matthews, anthropology of clothing

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[750765(1995)25-36]

THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF CLOTHING IN THE JOSEPH NARRATIVE

Victor H. Matthews

Department of Religious Studies, Southwest Missouri State University, USA

Cloth has been both an economic commodity and a social marker

throughout human history. Its physical properties are generally deter

mined by environmental as well as social and aesthetic factors. Humans

address themselves, their community and the world by the choice or

style oftheir clothing.1 Its weave, its color(s), its decoration and its style

have all contributed to clothing's desirability as a trade item and as an

indicator ofmembership within a defined community.

Cloth and clothing have a variety of cultural uses which are indicative

of the human desire to define and maintain identity of persons and

groups. It serves as a form of language which reflects societal norms of

beauty, modesty, fashion.2

As Schwarz3

notes, 'more than any other

material product, clothing plays a symbolic role in mediating the relationship between nature, man, and his sociocultural environment'.

Thus clothes can be a simple indicator of gender in which men and

women are identified and restrictions are placed on cross-dressing to

prevent sexual or social confusion (Deut. 22.5). At this basic level,

clothing can also be a sign of employment (2 Sam. 20.8'soldier's

garment'; Exod. 28.31-42priestly vestments). However, on the sym

bolic level, clothing always serves as a means of visual communication.

The message conveyed may be artistic ('many-colored' cloth: Ps. 45.14;


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26 Journal for the Studyofthe OldTestament65 (1995)

Ezek. 16.10; 26.16; or embroidered material: Exod. 26.36; 39.29), but

very often it is also relevant to power relationships.4

For example, the

lack of clothing in the Near East, in contrast to ancient Greece, distinguished social classes and conditions as well as shame (Gen. 3.7, 10-20)

and powerlessness.5Day laborers (Exod. 22.26-27; Amos 2.8) gave up

their cloaks as collateral for their hire and prisoners of war were distin

guished by their lack ofclothing (Isa. 20.2-5).

The particular weave of the fabric may mark it as rural or urban,

domestic or imported, cultic or common (Lev. 19.19). Its decoration

may contain rank insignia and its cut may indicate its owner's age,fashion sense or social standing, such as Tamar's *widow's garment' in

Gen. 38.14 (see also Jdt. 10.3). Quality of manufacture, color or design,

and the age/physical condition of clothing (Gibeonites in Josh. 9.5, 13)

may all contribute to establishing the identity, prosperity and rankof an

individual or group. In some cases, it can also serve as a disguise, com

bined with other 'style-of-life symbols' such as grooming, facial expres

sion and speech pattern.6

This is the basis for the deception ofJoshua by

the Gibeonites in Josh. 9.5-13, who masked their true identity in dusty,ragged clothes and a story ofa long journey.

Abit ofcloth, with its distinctive physical qualities serving as an iden

tifier, may be used to sign a document, as it is in ARM10.7, where a

male cult prophet (assinnu) becomes ecstatic and sends the message of

the god to the king. The prophet signs a clay tablet by impressing the

hem of his garment into the message. Undoubtedly, the mark of its

weave and perhaps its decoration was unique to the cult community inwhich the prophet lived and the social class to which they belonged.7By

using this indicator ofthe clothing style of his professional community,

the prophet not only pledges his own honor but also that of his com

munity to uphold his message to the king. Such distinctions within the

cloth were also used to designate membership in the community of

Israel (the blue threads in the tassels in Num. 15.38-39).8

Special occasions also demand proper attire. In the parable of the

4 J S h id Th A th l f Cl th' A l R i f A th l


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MATTHEWS Anthropology ofClothing in the Joseph Narrative 27

wedding banquet in Matt. 22.11-13, those guests who are not wearing

'wedding robes' are summarily dismissed from the banquet. Such care

ful attention to proper attire is found in Yahweh's recital of his care for

the 'bride' Jerusalem.9

First, her nakedness is covered (Ezek. 16.8),

restoring her to honorable status among the nations,10

and then she is

clothed in 'embroidered cloth and with sandals of fine leather' (Ezek.

16.10). This solicitous care is then contrasted to the city's infidelity to

Yahweh.11

The mood is set by such attention to fashion or 'proper

attire'.12

The detailed recital of priestly garb in Exodus 28 is designed to

distinguish the priest when engaged in official duties and thereby set atone of difference between the secular and the sacred.

