perfectcontrol over all his activities. An arhat, with-out any activity, is projected as the ideal. Ofthe four puruøárthas, or goals of life, thebrahmana culture stresses dharma or righ-teous conduct, whereas the shramana cultureemphasizes moksha or freedom more thandharma. One must keep in mind these few ba-sic facts while trying to undertake a compara-tive study of Vedanta and Jainism. It must alsobe borne in mind that Brahmanism or Hindu-ism is not the same as Vedanta. LikewiseShramanism and Jainism are not identical. Be-sides, both Vedanta and Jainism have variousaspects: philosophical, ethical, social andpractical. There are some similarities betweenthe two as well as some dissimilarities. Onemust be careful not to draw simplistic conclu-sions.

Etymologically, Vedanta means the endor the conclusion of the Vedas. Thus the lastportions of the Vedas—the Upanishads and

the principles or philosophypropounded in them—arecalled Vedanta. In fact,Vedanta is a system of phi-losophy which forms the ba-sis of Hinduism. There aredifferent interpretations ofthe Upanishads based onwhich there are variousschools of Vedanta likeDvaita, Viùiøôádvaita andAdvaita. Generally, theAdvaita philosophy as pro-

PB - MAY 2002 48

Although Jainism adores

tirthankaras, or

prophets, it also believes

that anyone can attain

to that exalted state by

one’s own self-effort.

Adoration of the

tirthankaras is more a

reminder of the state of

perfection than worship.

pounded by Ùaïkarácárya is equated withVedanta.

Principles of Jainism and Vedanta

Now, if we believe that only the ritualisticaspect of Hinduism and Brahmanism is re-pugnant to Jainism, there should not be anyantagonism between Jainism and the spiritualaspect of the Upanishads. Even the Upani-shads have decried Vedic ritualism character-ized by excessive activity and sacrificial para-phernalia, and have preached the consciousprinciple, the Atman, the realization of whichthey advocated as the ultimate goal of life.There cannot be any contradiction betweenJainism and Vedanta on this score.

Both Jainism and Vedanta accept the At-man as the real nature of all living beings—areality that is differentfrom the body, thepráîas, the mind andthe intellect, which areinert (jaõa). Jainismcalls them pudgala.Vedanta propoundsthat the individualsoul forgets its real na-ture and identifieswith the unreal (bodyand mind) due to igno-rance (avidyá). Jainismalso considers mithyátva or wrong knowl-edge—ignorance—as the chief cause of bond-age between the conscious principle, Atman,and the insentient pudgala. It, however, postu-lates a few more causes of bondage: the ab-sence of dispassion for sense enjoyment(avirati), carelessness (pramáda), attachment(kaøáya) and the activities of body, mind andspeech (yoga).

Both Vedanta and Jainism believe in thetheory of karma and transmigration. InJainism the philosophy of karma is discussedin great detail. To get rid of the bondagecaused by past karma, Jainism recommendstwo means: saóvara and nirjara. Saóvarameans prevention of new karmic bondages—

prevention of the influx of fresh karma. Nirjaradeals with the methods by which the alreadyformed bondages could be severed—the pur-gation of karma. This is done by Right Faith,Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Thesethree together are called tri-ratna (‘triple jew-els’) and are the very basis of Jainism. Besidesthese, tapas (austerity) is so greatly stressed inJainism that it may be considered the fourthjewel.

When we try to study these basic princi-ples in the light of Swami Vivekananda’s Prac-tical Vedanta, we find certain similarities.Swamiji too greatly emphasized faith as one ofthe most important virtues. While in JainismRight Faith means having faith in the true andpure guru (ùuddha guru), pure deity or prophet(ùuddha deva) and true and pure religion

(ùuddha dharma), Swa-miji stressed faith inoneself. He went to theextent of proclaiming:

The old religions saidthat he was an atheistwho did not believe inGod. The new religionsays that he is the atheistwho does not believe inhimself.1

It is not that Jain-ism does not preach

faith in oneself. In fact, Jainism does not be-lieve in a God who creates, sustains and de-stroys the universe. Likewise, it does not ad-vocate the concept of grace of a superhumandivine being. Although Jainism adorestærthaïkaras, or prophets, it also believes thatanyone can attain to that exalted state by one’sown self-effort. Adoration of the tærthaïkaras ismore a reminder of the state of perfection thanworship. This does not contradict Swamiji’sPractical Vedanta, which preaches the poten-tial divinity in every human being. Swamiji re-peatedly exhorted his disciples to becomerishis—even greater than himself.

Jainism lays the greatest stress on the ne-cessity of character and purity of conduct

49 PB - MAY 2002

Principles of Jainism and Practical Vedanta 285

According to Advaita Vedanta,

the individual soul and the

Cosmic Soul or Brahman are

essentially one and non-different.

But Jainism believes that

individual souls are innumerable

and separate, and that this

differentiation remains even after

emancipation.

(samyak caritra). So does Swamiji:Money does not pay, nor name; fame does notpay, nor learning. It is love that pays; it is char-acter that cleaves through the adamantine wallsof difficulties. (4.367)

In fact, character building was the very basisof all his practical plans of action. He definededucation as the ‘man-making, charac-ter-making assimilation of ideas’. (3.302)

Observance of the five yamas—truth,non-violence, non-stealing, chastity andnon-possessiveness—wholly or partially asvows is the basis of Right Conduct. Accordingto the great sage Pataðjali, the author of theYoga Sétras, these five values must be prac-tised by everyone, everywhere and at alltimes, without exception. Sri Ramakrishnawas fully established in these virtues. SwamiVivekananda too ad-vocated them. Hencethere can be no disputein this matter. The onlydifference is thatwhereas in Jainism thegreatest stress is laidon ahimsa, or non-in-jury, Swamiji has em-phasized truth andchastity.

Right Knowledgeis greatly emphasized in Vedanta because ig-norance can be destroyed only by knowledge.The chief means of acquiring this knowledgeis called jnana yoga, which aims at attainingthe highest spiritual knowledge. However,there is an important difference betweenVedanta and Jainism. According to AdvaitaVedanta, the individual soul and the CosmicSoul or Brahman are essentially one andnon-different. But Jainism believes that indi-vidual souls are innumerable and separate,and that this differentiation remains even afteremancipation. But one thing is certain: bothJainism and Vedanta believe that the soul in itsreal nature is pure, free, blissful and of the na-ture of consciousness.

Jainism is basically a religion which

strongly emphasizes renunciation and medi-tation and the giving up of all activity. It is a re-nunciation-dominant religion (nivìtti-pradhá-na dharma). In Jain temples we often find im-ages of Jain prophets and saints sitting—oreven standing—in meditation. Swami Vive-kananda too assigned the prime place for con-centration of mind and meditation in hisscheme of Practical Vedanta. He was himselfan adept in meditation, and considered con-centration of mind to be the secret of success inall spheres of life. In Jainism several medita-tion techniques are described, starting fromsuch simple and preliminary techniques ofcollecting the dispersed mind as anánupérvi,to the most advanced ùukla-dhyána.

Anekántaváda and syádváda are two inter-related theories which demonstrate the catho-

licity of Jainism. Anobject or phenomenoncan be viewed fromvarious viewpoints,and these variousviews can all be true,though only partially.To explain this, Jainsgive the famous exam-ple of several blindmen feeling variousparts of an elephant

and deriving their own conclusions about it,which are all only partially true. This principleresembles Sri Ramakrishna’s saying: ‘Asmany faiths, so many paths.’ God can havevarious forms according to the conceptions ofdifferent devotees, and at the same time can beformless too. And there could be variouspaths to reach Him, all of which can be equallyvalid.