On several occasions, a portion of clothing or a special garment, such

as the mantle, is used to designate legal responsibility when it is laid over

another person. For instance, the expression 'spread your cloak over

your servant' is used in Ruth 3.9 when Ruth petitions Boaz for help.

Similarly, in Ezek. 16.8 Yahweh recites his care for Jerusalem, using

what is very probably a legal expression: 'spread the edge of my cloak

over you'.13 In both cases the act of covering the woman with a cloak

(knp) is a reference to marriage.14

Cloth can also be used to dub a person as one's successor.15

In what

is effectively an investiture ceremony (1 Kgs 19.19), Elijah designates

Elisha as the one who will inherit his prophetic power. This demon

strates the power ofthe cloth as a symbol of continuity, binding together

two generations of prophets and providing legitimacy to Elisha's claim

to be Elijah's successor.

16

Seizing the hem ofa garment sometimes serves as a legal euphemism.

9. Compare the robes ofthe princess-bride in Ps. 45.13-18.

10. Bonfante, 'Nudity as Costume*, p. 544.

11. W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel. I. A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel,

Chapters 1-24 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), p. 341, and J. Blenkinsopp,

Ezekiel(Louisville: John Knox, 1990), p. 78.

12. Roach and Eicher, 'The Language of Adornment', pp. 9,18.13. A. Kruger, 'The Hem of the Garment in Marriage. The Meaning of the


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28 Journal for the Studyofthe OldTestament65 (1995)

For instance, a person can be taken into custody or claimed as payment

for a debt through the grasping of the hem.17

Power roles can be

defined by that same action. In 1 Sam. 15.27, Saul pleads with Samuel

to reverse his condemnation of the royal house by seizing the hem of

the prophet's robe. This supplicative act marked the king as submitting

to the authority ofa prophet and asking for mercy.18

Similarly, touching

the clothing of a person was considered to have power, being able to

infuse into the supplicant a transference of strength. This includes the

belief in healing by the woman buffering from hemorrhages' in

Matt. 9.21 and Mk. 5.28: 'IfI but touch his clothes, I will be made well'.

Test Case: The Joseph Narrative

It has long been recognized that dream interpretation serves as a struc

tural device in the Joseph narrative which provides unity to a plot which

contained a number ofdigressions.19

Additionally, the episodes include a

number of familiar folklore themes: Youngest Son Triumphant, the Wise

Courtier, Spurned Wife, and Magician.20 The structural unity of thisnovella remains intact despite its digressions, with only a few examples

of later redaction.21

There is another motif found in the Joseph cycle which has not

received a great deal ofattention, the garment motif.22

Based simply on

the received text, two stages of development might be posited. In the first

stage ofthe story, Joseph receives a garment from his father and later is

divested of it by his brothers. Then at the conclusion ofthe narrative he

17. CAD16.223, 'subatu'; Waterman Bus. Doc. 74.7.

18. See ARM6.26: seized the hem of my lord's garment, may my lord not

brush off my hand*.

19. D.B. Redford, A Studyof the Biblical StoryofJoseph (Genesis37-50)

(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970), pp. 68-71, and J.R. King, Pattern for Making a Healthy

Existence: An Interdisciplinary Examination ofthe Biblical Story ofJoseph' (PhD

dissertation, Florida State University, 1977), p. 38 n. 92.20. On these see King, Pattern', p. 46; W.L. Humphreys, 'The Motif of the

Wi C ti i th Old T t t' (PhD di t ti U i Th l i l S i


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once again receives a garment which also marks him as the favorite of

an authority figure, the pharaoh. An ironic touch, which balances the

narrative, is found at the end when Joseph gives clothing to the samebrothers who had once taken away his.

A second stage can then be posited which added the material

describing Joseph's time in Potiphar's service and his imprisonment

(Gen. 39.1-41.23). If these episodes are regarded as embellishment of

the narrative which originally only included detailed accounts of

Joseph's life until his sale as a slave and his rise to power in pharaoh's

court, then this would explain why the garment motif is not an explicitpart of the story. What I wish to suggest, however, is that the motif

serves as an inclusio, with the material in between serving as logical

digressions which both heighten the tension in the narrative and provide

a foundation for Joseph's introduction at pharaoh's court.