Practical Vedanta in the Light of Jainism

We have thus far seen some basic tenetsof Jainism in the light of Practical Vedanta. Letus now try to evaluate some of the principlesof Practical Vedanta as preached by SwamiVivekananda in the light of Jainism. Let us, tobegin with, take up Swami Vivekananda’s

PB - MAY 2002 50


Anekantavada and syadvada

are two interrelated theories

which demonstrate the

catholicity of Jainism. An object

or phenomenon can be viewed

from various viewpoints, and

these various views can all be

true, though only partially.

definition of religion:

Each soul is potentially divine.The goal is to manifest this divinity within

by controlling nature, external and internal.Do this either by work, or worship, or psy-

chic control, or philosophy—by one, or more,or all of these—and be free.

This is whole of religion. Doctrines, or dog-mas, or rituals, or books, or temples, or forms,are but secondary details. (1.124)

Does Jainism accept this definition? Let us see.We have already seen that Jainism believes thesoul to be a conscious entity and considers itsfreedom from karmic bondage the goal of life.We have also seen that in Jainism greaterstress is laid on raja yoga. However, devotion,worship or bhakti is not neglected. Worship ofimages in temples and chanting of hymns andpraises form an inte-gral part of Jain reli-gious practice. Jaindevotees derive im-mense spiritual benefitfrom such obser-vances. Nor are philo-sophical studies ne-glected. There isenough scope forscholarship and the ex-ercise of reason inJainism and there is a vast mass of Jain philo-sophical texts. However, the path of action, orkarma yoga, has not been extolled in Jainismas it has been done in the Bhagavadgætá. ‘Ser-vice to man is service to God’ is the very basisof Swami Vivekananda’s Practical Vedanta. InJainism service is considered one of the sixkinds of internal tapas, or austerity. But heretoo service only means service of saints andmonastics. Although charity is consideredmeritorious for householders, according toJainism all activities ultimately lead to greaterbondage. Hence karma is not considered ameans of purification. Instead, tapas is advo-cated as a means of cleansing oneself of karmicimpurity.

Swami Vivekananda considers external

details like rituals, forms and temples of sec-ondary importance. Jainism also emphasizesmental attitude more than the external act.This subject is discussed in Jainism under thesubject of naya, meaning outlook. If a meritori-ous act is performed with an evil intention, itcannot be considered meritorious. This is akinto the karma yoga of Vedanta, according towhich the fruits of an action performed with-out attachment cannot affect the doer. Thereare two types of violence according to Jainism:actual violence and mental or intentional vio-lence—dravya hiósá and bháva hiósá. Of thetwo, intentional violence is considered worsethan actual violence.

Self-enquiry is greatly emphasized inVedanta, where it is called tvam-pada-ùodhana.When one asks the questions ‘Who am I?’,

‘What is my real na-ture?’ and seeks an-swers to such ques-tions, one ultimatelyrealizes one’s real,pure, conscious na-ture—the Atman, freefrom adjuncts likebody, mind, ego andintellect. There is nodifference between Ve-danta and Jainism as

far as the process of inquiry is concerned.Swami Vivekananda based his scheme of

Practical Vedanta on the foundation of Advai-ta Vedanta. We must serve others because inserving them we really serve ourselves; be-cause there are no two beings, there is only oneCosmic Soul. Your soul and others’ soul arethe same. To harm others is only to harm one-self. The Jain prophet Maháværa, speaks in al-most the same vein: ‘Whom you want to kill isnone but you; whom you want to bind is noneother than you. To kill anyone is to kill oneself;compassion towards creatures is compassiontowards oneself.’ In this teaching of LordMaháværa we find an echo of Advaita Vedan-ta.

51 PB - MAY 2002

Principles of Jainism and Practical Vedanta 287

‘Whom you want to kill is none

but you; whom you want to bind

is none other than you. To kill

anyone is to kill oneself;

compassion towards creatures is

compassion towards oneself.’

—Lord Mahavira

ConclusionVedanta is as old as the

Vedas and is the basis of thevarious Indian philosophicalsystems. Although Vedantahad always been a practicalscheme of life as well, formodern times Swami Vive-kananda has given it a newinterpretation called ‘Practi-cal Vedanta’. From the aboveanalysis, it will also be evi-dent that although Jainismmay differ philosophicallyand empirically from tradi-tional Hinduism, there are more similaritiesthan differences between Jainism and Ve-danta, especially Swamiji’s Practical Vedanta.Besides, Swamiji’s definition of Vedanta isvery wide, all-comprehensive and all-inclu-sive. According to it, Religion is Vedanta,which includes all the different religions likeJainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. Even ifone may not accept this definition of Vedanta,one would find a lot of similarities betweenJainism and Vedanta. Not only this, the twosystems can help and enrich each other—as itshould be. Vedanta can gain something fromJainism and Jainism too can benefit fromVedanta, without in any way compromisingtheir special features or originality.

For example, the practice of ‘serving manas God’ (ùiva jðáne jæva sevá) can easily becomea part of the Jain way of life, since it accepts ev-ery soul as a pure, free, conscious entity. It isgratifying to note that a number of Jain organi-zations have nowadays undertaken philan-

thropic activities. On theother hand, the followers ofPractical Vedanta can gainmuch by learning to laygreater stress on tapas, asdone in Jainism. Vedantinscan also make use of the uni-versal navakara mantra ofJainism and its practice offorgiveness. Navakara mantrais an extremely liberal and ef-fective mantra wherein salu-tations are offered to theácáryas, teachers, perfectedsouls, saints and prophets of

all religions. None can begrudge the accep-tance of such a liberal, non-sectarian mantra asa part of their religious practice.

Jains seek forgiveness from all creaturesof the world chanting the following verse: ‘Iforgive all creatures, may all creatures forgiveme. I have friendship with everyone, and en-mity towards none.’

No true religion preaches hatred, separa-tion or conflict. It brings people together andspreads goodwill. This has been the aim ofboth Jainism and Vedanta, which is why bothJainism and Vedanta have flourished in India.There has always been a cordial relationshipbetween the Jains and the Vedantins and itcontinues to grow stronger every day. �

Reference1. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9

vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1-8, 1989; 9,1997), vol. 2, p. 301.

PB - MAY 2002 52


No true religion

preaches hatred,

separation or conflict. It

brings people together

and spreads goodwill.

This has been the aim of

both Jainism and

Vedanta, which is why

both Jainism and

Vedanta have flourished

in India.

Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, Nobody

There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that Somebody would do it. Any-

body would have done it but Nobody did it. Somebody got angry about it because it was Everybody’s

job. Everybody thought that Anybody could do it but Nobody realized that Nobody would do it. It

ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done!

53 PB - MAY 2002

Reviews

For review in PRABUDDHA BHARATApublishers need to send two copies of their latest publications.

The Sacred Book of Four Thousand: Na-layira Divya Prabandham. Trans. SriramaBharati. Sri Sadagopan Tirunarayanaswa-mi Divya Prabandha Pathasala, Jaladam-pet, Chennai 601302. 2000. 792 pp. Pricenot mentioned.

Once Ramanuja was begging alms at Srirangamwhen he came to the house of Periyanambi, hisguru. At that time he was singing a verse fromAndal’s Tiruppavai in which Andal and her friendscall upon Nappinnai (Sri Krishna’s gopi wife in theTamil tradition) to open the door of her house andlet them in. Just then Attulai, Periyanambi’s daugh-ter, opened the door. So absorbed was Ramanuja inthe song that he immediately bowed down to her,taking her to be Nappinnai. Attulai was startled athis strange behaviour and hurried inside to call herfather. Periyanambi then came out and foundRamanuja in ecstasy, singing Tiruppavai, and atonce understood the reason for his behaviour.

According to R Parthasarathy (in Ramanuja-charya, p. 57), ‘He [Ramanuja] was seen always re-citing to himself the beautiful lines from the TamilPrabandha, whose devotion and faith spoke the lan-guage of the heart.’ It is even said that Embar,Ramanuja’s cousin and disciple, could understandwhat verse of the Alvar songs Ramanuja was think-ing of from his behaviour. Why were these songs soimportant that even a renowned philosopher likeRamanuja would meditate on them throughout theday?