Where the motif does appear in the text, it highlights the theme of

Joseph's rise to a position of favor, his precipitous fall and the manner in

which he will save Jacob's household from extinction by rising once

again to a position of power and influence.23 Clothing explicitly serveswithin the framework ofthe narrative as a device signalling these status

changes. However, it also serves as a socially implicit element in the

transitionary material. The social realities ofthe setting, based on social

custom and the practicalities of identifying persons according to status

and social condition, allow for the assumption of clothing-based events

even when they are not explicitly described in the text. The continued

appearance of explicit or implicit scenes involving clothing thus add tothe argument that this transitionary material is part of a well structured

narrative,24 not one that has been expanded later.

Garments are central to Joseph's position within his family and to his

role as a high official in Egypt. In each case he is given a distinctive

garment. In the first case he is clothed in a robe which marks his

favored position within Jacob's household. After his brothers sell him

into slavery, Joseph must leave his robe behind, thereby initiating a

status change. The second example, which completes the inclusio, includesanother transformation, this time when he exchanges his clothing for the


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30 Journal for the Study of the OldTestament 65 (1995)

bring them to Egypt, Joseph reverses the pattern originally set by his

brothers and gives garments to these brothers (Gen. 45.22), marking the

final status change in which he becomes the master, thereby fulfilling the

prediction ofhis dreams.

Episode 1: Joseph's Robe

The rendering 'coat ofmany colors' in Gen. 37.3 is based on a mistrans

lation ofk?tnet passim in the LXX which was then perpetuated in the

Vulgate and the KJV. This item, expensively made, whether enhancedwith dyes or not, was used to mark Joseph as his father's favorite son

and, along with his ability to interpret dreams, created a tension with his

brothers that eventually led to his first change of status. Its distinctive

style ('long sleeves' in NRSV) is a good parallel to the 'long robe with

sleeves' noted as a garment worn by the 'virgin daughters of the king'

in 2 Sam. 13.18. In both cases, persons are set aside as special by their

costume, and all others recognize the power relationship symbolized by

this garment.The giving of a garment is a well-known theme in cultural studies

25

and a standard item in royal correspondence from Mari.26 Messengers,

foreign ambassadors, military leaders and local administrators are all

rewarded with one or more new items of clothing. Yahweh begins the

practice by giving Adam and Eve garments of animal skins in Gen. 3.21.

The importance attached to garments as gifts or prizes is also found in

the story of Samson's riddle (Judg. 14.10-19).In the face of a mounting cycle of shame and anger caused by their

envy of Joseph, his brothers relieve the tension by an act of physical vio

lence.27 They take advantage of the opportunity afforded by his visit to

their encampment, seizing him and selling him as a slave to Midianite

traders (Gen. 37.12-28). His robe, however, remains behind.

Initially, his brothers divest him of this symbol of 'privileged social

position' as a display of their anger and perhaps as a prelude to his

murder.28 Redford29 suggests that this is an afterthought on the part of


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the brothers. In the heat of their anger, they initially plan to kill Joseph.

Reuben and/or Judah convince them to relent and the Midianites offer

an alternative means of disposing of the unwanted sibling. Once they

begin thinking again, some of them must come to the realization that

Jacob will want proof that Joseph has been killed.30

The blood stained

robe thus serves as the prop they need to make their case.

However, the stripping of Joseph's garment from him could be des

cribed as a reversal of the investiture ceremony in which his father

clothed Joseph in his special robe. Precedent for this is found in the sys

tematic disrobing of Inanna as she makes her way through the levels ofthe underworld.

31As each garment is removed, her power and life force

is drained from her until in the end she becomes 'a corpse, a piece of

rotting meat' hung from a hook in the underground storehouse.32

Thus once Reuben/Judah talks the brothers into holding him until they

discuss Joseph's fate, the cloak takes on a new importance. It is used as

evidence ofhis demise (Gen. 37.31-33), the corpus dilecti,33 convincing

Jacob that his son has been killed and eaten by wild animals. The loss of

the garment, like the stripping away of insignia from a soldier who isbeing 'drummed out' of the military, transforms Joseph from an honor

able person to a shamed person. He is subsequently relabelled from

'son' to 'slave'.