Several centuries before Ramanuja a group ofsaints appeared in southern India who completelychanged the religious life of India. Like the rishis ofancient times, whose deep spiritual realizations re-corded in the Vedas became the foundation of mostof Indian philosophy, the Tamil Vaishnava andSaiva saints also revealed their spiritual experi-ences in their songs and thus inspired a new pathtowards God—one of ecstatic love. The twelveTamil Vaishnava saints were called Alvars (‘thosewho are immersed in God’), and were possibly thefirst to establish an intimate human relationshipwith God and realize Him through intense longing.Their love was for Vishnu in all His aspects. He whowas the Lord of Vaikuntha was also the Lord in the

temple. It was He who took the form of a man-lionto rescue Prahlada, it was He who as a baby wastied up by Yasoda for stealing butter, and again itwas He who dwelt in their own heart. The songs ofthe Alvars were eventually compiled in a volumecalled the Nalayira Divya Prabandham, but as theywere in Tamil, they did not spread much outsidesouthern India. Yet the silent influence of the Al-vars’ teachings eventually reverberated through-out the country.

Besides singing these songs himself, Ramanujaarranged that they be regularly sung in the Vishnutemples in southern India. He also insisted that allhis disciples study them and that commentaries bewritten on them. According to Friedhelm Hardy (inViraha-Bhakti, p. 244), ‘the five oldest commentariesalone’ on Nammalvar’s Tiruvaymoli ‘add up to thesize of the Mahabharata’. And these commentariesthemselves are highly valued for their teachingsand devotional fervour. That this tradition has re-mained somewhat misunderstood has been duesolely to the lack of translations. Only in recentyears have Nammalvar’s Tiruvaymoli and Andal’sTiruppavai and Nacchiyar Tirumoli, plus a few ex-cerpts from other Alvar songs, been translated intoEnglish.

Finally, however, due to the devoted efforts ofSrirama Bharati, director of Sri Sadagopan Tiruna-rayanaswami Divya Prabandha Pathasala and a re-nowned performer of Alvar songs, the completeNalayira Divya Prabandham of more than four thou-sand verses has been translated into English.Taking the help of the commentaries of the reveredacharyas of the tradition, Srirama Bharati has ren-dered the songs into meaningful yet elegant verses.For anyone who loves God, or who earnestlyyearns to know how to love God, these songs are afeast. A few examples of these beautiful transla-tions are given here.

The first of the Alvar songs is Perialvar’sTiruppallandu, in which the Alvar himself blessesthe Lord to live forever, and prays that the bond be-tween them is never broken. Perialvar’s favouritetheme is Krishna as a baby, and practically everyaspect of a village child’s life is covered in his songs.This is why the Alvar has the privilege of blessingthe Lord. But some of his other songs also, such asthe following, reveal his extraordinary familiarity

� Rev iews �

PB - MAY 2002 54


with the Lord: ‘Caught you! Now I will never letyou go. Lest you disappear through your magicalpowers, I swear upon the Lady of the Lotus! Youwere never true to anyone. O Lord of Tirumal-irumsolai abounding in springs in which peoplefrom town and village come to bathe and worshipto rid themselves of their karmas, O my Master!’(pp. 88-9)

Andal is the only woman among the Alvars,and she is said to have been found by Perialvar as ababy in his tulsi grove. Having been brought up bya saint, she knew nothing but God. Her whole lifewas centred around the Lord, and she would marryno one else—a seemingly impossible feat. ButAndal’s intense longing could make the impossiblepossible. In one of her songs she pleads to herfriends: ‘No use fighting shy, now all the folks havecome to know. If at all you wish to do me good—Iswear—if at all you want to see me alive, take menow to Ayppadi. If I see the beautiful bachelor[Vamana] who took the earth, I may live.’ (pp.122-3)

Kulasekhara was a king, but he cared little forruling a kingdom. He was mad for the Lord: ‘To theworld I am mad! To me the world is mad. Alas!What use dilating on this. “O Cowherd-lord!”, Icall, mad with love for the Lord of Arangam[Srirangam], My master.’ (pp. 135)

Through the Lord’s grace, Tiruppan, an un-touchable, was brought inside the temple atSrirangam. It is said that his only recorded songwas sung before he merged into the Lord. In the lastverse he says: ‘The dark-hued Lord is the Lord whocame as a cowherd-lad and stole butter. He is theLord of Gods, and the Lord of Arangam also. Hehas stolen my heart. After seeing my Lord of am-brosial delight, my eyes will see naught else.’ (p.188)

To the Alvars, the Lord was their Master, theirChild, their Friend, and their Beloved. In some oftheir songs Tirumangai and Nammalvar assumethe attitude of a girl yearning for her Beloved Lord.Here Tirumangai sends bumble-bees as messen-gers to the Lord: ‘Hovering on the lotus-blooms—never leaving your beloved spouse, drinking fromthe nectar filled buds, O my freckled bumble-bees!Go to my bow-wielding Lord, tell Him of my condi-tion. He resides in Tiruvali guarding the Vedic fire.’(p. 249)

Again, the Alvars often express their amaze-ment at the contradictions in the Lord, as in thissong of Pey: ‘Can the world understand this won-der? The Lord who reclines in the ocean-deep cameas a wonder child and killed an ogress. He con-ducted the great Bharata war and destroyedmighty kings. And yet He cringed in fear when Hismother threatened Him with a churning rod forstealing butter!’ (p. 656)

It has been thought in the West that, in formu-lating the Visishtadvaita philosophy, Ramanujawas not influenced by the Alvars. However, oneneed only glance at Nammalvar’s Tiruvaymoli tounderstand that this is not the case. Deceptivelysimple and extraordinarily beautiful, Nammal-var’s verses are at the same time quite profound:‘Becoming me He became the worlds and the soulsand filled them, then Himself too became this meand praised Himself. Sweet as honey, milk and sug-arcane sap, my Lord of Malirumsolai—He becameall these after devouring my soul.’ (p. 611)

We are greatly indebted to the translator,Srirama Bharati (who passed away very recently),for unlocking the door of the Alvar world fornon-Tamil speakers. With the publication of thiswork a big gap—both for researchers and lovers ofGod—has been filled in. For those who knowTamil, the original text has also been included. Thefew verses quoted here really cannot do justice towhat is in this volume. To devotees of God we canonly say: Get this book, read it, and be blessed.

Pravrajika ShuddhatmamataRamakrishna Mission Institute of Culture

Kolkata

The Meaning of ‘Macbeth’. Ed. Bhupen-dranath Seal. SaS Publications, 11-A RamBanerjee Lane, Kolkata 700012. 1999.12+94 pp. Rs 50.

The Meaning of ‘Macbeth’ edited by Bhupendra-nath Seal with a Foreword by Prof Visvanath Chat-terjee, is indeed a very cheering document of thehigh quality of Shakespearean learning in ourcountry. The work contains eight ably written es-says on different aspects of Macbeth and I amdeeply impressed by their perceptiveness as no lessby their lucid style.

The opening essay is by Prof Sushil ChunderDutt, who was my teacher some seventy years ago.I used to be fascinated by his beautiful English andit is for the first time that I have before me an essayfrom his pen.

Prof Visvanath Chatterjee’s essay, ‘Lady Mac-beth: Fascinating Tragic Heroine’, shows that incriticism the head is as important as the heart.About Lady Macbeth, Prof Chatterjee says: ‘Neverbefore was the picture of a broken and contriteheart so vividly and poignantly portrayed.’ ProfChatterjee’s analysis sustains a very fine sensibility.His other essay in the volume, ‘All Cover, All Lose:The Meaning of Macbeth’, is indeed a very sensitiveresponse to the tragedy.

Prof Vikram Chopra has now an internationalreputation as a Shakespeare scholar, and his essay

55 PB - MAY 2002

Reviews 291

‘Lady Macbeth’s Motherhood’ shows how he de-serves this reputation. Sumita Banerjee’s ‘The Su-pernatural in Macbeth’ is indeed an outstandingcontribution to our understanding of the subject.