Episode 2: The 'Livery* ofPotiphar's House (Genesis 39.12-18)

During the time that Joseph serves as a slave in Potiphar's householdthere is an implicit use of clothing as a status marker. It is quite likely,

although the text does not provide this detail, that he would have been

given a garment distinctively marking his entrance into this Egyptian

official's service. Its weave or color would have proclaimed to all his

bond to that household.34

Naturally, it would have also clearly marked

him as a slave, but within that context his clothing, like that of every

30. This is a stark reminder of Jacob's deception ofhis own father, Isaac, wearingEsau's garments and an animal skin to simulate Esau's hairinessGen. 27.15-26.

31 ANET 52 57 d D W lk i d S N K I Q f


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32 Journal for the Study of the OldTestament 65 (1995)

person of every social condition, would have indicated his social role and

responsibilities.35 Eventually, when he was elevated to the position of

'overseer' (Gen. 39.5), the clothes would have become a 'form ofpower', an outward sign of his authority and his enhanced role within

the household.36

Although it is not described in the text, Joseph's garment would have

probably consisted of a gown worn over the tunic, which was the

'common dress of all classes ofmen above the very lowest'.37 It is most

often depicted in Egyptian art 'with a short and comparatively close-

fitting sleeve on the nearer side, but on the other the garment hangsloosely from the upper arm and is gathered in at the waist.'38

When Potiphar's wife attempts to seduce him, Joseph refuses her

invitation, realizing both its honor-shattering implications and the

'dependence' position sexual relations with his master's wife would

create.39 He is only able to escape her clutches in the end by pulling out

of his livery and leaving it in her hands. Again, he is stripped of his

status-marker and the symbol ofhis role within that community.

Subsequently she uses this robe, which had visually marked him asslave-overseer, as evidence of Joseph's attempted rape. Joseph's status,

and presumably his clothing, are exchanged once again to reflect his

new role as a prisoner (Gen. 39.20).40 The garment, which has provided

an element ofhonor to Joseph's status as a slave, now becomes the basis

for his shame. In the face of indisputable physical evidence and the fact

that his word as a slave may not be accepted in judicial proceedings,

Joseph cannot deflect the charges and is relabelled for a second time,from 'servant' to 'prisoner'.

The similarity between this stripping away of honor along with the

garment in this episode and the similar occurrence in Episode 1 is not

coincidence. It is an artful use ofa societal element to reinforce a literary

theme. The inclusio remains intact and one of its prime elements is re-

enforced in this transitionary material.

35. H.J. Drewal, 'Pageantry and Power in Yoruba Costuming', in Cordwell andSchwarz (eds.), The Fabrics of Culture, p. 190.

36 W B G i (A l J h K 1982) 315


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Episode 3: 'Robes of Office' in Pharaoh's Court (Genesis 41.42)

After spending an unspecified period oftime in prison and distinguishing

himself there, Joseph becomes a 'trustee' (Gen. 39.21-23). Although the

text does not mention that Joseph was given a special prison garment, it

seems likely that he wore something that marked him as a prisoner,

replacing the garment taken from him by Potiphar's wife. This practice

of supplying prison attire is suggested by 2 Kgs 25.29 in which king

Jehoiachin is described as putting 'aside his prison clothes'. Additionally,

when Joseph became the 'trustee' for the prison, his costume may havebeen enhanced with a chain of office or an additional fringe.

This narrative serves as a transition to the episode in which Joseph

successfully interprets the Pharaoh's dreams. It is linked to that episode

with a series of catchwords,41

but more importantly it provides an

episodal link and narrative logic. Joseph's skills as a 'sage' skilled in the

interpretation of dreams will be his key to freedom and personal sur

vival. It will also be the means for insuring the survival ofhis family.

Thus his accomplishment is magnified in the narrative, providing him

with the public opportunity to not only interpret the pharaoh's dream

but also to surpass the skills of all of the Egyptian 'magicians'