Dr Bhupendranath Seal’s essay ‘The Hand Im-age in Macbeth’, draws out attention to a side of thedrama which many of us missed so far. I have readDr Apurba Sannyal’s ‘Dramatic Irony in Macbeth’with admiration for his learning and his very sensi-tive approach to the play. Prof Sita Chatterjee’s ‘ThePorter in Macbeth’ is a new approach to an oldtheme.

The inclusion of excerpts from an essay by G KChesterton, which is now almost forgotten, hasgreatly added to the value of the publication. In thesecond Appendix, we have a very fine treatment ofthe imagery in Macbeth.

At the end, let me confess that this little bookhas given me an idea of Shakespeare scholarshipfrom which I have been cut off for long years. I haveno doubt the book gives a new dimension and anew depth to our understanding of Shakespeare’sMacbeth.

Dr R K DasguptaFormerly Director, National Library

Kolkata

Ùræmad Bhagavadgætá: Ùræ Vasiøôha’sVersion. Trans. K N Subramaniam. SamataBooks, 10 Kamaraj Bhavan, 573 AnnaSalai, Chennai 600006. 1999. 80 pp. Rs 50.

Ùræmad Bhagavadgætá is the epitome of all thescriptures of the world. Its style is so simple and ele-gant that, just after a little study, one can easily fol-low the word structure. But the thoughts behindthese words are so deep and abstruse that even alifelong, constant study does not show one the endof it. Really speaking, as many feel, no sacrifice,charity, austerity, pilgrimage, religious vows,self-restraint or fasting stand in comparison withthe study of the Bhagavadgætá.

The book under review is something special.The Yogavásiøôha is a magnificent work on Vedantaphilosophy containing nearly 28,000 verses. Its po-etic excellence and depth, and the grandeur of itsexposition of the Vedanta have earned for the worka very high place in spiritual literature. The greatsage Valmiki is said to be its author. The spiritualinstructions of Sri Krishna to Arjuna in a future ageare imparted earlier to Sri Rama by the sageVasiøôha. Vasiøôha’s version of the Bhagavadgætá ex-pounds only the Vedantic ideals, beginning withSankara as advocating knowledge as the ultimatemeans to liberation. Unlike any other preceptor in

the whole world, Vasiøôha finds it necessary to as-sure the seeker that Self-realization is attainablethrough one’s own effort and neither fate nor anyother factor can thwart one’s efforts.

Sri K N Subramaniam, an erudite scholar, hasdone a great job by translating Vasiøôha’s Bhagavad-gætá into English, thereby giving us an opportunityto enlighten ourselves with the divine music ofsatyam, ùivam and advaitam. While going throughthe text, we encounter certain principles unique toour religious scriptures. When a person is tossedbetween daiva and pauruøa, it is the latter that is ca-pable of achieving everything. Pauruøa is properself-effort. The three means through whichworldly, religious and spiritual aims are attainedare one’s effort, scriptural knowledge and guru’sguidance. The person who has acquainted himselfwith the basic approach of the scriptures should en-quire: ‘Who am I? Who is experiencing samsara?’ Inreply to these questions, Vasiøôha says that santoøa,sádhu-saïga, vicára and ùama are the means that canrescue a person from the ocean of samsara. He alsopoints out beautifully that the mansion of mokshahas these four virtues as gatekeepers. One shouldacquire the friendship and support of all the four.The triple disciplines that have to be pursued forthe attainment of moksha are the knowledge of theTruth (tattvajðána), extinction of the mind (manoná-ùa) and eradication of desires (vásanákøaya). Whenan aspirant devotes himself exclusively to the prac-tice of the aforesaid spiritual disciplines, he attainsmoksha, or becomes liberated. Sage Vasiøôha him-self attaches the highest importance to his teach-ings. He teaches what he has fully and clearly expe-rienced. To him, knowledge is the summumbonum. Only through knowledge is liberation at-tained.

But if we go by the bare text, it will be difficult toestablish that jnana yoga or the path of knowledgeis the central teaching of the Bhagavadgætá. Rather,we get the impression that the teachings of jnanayoga are not complete without karma and bhakti.Indeed, Vasiøôha is a super-seer, who always com-prehends the past, present and future.

Sri Subramaniam seems to say that there isgreater transcendental flavour in the Yogavásiøôhaversion of the Bhagavadgætá than in the Mahábhárataversion. In the former, the Reality addresses thesoul, and in the latter, the Supreme Lord addressesthe devotee. The present edition has been neatlycompiled. One can expect its wide circulationamong spiritual aspirants all over the world.

Prof Amalendu ChakrabortyHead of the Department of Philosophy (Retd)

Presidency College, Kolkata

� Repor t s �

Celebrated. The golden jubilee of Rama-krishna Mission Vidyamandir, Katihar, from20 to 22 December 2001. Srimat SwamiAtmasthanandaji Maharaj, Vice-President,Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mis-sion, inaugurated the celebrations and pre-sided over the public meeting held on the oc-casion. Sri Sri Narayan Yadav, Minister forUrban Development, and Sri Ram PrakashMahto, Minister for Education, Governmentof Bihar, were chief guest and guest of hon-our, respectively. Sri Yadav released a sou-venir commemorating the golden jubilee ofthe school.

Organized. A colourful procession and apublic meeting, by Ramakrishna MissionAshrama, Ranchi, on 2 February, in connec-tion with its platinum jubilee celebrations.Swami Smarananandaji, General Secretary,Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mis-sion, presided over the meeting and inaugu-rated the video conference facility at theAshrama on the same day.

Visited. Dr Dinesh Shadangi, Jharkhandhealth minister; Ramakrishna Mission TBSanatorium, Ranchi, on 4 February. He ad-dressed a public meeting held on the occa-sion.

Commissioned. A new computer unit atRamakrishna Mission Ashrama, Sargachhi,by Sri Sankar Roychowdhury, Member ofthe Rajya Sabha and former Chief of theArmy Staff, on 6 February.

Conducted. An international seminar on‘Philosophy and Science: An ExploratoryApproach to Consciousness’, by theRamakrishna Mission Institute of Culture,Kolkata, on 8 and 9 February. Srimat SwamiRanganathanandaji Maharaj inaugurated theseminar and gave a short benedictory ad-dress. Swami Smarananandaji Maharajspoke at the inaugural session and declaredopen an exhibition on ‘Consciousness’ orga-nized on the occasion. In all 17 eminentscholars from all over the world participatedin the seminar.

Inaugurated. Vivekananda Vidya Mandir, aschool built by Ramakrishna Mission Vivek-ananda Smriti Mandir, Porbandar, as part ofits earthquake rehabilitation programme; byBharat Ratna Dr A P J Abdul Kalam, on 13February. Dr Kalam also addressed a 3000-

strong youth convention organized by thecentre, and meditated in the Smriti Mandirroom where Swami Vivekananda had stayedin 1891-2.

Dedicated. The newly built Sri Ramakrishnatemple at Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama,Habiganj, Bangladesh, by Srimat SwamiAtmasthanandaji Maharaj, on 14 February.The 3-day celebration from 13 to 15 Februaryheld in connection with the temple dedica-tion ceremony and the 80th anniversary ofthe Ashrama, was attended by a large num-ber of devotees. Swami SmarananandajiMaharaj opened a new hostel building and ahall at the centre on the 13th.

Organized. The concluding function of itscentenary celebrations, by Ramakrishna Mis-sion Sevashrama, Varanasi, from 14 to 17February. Srimat Swami RanganathanandajiMaharaj, President, Ramakrishna Math andRamakrishna Mission, inaugurated the newCentenary Memorial building for the hospi-tal’s out-patient department on the 14th. Thepublic meetings were addressed by Most Re-vered President Maharaj, Srimat SwamiGahananandaji Maharaj, Vice-President ofthe Ramakrishna Math and RamakrishnaMission, and others. Thousands of devoteesattended the 4-day programme.

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