{hartummm) and 'sages' (hakamm).42 The result is that he is given a

high-ranking position and his status change is marked by the presenta

tion of Pharaoh's signet ring, garments of fine linen, a gold chain, and a

retinue. This investiture ceremony (Gen. 41.42-43) completes the

inclusio initiated by the scene in which Joseph's father had clothed himin his special robe (Gen. 37.3). In substance, it is similar to those graphi

cally portrayed in the El Amarna tomb paintings of Meryra43

and those

41. Rendsburg, The Redaction of Genesis, pp. 95-96, provides a number of

examples of catchwords which connect the episodal units of this narrative. For

example, among the catchwords that link unit C (Reversal: Joseph guilty, Potiphar's

wife innocent, Gen. 39.1-23) with unit D (Joseph hero of Egypt, Gen. 40.1-41.57)

are six occurrences of bet hasshar, 'prison house', in Gen. 39.20-23 and two in


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34 Journalfor the Study of the OldTestament65 (1995)

described in a number of ancient Near Eastern documents, although

most are from the 1st millennium BCE:44

1. clad him in linen and in garments with multi-coloured trim (andput rings on him).' Sargon II (722-705 BCE) in CAD, ' 258, 'birmi

from H. Winckler, Die Keilschrftexte Sargons, pi. 45 Fl. 10'.

2. made a (treaty) with him, (protected by) oaths which greatlysur

passed (those of the former treaty). I clad him with a garment withmulticolored trimmings, placed a gold chain on him (as the) insigne of

his kingship, and put gold rings on his hands.' Ashurbanipal (668-633

BCE) in ANET, p. 295, ii, from M. Streck, Assurbanipalund die letztenassyrischen Knige bis zum Untergang (Leipzig, 1916).

3. '...and Daniel was clothed in purple, a chain of gold was put

around his neck and a proclamation was made concerning him that he

should rank third in the kingdom' (Dan. 5.29). This last example serves

as one ofthe many parallels between Joseph and Daniel.45

The radical change in appearance effected by these new robes of

office, and the other gifts given to him by the pharaoh (his new name,

and his Egyptian wife) transforms Joseph from a prisoner into acourtier.

46They also extinguish all signs of his origin as a 'Sand-

Crosser'. This is a term used in the 'Tale of Sinuhe' for bedouin or

persons from Syro-Palestine,47

which would have marked him as com

pletely outside ofEgyptian society.

Joseph's physical transformation into an Egyptian makes him accept

able at the Egyptian court and it reflects his own acceptance of a new

identity within the power structure of a foreign culture.48

It also aids in

his deception of his brothers when they come to purchase grain during

the famine. In fact, it is difficult for him to convince them ofhis identity

when hefinallyreveals himself (Gen. 45.3-4).

He has adopted not only the costume, but also the mannerisms of

an Egyptian of high social status and authority, thereby distinguishing

44. Redford, A Study, pp. 225-26.

45. Humphreys, Joseph and his Family, pp. 210-12, also notes the similaritieswith the stories ofEsther.

46 See Humphreys Joseph and his Family pp 155 57 161 for the correlation


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himself in their eyes as a foreign ruler.49

This demonstrates how behavior

is a reflection ofand a reaction to social action and social understanding.

Because Joseph is dressed as an Egyptian and acts like an Egyptian, he

is unreservedly taken to be an Egyptian and the brothers do not even

consider the possibility ofa deception.

For them to believe that it is truly Joseph, several things are required

(Gen. 45.1-15). First, all non-Israelites are removedfromthe room. This

insures that there will be no witnesses to Joseph's 'non-Egyptian'

actions, and it removes the aura of power associated with an official sur

rounded by his advisers and servants.50

In addition, the brothers willhave no Egyptians present to measure Joseph's costume or manner

against. It could even be said that by removing the attendants, Joseph

removes his costume.

Second, Joseph instructs them to come closer, breaking down the

barriers associated with 'court behavior'.51

He then uses a self-revela

tory formula (Gen. 45.3, 5) and a series of theological reflections for all

previous events in this family's history. Some commentators see this as

a theodicy, taking the events out of human control and portraying

Yahweh as the driving force throughout.52

In any case, his intent is to

humble himself, weeping and calling on his brothers not to be afraid or

ashamed of their previous actions (i.e. selling Joseph into slavery).

Finally, through repetition of his message, a break with his former

manner, and his demonstrated knowledge oftheir family, Joseph is able

to re-establish his kinship role while at the same time retaining his posi

tion as a 'ruler over all the land of Egypt'.Once they have been convinced ofhis true identity, Joseph gives them

each gifts of new garments as evidence of his forgiveness and favor

toward them. Thisfinalstep brings the story full circle and provides one

final use of garments as a status marker. Joseph is now in a position to

give clothing to his brothers. He gives each brother one set of garments,

but, like his father before him, Joseph shows his favoritism (by giving


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